Animal Husbandry III.
Some aspects of dairy and beef cattle
production
Czeglédi, Levente
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Animal Husbandry III.: Some aspects of dairy and beef cattle
production
Czeglédi, Levente
TÁMOP-4.1.2.A/1-11/1-2011-0009
University of Debrecen, Service Sciences Methodology Centre
Debrecen, 2013.
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Tartalom
Tárgymutató ....................................................................................................................................... 1
1. 1. Importance of Cattle Production ................................................................................................. 2
2. 2. Domestication of Cattle ............................................................................................................ 13
3. 3. Cattle Breeds ............................................................................................................................. 15
1. 3. 1. Dairy Cattle Breeds ..................................................................................................... 15
2. 3. 2. Beef Cattle Breeds ....................................................................................................... 25
4. 4. Genetics of Cattle ..................................................................................................................... 43
1. 4. 1. Genetics of beef production ........................................................................................ 43
2. 4.2 Genetics of milk production .......................................................................................... 47
3. 4.3 Genetics of reproduction ............................................................................................... 49
4. 4.4 Genetics of disease resistance ....................................................................................... 51
5. 4.5 Marker Assisted Selection ............................................................................................. 54
5. 5. Dairy Management ................................................................................................................... 56
1. 5.1 Housing of dairy cattle .................................................................................................. 56
2. 5.2 Manure handling and storage ........................................................................................ 65
3. 5.3 Milk synthesis and milking equipments ........................................................................ 67
4. 5.4 Nutrition of Dairy Cow ................................................................................................. 71
5. 5.5 Calf management .......................................................................................................... 84
6. 5.6 Artificial insemination .................................................................................................. 90
6. 6. Beef Management ..................................................................................................................... 92
1. 6.1 Calves ............................................................................................................................ 92
2. 6.2 Housing of beef cattle ................................................................................................... 93
3. 6.3 Beef cattle nutrition ....................................................................................................... 96
4. 6.4 Environmental factors ................................................................................................... 99
7. 7. Etology of Cattle ..................................................................................................................... 102
1. 7.1 Movement of cattle ..................................................................................................... 102
2. 7.2 Behaviour of cattle ...................................................................................................... 106
3. 7.3 Activity of cattle .......................................................................................................... 110
4. 7.4 Reproduction behaviour .............................................................................................. 121
5. 7.5 Behaviour of cattle and some aspects of housing ........................................................ 125
6. 7.6 Handling cattle ............................................................................................................ 128
8. 8. Sources ................................................................................................................................... 133
9. 9. Questions ................................................................................................................................ 138
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Az ábrák listája
1.1. Figure 1.1 Meat production in the world ..................................................................................... 2
1.2. Figure 1.2 Meat production in the developed and the developing countries ............................... 2
1.3. Figure 1.3 Dairy production in the world .................................................................................... 3
1.4. Figure 1.4 Dairy production in the developed and the developing countries ............................... 3
1.5. Figure 1.5 Cattle population ........................................................................................................ 4
1.6. Figure 1.6 Cattle population in the top 5 countries ...................................................................... 4
1.7. Figure 1.7 Cattle density in the world .......................................................................................... 5
1.8. Figure 1.8 Cattle density in Europe ............................................................................................. 5
1.9. Figure 1.9 Total beef production in the world (in tons) ............................................................... 6
1.10. Figure 1.10 Total milk production in the world (in tons) .......................................................... 6
1.11. Figure 1.11 Beef production in the world - focus on smallest quantity (in tons) ....................... 7
1.12. Figure 1.12 Beef production in the world - focus on largest quantity (in tons) ......................... 7
1.13. Figure 1.13 Distribution of beef production by region between 1992-2010 .............................. 8
1.14. Figure 1.14 Distribution of beef production by region in 2011 ................................................. 8
1.15. Figure 1.15 Beef production per human population (kg/capita/year) ........................................ 9
1.16. Figure 1.16 Milk production in the world - focus on largest quantity ....................................... 9
1.17. Figure 1.17 Milk production in the world - focus on smallest quantity ................................... 10
1.18. Figure 1.18 Distribution of milk production by region between 1992-2010 ........................... 10
1.19. Figure 1.19 Distribution of milk production by region in 2011 ............................................... 11
1.20. Figure 1.20 Milk production per human population (kg/capita/year) ...................................... 11
3.1. Figure 3.1 Ayrshire cow ............................................................................................................ 15
3.2. Figure 3.2 Ayrshire .................................................................................................................... 16
3.3. Figure 3.3 Brown Swiss bull ..................................................................................................... 17
3.4. Figure 3.4 Brown Swiss cow ..................................................................................................... 17
3.5. Figure 3.5 Holstein Friesian cow ............................................................................................... 19
3.6. Figure 3.6 Guernsey cow ........................................................................................................... 20
3.7. Figure 3.7 Guernsey cows ......................................................................................................... 20
3.8. Figure 3.8 Jersey cow ................................................................................................................ 21
3.9. Figure 3.9 Jersey cow ................................................................................................................ 21
3.10. Figure 3.10 Montbeliard cow .................................................................................................. 22
3.11. Figure 3.11 Montbeliard bull ................................................................................................... 23
3.12. Figure 3.12 Milking shorthorn cow ......................................................................................... 24
3.13. Figure 3.13 Norwegian Red cow ............................................................................................. 25
3.14. Figure 3.14 Norwegain Red bull .............................................................................................. 25
3.15. Figure 3.15 Aberdeen angus cow ............................................................................................ 26
3.16. Figure 3.16 Aberdeen angus bull ............................................................................................. 26
3.17. Figure 3.17 Beef Shorthorn bull .............................................................................................. 27
3.18. Figure 3.18 Beef Shorthorn cow .............................................................................................. 27
3.19. Figure 3.19 Belgian Blue bull .................................................................................................. 28
