Figure 1. Relationships between plants, animals and organisms historically considered
“fungi”. Adapted from Keeling et al. 2009, Tree of Life Web Project at
http://newsystem.tolweb.org/Eukaryotes/3/2009.10.28. Names to the left refer to supergroups discussed in Adl et al. (2005).
Figure 2. Relationships among the phyla of Kingdom Fungi. Adapted from
Blackwell et al. 2009, Tree of Life Web Project at
http://newsystem.tolweb.org/Fungi/2377/2009.04.10. See also Hibbett et al 2007
for a discussion of additional changes in phyla Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota.
Figure 3. Stromata (white arrows) of Ophiocordyceps sinensis emerging from
parasitized caterpillars (left); Ophiocordyceps for sale in department store in China
(center and right). (photos by L. M. Carris)
Figure 4. Wood decayed by brown rot fungus. (photo by L. A. Castlebury)
Figure 5. Wood decayed by white rot fungus. (photo by T. Volk, Fundamental
Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 6. Examples of mushroom-forming species of ectomycorrhizal fungi.
(photos by L. M.Carris)
Figure 7. Lichen and apothecium (inset, white arrow). (photo by C. R. Little)
Figure 8. Haustorium of powdery mildew Blumeria graminis inside a cell of a grass
leaf. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 9. Examples of fungal leaf spots: (A) Black spot of rose, (B) Colletotrichum
leaf spot of English ivy, (C) Phyllosticta leaf spot of rhododendron, and (D) shot-hole
symptom as seen in eggplant leaf spot. (photos by Deborah Miller, Davey Expert
Tree Company)
Figure 10. Examples of chlorotic halos surrounding fungal lesions in two fungal
plant diseases: (A) sorghum sooty stripe (Ramulispora sorghi) and (B) citrus greasy
spot (Mycosphaerella citri). (photo by C. R. Little)
Figure 11. Black knot caused by Apiosporina morbosa. (photo by T. Volk,
Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 12. Galls and orange telial “horns” of Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginiae
(cedar-apple rust) in cedar tree. Telial horns are composed of teliospores with long
stalks (termed “pedicels”) that become gelatinous when wet. (Photos by Elizabeth
Bush, Megan Kennelly, and John Olive, respectively)
Figure 13. Hyphae of Rhizopus stolonifera. (photo by L.M. Carris)
Figure 14. Examples of fungal colonies belonging to the genus Fusarium in pure
culture growing on agar media. (A) Fusarium equiseti, (B) F. graminearum, (C) F.
proliferatum, and (D) F. verticillioides. (photos by C. R. Little)
Figure 15. Budding yeast cells of Saccharomyces cerevisae. This yeast is important
in the production of bread, wine and beer. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 16. Mature ascus of Sordaria fimicola with eight dark brown ascospores.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 17. Basidium with developing basidiospores. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 18. General ascomycete life cycle. In many ascomycetes, haploid gametangia
("male" antheridium, anth.; "female" ascogonium, asc.) fuse (plasmogamy), haploid
nuclei are transferred, and ascogenous (ascog.) hyphae are formed that produce
dikaryotic "crozier hooks" and diploid "ascal mother cells" after karyogamy. In
order to produce the typical eight ascospores per ascus, mitosis must occur after
meiosis. These microscopic developmental processes most often occur within
cleistothecia, perithecia, or apothecia, which have evolved to disperse the
ascospores and/or serve as overseasoning structures (not shown). Haploid (n),
dikaryotic (n+n), and diploid (2n) phases of the life cycle are denoted by thin,
double, and thick lines, respectively. (image by C. R. Little).