3.20. Figure 3.20 Belgian Blue cow ................................................................................................. 29
3.21. Figure 3.21 Blonde D’ Aquitaine cow ..................................................................................... 30
3.22. Figure 3.22 Blonde D’ Aquitaine bull ..................................................................................... 30
3.23. Figure 3.23 Brahman ............................................................................................................... 31
3.24. Figure 3.24 Brahman bull ........................................................................................................ 31
3.25. Figure 3.25 Charolais cow and calf ......................................................................................... 32
3.26. Figure 3.26 Charolais bull ....................................................................................................... 32
3.27. Figure 3.27 Chianina bull ........................................................................................................ 33
3.28. Figure 3.28 Galloway bull ....................................................................................................... 34
3.29. Figure 3.29 Galloway cow and calf ......................................................................................... 34
3.30. Figure 3.30 Hereford bull ........................................................................................................ 35
3.31. Figure 3.31 Limousin ............................................................................................................... 36
3.32. Figure 3.32 Limousin bull ....................................................................................................... 36
3.33. Figure 3.33 Lincoln Red .......................................................................................................... 37
3.34. Figure 3.34 Maine Anjou bull .................................................................................................. 37
3.35. Figure 3.35 Marchigiana bull ................................................................................................... 38
3.36. Figure 3.36 Marchigiana cow .................................................................................................. 38
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3.37. Figure 3.37 Salers bull ............................................................................................................. 39
3.38. Figure 3.38 Salers cow and calf ............................................................................................... 39
3.39. Figure 3.39 Simmental cows ................................................................................................... 40
3.40. Figure 3.40 Wagyu bull ........................................................................................................... 41
3.41. Figure 3.41 Wagyu cow ........................................................................................................... 41
5.1. Figure 5.1 Temperature in combination with humidity causes heat stress for dairy cows ........ 58
5.2. Figure 5.2 Enough place for feeding decreases stress ............................................................... 59
5.3. Figure 5.3 Bedding matrass ....................................................................................................... 60
5.4. Figure 5.4 Inside a free stall barn .............................................................................................. 61
5.5. Figure 5.5 ................................................................................................................................... 62
5.6. Figure 5.6 Cows in the barn at feeding time .............................................................................. 62
5.7. Figure 5.7 Free stall for resting, free movement ........................................................................ 63
5.8. Figure 5.8 ................................................................................................................................... 64
5.9. Figure 5.9 Slatted floors in the stable is advised ........................................................................ 66
5.10. Figure 5.10 Mechanical scraping of manure ............................................................................ 66
5.11. Figure 5.11 Basic anatomy of an udder ................................................................................... 68
5.12. Figure 5.12 Identification of individuals and optimized amount of concentrates .................... 69
5.13. Figure 5.13 Data collected by software in the milking parlour important for management decision
........................................................................................................................................................... 70
5.14. Figure 5.14 Composition of feedstuffs .................................................................................... 71
5.15. Figure 5.15 Milk production, feed intake and body weght during lactation and dry period of cows
........................................................................................................................................................... 73
5.16. Figure 5.16 A newborn calf with its mother ............................................................................ 84
5.17. Figure 5.17 Individual housing of calves are common in bucket feeding ............................... 85
5.18. Figure 5.18 Grouping calves into small groups during milk feeding period is also a possible way for
keeping ............................................................................................................................................. 86
5.19. Table 5.6 Expected growth of Holstein-Friesian calves during bucket milk feeding and later 87
5.20. Table 5.7 Chest size of animal is in strong correlation to live weight for Holstein-Friesian ... 87
7.1. Figure 7.1 Moments of lying-down ......................................................................................... 102
7.2. Figure 7.2 Moments of standing up ......................................................................................... 102
7.3. Figure 7.3 Unnatural standing up of cattle ............................................................................... 103
7.4. Figure 7.4 Standing up and lying down moments of cows a) optimal b) poorly designed stall 103
7.5. Figure 7.5 Basic requirements for design to ensure basic free movements of cows ................ 104
7.6. Figure 7.6 Moments of step during cattle walking .................................................................. 105
7.7. Figure 7.7 Mutual and own personal hygiene of cattle ............................................................ 106
7.8. Figure 7.8 Social hygiene of cattle .......................................................................................... 107
7.9. Figure 7.9 Typical behaviour schemes of cows ....................................................................... 108
7.10. Figure 7.10 Occurence of aggressive behavior in different groups of heifers ....................... 109
7.11. Figure 7.11 Social ranking of cows and its relationship to distance between individuals ..... 109
7.12. Figure 7.12 Daily distribution of ruminantion of Holstein-Friesian cows ............................. 110
7.13. Figure 7.13 The frequency of drinking during the day .......................................................... 112
7.14. Figure 7.14 Daily distribution of defecation and urination of cows ...................................... 112
7.15. Figure 7.15 Defecation and urination in the stable ................................................................ 113
7.16. Figure 7.16 Daily start of grazing depends on the changing of sunrise ................................. 114
7.17. Figure 7.17 Daily start of grazing depends on the changing of sunset .................................. 114
7.18. Figure 7.18 Setting of circadian (daily) rhythm of concentrates and hay ingestion ............... 116
7.19. Figure 7.19 Setting of circadian (daily) rhythm of rumination .............................................. 117
7.20. Figure 7.20 Preferred sites of calves depends on weather conditions during summer ........... 118
7.21. Figure 7.21 The time spent for standing, movement and feed consumption and the changes in the
ratio of these activities .................................................................................................................... 119
7.22. Figure 7.22 Preferred place of stay of fattening bulls in loose housing with outdoor exercise place
(from spring to autumm) ................................................................................................................. 120
7.23. Figure 7.23 Signs of heating: mounting other cows .............................................................. 122
7.24. Figure 7.24 Signs of heating: sniffing other cows ................................................................. 122
7.25. Figure 7.25 Signs of heating: bending backbone ................................................................... 123
7.26. Figure 7.26T he most frequently affected body parts by the groupmates when the cow is in heat
......................................................................................................................................................... 123
7.27. Figure 7.27 Pedometer is an effective tool for heat detection ................................................ 124
7.28. Figure 7.28 a. long b. medium length c. short stall of cow. Less bedding material needed in the short
system and more in the long one .................................................................................................... 127
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Animal Husbandry III.