Figure 19. Mature and developing asci of Pleospora sp. Each mature ascus contains
eight dark brown, multicellular ascospores. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 20. Fission yeast, Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Cells reproduce by fission—
note cells in process of division (red arrows). Asci containing four ascospores are
indicated by blue arrows. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 21. Peach leaf curl caused by Taphrina deformans. (photo by A. B. Baudoin,
Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 22. Asci containing ascospores, Taphrina deformans; asci are formed when the
fungus ruptures the cuticle of the infected host. (photo by G. J. Weidman, Fundamental
Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 23. Yeast cells and asci with two ascospores of Williopsis saturnus. This
yeast belongs in subphylum Saccharomycotina. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 24. Rock lichens. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 25. Cleistothecia developing in culture of Emericella nidulans. White arrow
indicates a cleistothecium. (photo by Richard Todd)
Figure 26. Conidia, conidiogenous cells and conidiophore of Aspergillus (left) and
Penicillium (right). Aspergillus conidiogenous cells develop from an inflated vesicle as
shown. (photos by L. M. Carris)
Figure 27. Cross-section of a blue cheese wedge showing accumulations of conidia of
Penicillium (often P. roquefortii) (white arrow). This fungus imparts a distinct smell and
flavor to the cheese. (photo by C. R. Little)
Figure 28. Mature and immature chasmothecia of Erysiphe penicillata from lilac.
Several asci are emerging through fissure (chasm) in wall of the mature chasmothecium.
Note the dichotomously branched appendages on mature chasmothecium. (photo by L.
M. Carris)
Figure 29. Powdery mildew (Erysiphe palczewskii) on Siberian peashrub (Caragana
arborescens). Photo on left shows the white fungal growth on leaves that is characteristic
of powdery mildews. Photo on top right shows a dichotomously branched appendage
from a chasmothecium, and photo on bottom right shows asci emerging from
chasmothecium. (photo on left by C. Nischwitz, photos on right by L. M. Carris)
Figure 30. Orange apothecia of Caloscypha fulgens, a common spring cup fungus in
the U.S. Pacific Northwest. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 31. Black morels (Morchella elata group), another common spring fungus in the
U.S. Pacific Northwest. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 32. Peaches infected by Monilinia fructicola. As the infected fruits dry, they
form “mummies” which will fall to the ground, overwinter, and produce apothecia in
the spring. (photo by A. B. Baudoin, Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 33. Apothecia of Monilinia fructicola forming from mummified peaches.
(photo courtesy of Plant Pathology Department, University of Arkansas,
Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 34. Perithecium of Coniochaeta sp. The ostiole (arrow) is located in the
apical portion of the perithecium, and asci containing dark ascospores can be seen
through the wall of the perithecium. (photo by B. Kendrick, Fundamental Fungi, APS
Press)
Figure 35. (A) Apple scab lesions on the abaxial surface (underside) of crabapple
leaves caused by Venturia inaequalis. (B) Cross section through pseudothecium in
scab lesion. (photo by W. E. MacHardy, Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 36. Conidiophores and conidia of Alternaria spp. (photo by C. R. Little)
Figure 37. Conidiophores and conidia of Cladosporium sp. (photo by C. R. Little)
Figure 38. Rock lichens forming black apothecia. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 39. Lichen (Cladonia sp.) forming orange-red apothecia on stalks called podetia.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 40. Development of clamp connections in basidiomycete hyphae. Each
hyphal cell is dikaryotic, containing a pair of compatible nuclei, and this condition is
maintained by the formation of clamp connections. (image by L. M. Carris)
Figure 41. Clamp connection as seen under microscope. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 42. Dark, thick-walled, teliospores of Tilletia sp. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 43. Dark, thick-walled, two-celled teliospores of Puccinia asparagi. (photo
by L. M. Carris)
Figure 44. Common corn smut (Ustilago maydis) galls produced on corn ears (A), tassels
(B), midrib (C), and leaf sheath above the brace roots (D). (photos by C. R. Little)
Figure 45. Wheat kernels converted to bunt balls by Tilletia caries (common bunt
of wheat); the fungus fills the seeds with masses of dark, powdery teliospores.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 46. General life cycle for a macrocyclic, heteroecious rust. Red arrows indicate
production of spermatagonia of both mating types on the upper surface (upward arrow) of
the aecial host leaf, whereas aecia are produced on the lower surface (downward arrow)
of the aecial host leaf. Haploid (n), dikaryotic (n+n), and diploid (2n) phases of the life
cycle are denoted by thin, double, and thick lines. The dashed line indicates separation of
the aecial and telial hosts as required to complete the life cycle of heteroecious rusts.