7.29. Figure 7.29 Some equipments to fix the animals ................................................................... 127
7.30. Figure 7.30 Properly designed feeding for cows ................................................................... 128
7.31. Figure 7.31 Place for insemination or covering for cows ...................................................... 128
7.32. Figure 7.32 Some possibilities to prevent injury and make the animal handling procedure safer 129
7.33. Figure 7.33 Conformation of hooves ..................................................................................... 130
7.34. Figure 7.34 Abdominal protector to prevent kicking ............................................................. 131
7.35. Figure 7.35 Tie down of cow’s head prevent sucking ........................................................... 131
7.36. Figure 7.36 Sucking inhibitor for calf and cow (this flexible structure is placed in the calf’s nostril)
......................................................................................................................................................... 132
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A táblázatok listája
4.1. Table 4.1 Heritability (h2) estimates of cattle carcass and quality traits .................................. 46
4.2. Table 4.2 Correlation coefficients between carcass traits and meat quality .............................. 46
4.3. Table 4.3 Genes involved in milk production traits and those have significant effect on animal
performance and/or product quality .................................................................................................. 47
4.4. Table 4.4 Heritability (h2) of reproduction traits in beef cattle ................................................. 50
4.5. Table 4.5 SNPs in the genome and dairy lifetime net merit ...................................................... 55
5.1. Table 5.1 Typical management categories of a dairy herd based on continuous calving. ......... 56
5.2. Table 5.2 Heat production, ventilation capacity and recommended ridge opening at different
production levels at a barn ................................................................................................................ 58
5.3. Table 5.3 Optimal size for free stalls in different barns (in cm) ................................................ 61
5.4. Table 5.4 Ratio of undegraded protein in rumen of different feeds ........................................... 72
5.5. Table 5.5 Chemical composition and nutritive value of foods of the ruminants ...................... 74
6.1. Table 6.1 Daily water consumption of cattle ........................................................................... 100
6.2. Table 6.2 Lower critical temperature for beef cattle ................................................................ 100
6.3. Table 6.3 Temperature and energy requirement of cattle ........................................................ 100
6.4. Table 6.4 Increase of maintenance energy per Celsius degree (below the critical temperature) 101
7.1. Table 7.1 Daily water consumption of cows ........................................................................... 111
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Tárgymutató
1
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1. fejezet - 1. Importance of Cattle
Production
Food of animal origin is the most important protein source of human diet. Meat consumption in a country is
correlated to its economy and wealth. People in developed countries eat more food of animal origin than people
from developing countries. Meat consumption is increasing in countries of Asia in the last years, this change is
about 5 percent per year. This phenomen is due to both increase of population and increase of economy. Asia is
not the centre of milk and dairy product consumption, in some parts of the continent inhabitants traditionally do
not eat much milk and milk products and some of them intolerant to lactose. These factors influence the growth
rate of demand for dairy products, however 2-3 percent increase per annum is the trend in the market of food.
Livestock production is connected to cereal production and other land use as well. The feed produced for farm
animals on arable land or grazing and grass harvesting on grasslands use a huge area of land. The increase of
primary animal industry has some negative consequences as well. Livestock production is partially responsible
for deforestation and overgrazing in some areas. We have to consider the fact that human population in the
world is increasing, demand for animal products is more and more, consequently a sustainable and efficient
animal production system is a must for the future of next generations.
The growth of demand for meat production in the world is driven by the continuous and significant growth of
poultry consumption. The need for cattle and other ruminants are stagnant for years. The amount of total meat
production per capita is higher in both developed and developing countries, at present more than 30 kg and more
than 90 kg meat per capita is produced in developing and industrial countries, respectively. The largest meat
producing countires in the world are United States, Brasil and China (Figure 1.1, 1.2).
1.1. ábra - Figure 1.1 Meat production in the world
Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2012
1.2. ábra - Figure 1.2 Meat production in the developed and the developing countries
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2012
The production and consumption of milk and milk products (Figure 1.3, 1.4) did not show the same tendency as
meat production. In the past decades, the growth of produced milk per capita was about zero. It means that the
amount of milk increased parallel to the increase of human population. At recent times there is a growth in
developing countries and it is stagnant in developed ones. It has to be mentioned that the differences in dairy
production per capita in industrial and developing countries is still large, but decreasing. Dairy products in
weight per inhabitant is four times higher in developed countries, the quantity is about 278 kg, while in
developing ones it is less than 70 kg. The highest increase in the developing world is the contribution of East
and South Asia. The dairy consumption of one person is twice as many in East Asia comparing the beginning
and the end of last decade. The largest dairy producer countriesin the world are China, India, Russia, Germany,
France, Brazil and the United States.
1.3. ábra - Figure 1.3 Dairy production in the world
Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2012
1.4. ábra - Figure 1.4 Dairy production in the developed and the developing countries
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2012
Cattle are raised worldwide (Figure 1.5). FAO data for year 2011 mention that 37% of cattle can be found in
Americas, followed by 34% in Asia, 17.5% in Africa, 8.5% in Europe, 3% in Oceania. The number of cattle in
the top 5 countries is as follows: 213 million in Brazil, 210 million in India, 92.5 million in the United States of
America, 83 million in China, 53 million in Ethiopia (Figure 1.6). Some millions or more can be found in
several countries, fewer cattle are bred in African and Arabic countries and in countries with small territory area
in Europe, South America, Oceania.
1.5. ábra - Figure 1.5 Cattle population
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.6. ábra - Figure 1.6 Cattle population in the top 5 countries
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
Cattle density map of the world (Figure 1.7, 1.8), as number of animals per square km show a broad range. The
highest density can be found in the United States of America, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina of Americas, in
some European countries and India. Focusing on Europe, the highest cattle density is in West-Europe, such as
United Kingdom, France, Belgium, Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland and North-Italy.
1.7. ábra - Figure 1.7 Cattle density in the world
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.8. ábra - Figure 1.8 Cattle density in Europe
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
Both total beef (Figure 1.9) and milk production (Figure 1.10) slightly increased in the last decade. Total beef
production per year is more than 60 million tons in the world, the quantity of produced milk is over 550 million
tons. 48% of beef is produced in Americas, 22% in Asia, 17% in Europe, 8% in Africa and 4% in Oceania. The
top 5 beef producer countries are United States of America, Brazil, China, Australia, Argentina with the quantity
of beef in million tons as 12, 9, 6.2, 2.4, 2.1 respectively.
1.9. ábra - Figure 1.9 Total beef production in the world (in tons)
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
Milk production was 450 million tons in 1997 and a continuous increase resulted in a more than 550 million
tons milk per year. Most of this amount is a product of Asia and Europe, 36% and 34% respectively. 30% of
milk is produced in Americas, 4.5% in Oceania and 4.5% in Africa.
1.10. ábra - Figure 1.10 Total milk production in the world (in tons)
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.11. ábra - Figure 1.11 Beef production in the world - focus on smallest quantity (in
tons)
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.12. ábra - Figure 1.12 Beef production in the world - focus on largest quantity (in tons)
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.13. ábra - Figure 1.13 Distribution of beef production by region between 1992-2010
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.14. ábra - Figure 1.14 Distribution of beef production by region in 2011
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
Beef and milk production in function of inhabitants of a country show an interesting map of the globe. Most of
the countries of highest production per capita are in the American continent, Australia, West-Europe, NorthEurope (Figure 1.15). The highest milk production per capita countries are in North-America, most of the
European countries, Russia and Australia (Figure 1.20). Maps and data of cattle products, as beef and milk, are
presented on Figure 11.-20.
1.15. ábra - Figure 1.15 Beef production per human population (kg/capita/year)
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.16. ábra - Figure 1.16 Milk production in the world - focus on largest quantity
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.17. ábra - Figure 1.17 Milk production in the world - focus on smallest quantity
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.18. ábra - Figure 1.18 Distribution of milk production by region between 1992-2010
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.19. ábra - Figure 1.19 Distribution of milk production by region in 2011
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
1.20. ábra - Figure 1.20 Milk production per human population (kg/capita/year)
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1. Importance of Cattle Production
Source: FAO, FAOSTAT, fao.org
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2. fejezet - 2. Domestication of Cattle
There are several evidence from excavations, cave paintings, study the origin of Aryan languages and from
recent times molecular biological tools of cattle domestication in the world. It is a challenge to determine the
beginning of domestication as it has preceded written history. Human for first domesticated the dog as a
companion animal for hunting that was followed by goat and sheep, and later cattle.
There are some theories on the reason of early cattle domestication. One theorizes man with little use of hunting
tools has started the domestication. Others thought animals were collected into a group to use them as crop
trespassers. In some parts of the world it may had very special reason, such as in draught areas cattle helped
human to find water sources as driven by thirst.
Domestication of animals is in connection to field cultivation and crop production. Atan excavation of anchient
settlement at Anau, domesticated cattle was found in a soil layer upper than the layer where crops where found
such as wheat and barley. Under the layer of grains Bos namadicus, as wild species was found.
Aryans were hunting people and later pastoralism has more and more significance in their meat source for
living. The Parsees had the Bible that paid reference to the ox in the „songs of praise”:
„In the ox is our strength,
in the ox is our speech,
in the ox is our victory,
in the ox is our nourishment,
in the ox is our clothings,
in the ox is our agriculture,
which furnishes to us food.”