Thus, aeciospores from the aecial host infect the telial host to produce uredinia in a
macrocyclic rust, and basidiospores of both mating types (denoted in red and blue) from
the telial host infect the aecial host to produce cross-fertile spermatagonia so that the
dikaryon may be reestablished. (image by C. R. Little)
Figure 47. Uredinial state of black stem rust of wheat, Puccinia graminis var. triciti on
wheat stems. (photo by X. Chen)
Figure 48. Aecial state of Puccinia graminis var. tritici on abaxial side of barberry leaf
(Berberis sp.). (photo by X. Chen)
Figure 49. General life cycle for a basidiomycete. Red arrows indicate the "hymenia"
of basidiocarps where the club-like basidia form, undergo karyogamy and meiosis,
and transport haploid nuclei through the peg-like sterigmata and into the
developing basidiospores. Although only mushroom-like and bracket-like
basidiocarps are shown, many other types exist with the same function, however all
are constructed of tissues composed of dikaryotic hyphae. Haploid (n;
monokaryotic), dikaryotic (n+n), and diploid (2n) phases of the life cycle are
denoted by thin, double, and thick lines, respectively. (image by C. R. Little).
Figure 50. Example of mushrooms. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 51. Puffballs growing on rotting log. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 52. Fomitopsis pinicola, a common shelf fungus in the U. S. Pacific Northwest.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 53. Dictyophora duplicata, a skirted stinkhorn. Spores are in the brown
slimy mass at the apex; the smell of rotting flesh attracts flies and other insects,
which pick up the spores on their bodies and hence facilitate spore dispersal.
(photo by T. J. Volk, Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 54. Brown, gelatinous fruiting bodies shaped like human ears give Auricularia
auriculara its common name, the ‘wood ear’ fungus. A related species is cultivated and
widely used in Asian cuisine. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 55. Orange, gelatinous fruiting bodies of the jelly fungus Dacrymyces palmatus
growing on wood. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 56. Fruiting bodies of two common bird’s nest fungi, Crucibulum laeve (left)
and Nidula niveotomentosa (right). Basidiospores are formed inside the peridioles
(lozenge-shaped structures inside the cups); the peridioles are splashed out of the
cups by drops of rain. The basidiospores are released when the peridioles decay or
are eaten by insects. (photos by L. M. Carris)
Figure 57. General zygomycete life cycle. Plasmogamy, karyogamy, and meiosis are
highlighted. Environmentally resistant, diploid zygospores are produced when two
haploid, monokaryotic hyphae (of two different mating types, "+" and "-") fuse
(plasmogamy) to form a developing zygospore (prozygosporangium; shown here as
a dikaryon for simplicity). Subsequent meiosis produces the haploid state again that
often manifests as a sporangium containing numerous sporangiospores, which may
then be dispersed, will germinate, and produce hyphae in the substrate. In the case
of Rhizopus stolonifer, clusters of asexual sporangia are anchored into the substrate
by root-like "rhizoids" and interconnected by specialized "stolon" hyphae. Haploid
(n), dikaryotic (n+n), and diploid (2n) phases of the life cycle are denoted by thin,
double, and thick lines, respectively. (image by C. R. Little).
Figure 58. Sporangiophores and sporangia of Rhizopus stolonifera. A characteristic of
this fungus is the formation of dark, root-like rhizoids at the base of the sporangiophore.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 59. Sporangiophores of Pilobolus sp. developing on horse dung in the
laboratory. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 60. Closeup of sporangiophores and sporangia of Pilobolus sp. The
sporangiophores are growing towards a light source. The dark, cap-like sporangia
are explosively shot off when the swollen apical portion of the sporangiophore
ruptures. The sporangia can travel over 3 meters before landing on a substrate.
(photos by Marco Hernandez-Bello)
Figure 61. Plasmodium. (photo by S. Stevenson)
Figure 62. Colorful sporophores of slime mold. (photo by S. Stevenson)
Figure 63. Bright yellow plasmodia of Fuligo septica such as this one can appear
overnight in landscaping beds. (photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 64. Sporophore of Fuligo septica developing on woodchips in landscaping.
(photo by L. M. Carris)
Figure 65. The club root pathogen Plasmodiophora brassica causes host roots to
become grossly swollen as with this infected broccoli plant. (photo by R. N. Campbell,
Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)
Figure 66. Spongospora subterranean causes powdery scab of potato, so-named
because of the scabby-appearing lesions that form on infected tubers as seen in this
picture. (photo by W. J. Hooker, Fundamental Fungi, APS Press)