The role of domestic animal in that era is unquestionable, ox and its products were utilized in several ways.
Bible also mentions cattle, there are several refences, about 3800 B.C. cattle was a part of nomadic life (Gen.
4:20):
„and Adah bare Jabal: he was the father of such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle.”
Bos primigenius, as the wild form of cattle was domesticated in the world independently at two or three times.
About 8000 years ago, in the Fertile Crescent the domestication of Bos taurus, the taurine has been started.
Archeological records appear in northeastern Asia, such as Mongolia, Korea, China that is dedicated to about
5000 years ago.
Domestication of Zebu is thought to happened in the Indus Valley, about 7000 years ago.
There is a debate about domestication sites in Africa. Maybe it is the continent for the first domestication site, as
long ago as 9000 years. There are evidence of cattle existing in Nabta Playa and Bir Kiseiba, both are located in
Egypt. The only, not completely answered question is that these animals were domesticated or wild.
Archeology and molecular genetics sterngth each other and could answer the origin of Bos domestication.
Mitochondrial DNA analyses show and support archeological findings on different, independent domestication
sites. It says domesticated cattle from Near East were traded to Europe, where those were crossed with wild
aurochs. There are some scientist, who believe that cattle was also domesticated in Europe (present time that is
the territory of Germany), but still there is a discussion. Some findings suggest African cattle domestication is
not an independent event, maybe those animals were the descendent from previous domestication in Indus
Valley or Near East.
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2. Domestication of Cattle
An other genetic study says the wild form of cattle, known auroch, was domesticated about 10,500 years ago, in
the Near East. In contrast of the theory that domestication has begun independently at three parts of the world, a
mitochondrial DNA study based on sequence analyses states two very distinct lineages exist that is in contrast to
taurine-zebu dichtonomy. It can be concluded European and African breeds belong to one lineage and Indian
breeds to an other.
There is a considerable input of zebu genes, from Asia, into African cattle breeds. The Arab invasion to Africa
in 670 A.D. is the explanation to East African zebu, as Asian Bos indicus was introduced. There is a lack of
Asian zebu mitochondrial DNA in these African breeds that is explained by transport of male animals. Bulls
were favoured as source of meat, draft and an effective widespread of desired phenotypes. Nevertheless, cattle
populations after bottleneck effect may lose the variability of mitochondrial DNA and maintain one in nuclear
DNA. 90 percent of animals in sub-Saharan African has extinct at the end of 1800s, caused by renderpest.
During that process mitochondrial DNA, originated from Asia, may have been lost.
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3. fejezet - 3. Cattle Breeds
At the beginning of domestication cattle served as source of milk, beef and draft. These are called triple-purpose
animals. Draft purpose was replaced by other species, such as horse or buffalo and centuries later machinery
palyed more and more important roles.
At present most of the breeds are single or dual purpose. Dual purpose breeds are milked but usually their milk
yield is less than breeds those are improved for better milk production traits.
1. 3. 1. Dairy Cattle Breeds
Ayrshire
The breed was developed in Ayr, Scotland. The beginning is dated to the ages before 1700 A.D. The name of
the breed was not Ayrshire in the early ages, it was Cunningham, later changed to Dunlop and the recent name
is Ayrshire. The breed, as an independent one, existssince 1786, when the first Ayrshire exhibition was
organized.
Before 1800 lots of the animals were black, although other colours started to appear such as brown and mottled.
Ayrshire was likely crossed by some European breeds, but these crossings did not alter significantly the
phenotype and performance of the breed.
During the breeding and selection process the adaptability to a certain climate, grazing ability, shape and quality
of the udder and longevity were in the focus. The content of its milk made the breed a high quality producer for
milk to be processed such as cheese and butter.
The colour of breed is red and white (Figure 3.1, 3.2). The red colour is a reddish-brown mahogany that comes
from very light to very dark. The red colour varies from as red to very light, almost white. For registry several
varieties of these colour/pattern is accepted. Most of the spots on the animal are distinct, it seems that there is a
sharp border between different colours of individual hair.
Ayrshires possess an attractive horn, its length often exceeds30 cm. Today calves are dehorned for practical
reasons.
Vigor of Ayrshire calves made the breed popular, calves and heifers are strong, easy to raise. The fattening of
Ayrshire bulls can be profitable, the daily gain is significant.
Average weight of cows is between 550-650 kgs. The technology and applied systems on intensive dairy farms
are appropriate for milk production with Ayrshire. Problem with legs are not common.
Milk yield of Ayrshire cows is less than one of Holstein Friesian, but butterfat concentration is higher (4-4.5%).
Protein content is 3.5-3.7 % as avarage, that one could be higher than fat percentage.
It is a strong breed with good grazing ability that makes the breed an excellent milk producer that could be
based on high yield grasslands.
Most important characteristics of the breed: low somatic cell counts, convert grass into milk efficiently,
hardiness, easy calving, longevity, free of genetic disease.
3.1. ábra - Figure 3.1 Ayrshire cow
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3. Cattle Breeds
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.2. ábra - Figure 3.2 Ayrshire
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Brown Swiss
In the early herdbooks Brown Swiss was described as dark brown to silver grey, white spots may appear in the
belly. The breed reached a uniformity and the most beautiful cows were found in the region of Luzerne in 1896.
Almost one hundred years ago, in 1805, cattle shows of Brown Swiss has begun in Switzerland.
The original Brown Swiss cattle were triple-purpose, they were used for milk, meat and draft. The working
power was not the primary aim, milk and beef were the first. Adaptation to grazing on high altitudes, mountain
meadows, longevity, strong legs, good reproduction ability wascharacteristics of the breed. As a consequence of
housing technology and characteristic of Brown Swiss, mastitis was not a real problem in the stocks.
The Swiss Federation decided to spent money to accelerate breed improvement between 1848-1956, it has made
a shift towards dairy type of breeds.
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The Swiss Brown Swiss has started its carrier in America as early at the end of 1800. Prize winner animals were
bought by H. M. Clark and shipped over the ocean. The foundation stock, with additional imports, was 38 bulls
and 135 heifers, from which the dairy type in the United States was developed.
The Brown Swiss Association of America was established in 1880. The Swiss origin was very important for the
association, they declared that an animal can be established as thoroughbred which is imported from
Switzerland or descendent from those ones.
At the beginning of breed development it was dual purpose, but from 1907 Brown Swiss was shown as a dairy
breed. The desired phenotype was established as a painter was asked to paint a model Brown Swiss cow. The
Association has accepted the model after minor modifications. Dairy characteristics were dominant, such as
udder size and shape, dairy temperament.
Brown Swiss is a breed with docile temperament, easy to handle, animals are quiet (Figure 3.3, 3.4). Popularity
is unquestionable, it has one of the largest population in the world of dairy breeds. High milk yield with high
components makes the breed ideal for profitable cheese producing. Its fat to protein ratio is optimal for cheese
making. Strength of the breed in milk production the low somatic cell count of milk.
Different climate, such as cold or hot, different management systems are appropriate for the breed. It withstands
in several conditions.
The longevity of animals is mainly due to their good feet and leg structure and the well- attached udder. The
grazing ability, forage utilization as feed conversion rate is outstanding of Swiss Brown. Metablic disorders are
relatively reare due to the moderately flat lactation curve, which is better for the cows.
Brown Swiss is a breed of: high milk production, closest protein/fat ratio of any dairy breed, quiet temperament,
reproductive efficiency, longevity, strength, heat tolerance, adaptability.
3.3. ábra - Figure 3.3 Brown Swiss bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.4. ábra - Figure 3.4 Brown Swiss cow
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Holstein Friesian
The Holstein Friesian breed is originated from North Holland and Friesland. The history of breed has started
2000 years ago, when Europeans wanted a breed with the most efficient use of grassland. The early selection
was about utilization of available feed sources. The black cattle of the Batavians and white cows of Friesians
were bred and improved.
There is a legend, that Friesians brought their own cattle from Rhineland, and the ancestor of their cattle was a
snow white type. The white cattle were originated from India. Batavians has arrived 200 years later (100 B.C.)
than Friesians with their black cattle.Romans found „not excelling in beauty” cattle in northern Europe some
decades B.C.
The first import to the United States is dated to 1621 from the Netherlands. Later, in 1795 eight Dutch black and
white cattle were introduced to the States. Following, in the 1800s several other Dutch cattle transport were
done. Holstein Herd Book in the United States was established, when breeders has organized the Association of
Breeders of Thoroughbred Holstein Cattle. Major part of the population was black and white animals, but red
and white ones were also registered. At the early times dun colour was also present, but these animals were not
registered.
The True Type
There were different ideas about the type of cow and bull of Holstein breed. The leading breeders, experts have
agreed to prepare a clay model and paintings as well to create the „true type” Holstein. The models and
paintings were approved in 1922.
Some years later type classification has started. The idea was to classify animals onthe farm according to
phenotype, conformation in related to desired type. The reason of such a system was to recognize sires of high
value.
Holsteins are large dairy cattle with superior milk production (Figure 3.5). Heifers can bred as young as 13
months old and first calving is desired before 24 months of age. The productive life is usually four to six years,
but some cows life longer. Butterfat percentage of milk is low, but butterfat kg in lactation is high due to the
more than 10 000 kg milk per cycle. Cows of highest milk production in a lactation can reach the level of 20 000
kgs or even more.
Holsteins are easy to handle, adopted to wide range of environment, can be used in intensive milk production
systems.
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Charactersitics of the breed: high milk production, universal, good for all management systems, calves are
vigorous with rapid growth, early maturation, easy to handle, resistant to several stress factors, not as resistant to
heat and disease as natural breeds.
3.5. ábra - Figure 3.5 Holstein Friesian cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Guernsey
The Channel Islands are located to the north of Brittany, both islands of Guernesey and Jersey belong to the
group. At the beginning of 1800s a law has prohibited the import of cattle to the island, there was only one
exception:transport of cattle for sluaghter, cattle from Jersey Island was not foreign. The reason of such a strict
law was to defence the Island Cattle from any other types, mainly from France. The risk of any infectious
diseases also decreased.
The early cattle were famous of its milk and butter with a colour of yellow or golden. These animals were
larger, taller, bulkier carcass, darker colour, less fine hair compared to Jersey.
Due to the regulations all the Island cattle was purebred, so there were no consensus between breeders about
keeping a pedigree herdbook. For first a private herdbook was started and later an official one inthe Island.
At the beginning of 19th century some animals were imported to the States, they were mentioned as
„Alderneys” as the origin name of cattle from Channel Islands.
After the creation of „true type” of Holstein inthe States, Guernsey breeders have asked a painter to make the
„Ideal Guernsey Cow” and „Ideal Guernsey Bull” in 1926 and 1927 respectively.
In the middle of the 1900 breeders made colour ratings of cows and believed that golden pigmentation of
animals result the expected yellow colour of milk.
The breeding aim involved traits such as improve milk yield, body capacity, dairy character, udder, and to retain
the yellow colour of dairy products.
As early as in 1920 Guernsey milk and cream was copyrighted as Golden Guernsey onthe market.
At present Guernsey is a medium size dairy breed with yellow to reddish brown colour with white patches on
the body (Figure 3.6, 3.7). Cow are slightly heavier that Jersey ones, 450 to 500 kg and about 450 kg
respectively. The animals are docile, easy to handle and have a fine temperament. Heifers are bred at the age of
14 months old.
Guernsey milk has several advantages: major part of cows carry Kappa Casein B gene that provides to make a
better quality cheese. Almost all the cows has Beta Casein A2 type of milk, which in contrast to the world dairy
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population, as that one produces Beta Casein A1 type milk in about 75 percentage and only one quarter of milk
is A2 type as Guernsey’s one. This protein is believed to have some health benefits. Beta Casein A1 milk may
causes diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, schizophrenia in certain people. Its milk contains more protein, fat,
calcium, vitemin D, vitamin A than the average milk.
Guernsey is adaptable to different kind of environmental, climatic, management conditions. Calves are
relatively large in weight and easy to rear them.
Guernsey is a dairy breed with traits such as: good feed conversion ratio, reproductive maturity at an early age,
ease of calving, adaptable to all climates and management systems, its light colour reduces heat stress,
characteristics of milk are ideal: nutritive value, health, cheese production, high milk flow, good grazing
abilities.
3.6. ábra - Figure 3.6 Guernsey cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.7. ábra - Figure 3.7 Guernsey cows
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Jersey
The Jersey breed is originated from Jersey Island, which is the southest one of the Channel Islands. The colour
of the early Jerseys were red and white or brown and white on a show in 1834. In a more detailed colour
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description Jersey is said it has lot of shades of colours, from pale yellow to red, some mixture of grey or black.
Darker animals were more popular in England than pale ones, as it was believed darker colour means hardier,
adaptable animals.
At the end of 1700s Jersey was one of the most important products of the island, for inhabitants and for export
as well. These cattle were small, and they were kept for milk and butter. At this time Jersey was called
Alderneys in England, such as Guernsey cattle. The first documented export of Jerseys was in the middle of
18th century, cattle were shipped to the United States and England.
Later Jerseys were exported to several countries in the world. Today Jersey is one of the largest breed in the
world because of it is adaptable to wide range of climatic conditions and its excellence in dairy traits. Jerseys are
kept in lot of European countries, in Australia and New Zealand, North and South America, South Africa and
Japan.
Today Jersey is usually a light brown breed, that colour varies from grayish to dull black. Usually patches can
be found all over the body. It has black feet that are hard and lameness is not significant problem for breeders.
The breed is a small one, weight of the cows is 400 to 450 kg (Figure 3.8, 3.9). Due to this light weight – low
maintenance energy - and the physiology of Jerseys it is the more efficient milk producer among dairy breeds.
This has great importance in areas where feedstuff is expensive.
The breed is less susceptible to the occurence of mastitis and other udder health problems. The milk contains
more fat, protein and calcium as the average content of milk of other breeds. There in more profitof Jersey milk
production, where market pays premium price for higher content milk. General characteristic of the breed is
longevity, thus cows serve longer in a stock.
Reproduction traits, such as age at first calving, ease of calving, short calving interval. Docile with a good
temperament.
Jersey is a breed of: small breed = low maintenance energy, no calving problems, greater fertility, milk has
greater fat and protein content, less susceptible to lameness because of their hooves are very hard, good
temperament, easy to handle, good grazing ability, adaptability to different conditions.
3.8. ábra - Figure 3.8 Jersey cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.9. ábra - Figure 3.9 Jersey cow
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Montbeliard
The breed was called Alsatian until middle of 1800s, the present name is derived from the principality
Montbéliard. This French cattle breed descent from Bernoise cattle which was brought from Switzerland to
France in the XVIII. Century by Mennonites. The breed was recognized in 1889. The breed belongs to the
family of continental red and white cattle breeds. It was developed in a continental climate: warm summer, cold
winter. Housing for some months in a year was the typical management system, summer season was based on
pasture.
Montbeliard has some percentage Holstein blood, which had a positive effect on milk yield. Tourache and
Bernoise breeds played a role in today’s Montbeliard as well.
Montbeliard is a horned breed, with a white and light red colour, head is white (Figure 3.10, 3.11). Its colour is
similar to Red Holstein. It is a large dairy breed, mature cows are 650-700 kg, bulls more than 1000 kg.
Recorded milk production is one of thebest among dairy breeds.
Famous dairy products of Montbeliard are Gruyere and Emmental cheese, with excellent taste if matured. Kappa
Casein B variant is the major allele in breed, and the ideal protein content of milk strength the profitable cheese
production.
Montbeliard is a hardy breed, it is easily managed, with very good udder characteristics, easy to adopt to
different climatic conditions and management systems. It has good grazing ability. Besides milking bulls has
good beef traits, its carcass, weight gain is better than expected from a dairy breed. Effective feed digestion of
Montbelliard makes the breed to be a very good feed converter, a high excess to rough forage can be ingested by
these animals.
Montbeliard has excellence in: resistance to mastitis, longevity, calving ease, excellent cheese-making value
(gruyere), hardy, easily managed breed, rapid growth rate and good conformation.
3.10. ábra - Figure 3.10 Montbeliard cow
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3.11. ábra - Figure 3.11 Montbeliard bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Milking Shorthorn
Milking Shorthorn is originated from the valley of Tees River in England. It is one of the oldest breed in the
world. Shorthorn was evolved by two English breeds as Durham and Teeswater cattle.
The other name of the breed is Dairy Shorthorn, Milking Shorthorn is mostly used in USA and Canada. Actually
Milking Shorthorn is not an independent breed, it is a dairy purpose type of Shorthorn breed.
Shorthorn was the first improved breed exproted to the United States. The first import has arrived in 1783, and
later followed by others. The American Shorthorn Breeders’ Association has started to operate in Indianapolis in
1872.
Both polled and horned types of shorthorn were bred, but selection favoured the horned animals,thus horned
cattle were imported to America.
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Shorthorns were dual purpose breeds in the middle 1800s, later beef shorthorn become more and more popular
so dual purpose stock has declined. Milking shorthorn risen from late 1890s, from public milking contest in
Chicago.
Shorthorn cattle had great importance in developments of other breeds, its genetic was used in 40 breeds, not
only in dairy but in beef breeds as well. Shorthorn genetics made the breed the most versatile one, it has several
advantages, listed below.
Milking Shorthorn is reddish, red, red and white, roan animal (Figure 3.12). Both horned and polled varieties are
registered. Cows are 700 kg in average, bull are 1000 kg in weight. Calves are relatively small in weight, but
easy to raise and vigorous. Cows are good mother, even at first calving, mortality of calves is mininal. These
animals are considered as good for grazing. Produces high milk yield in hot and cold climates as well. Milk has
a very good fat to protein ratio and produces milk for more years compared to the average dairy breeds. Its
longevity is a proud. Leg and udder problems occur relativelyrare, it saves veterinary cost and decrease loss of
milk.
Dairy Shorthorn is worth for milk production: ease of calving and excellent mothering ability, superior feet and
leg structure, with excellent hoof durability, greater reproductive efficiency, higher non-return rate, good feed
conversion ratio, longevity, high milk yield even older cows, quiet temperament, low somatic cell score,
increased resistance to mastitis.
3.12. ábra - Figure 3.12 Milking shorthorn cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Norwegian Red
Norwegian Red was developed in Norway, it is not widespread all over the world, majority of the population is
still in Norway. Its history, as an independent breed is not dated to long ago, it is designated to 1961. Some
breeds, such as Ayshire, Holstein, Swedish Red and White has contributed to this breed. It is a dairy breed, but
for selection criteria health and reproductive traits always had great significance.
In some aspects Norwegian Red is as close to a dual-purpose breed as to a dairy type. Cows are selected for
milking traits, such as yield and milk flow, while growth rates test results are in the focus for bulls (Figure 3.13,
3.14).
It is a medium size breed, produce an average milk quantity, average milk components and generally good
carcass with and average beef quantity. These cattle are red or red-pied, some of them are black and white. Both
polled and horned calves born, about half of them are polled.
Beside the medium level of production yield some characteristics are superior compared to the average. These
are reproduction trais and health. Costs of veterinary medicines, artificial insemination are low, short productive
life, udder and leg problems are not characteristics of the breed.
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Norwegian Red has advantages in: calving ease, high fertility, higher mastitis resistance, hardy hooves.
3.13. ábra - Figure 3.13 Norwegian Red cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.14. ábra - Figure 3.14 Norwegain Red bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
2. 3. 2. Beef Cattle Breeds
Aberdeen Angus
Aberdeen and angus are counties in Scotland. The origin and history of this scottish breed is not known in
details at the beginning, the improvement of original stock has begun in the late 1800s. Angus doddie strain and
Buchan humlie strain were crossed, which led to a breed that one is similar to the original strains. The
international name of the breed is Angus.
The first Aberdeen Angus animals has arrived to America in 1873, these were four bulls. At these ages
Shorthorn were much more favoured breed, but the offsprings of Aberdeen Angus bulls from Scotland had some
advantages. These polled animals wintered better with less lost and heavier bulls and cows in the spring.
Today, Abeerden Angus is one of the most popular beef breed in the United Kingdom and USA as well and
widespread all over the world.
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All the Aberdeen Angus animals are polled (Figure 3.15, 3.16) and there are two colour varieties: red and black
Angus, the black one is the dominant colour, and most of the population is black. Heifers mature early, earlier
than the average of beef breeds. Carcass of Angus gives high yield and the beef is marbled. Aberdeen Angus is
known as a carcass breed.
Angus cattle is well adapted to all kind of climatic conditions, could be kept in extensive production systems
with low cost. It has good grazing ability, dark colour prevents udder sunburn problems. Feed conversion ratio
is outstanding, efficiently utilizes the yiled of pasture. The marbling in steaks is favoured on the market that
meets the sconsumers demand. This ability of marbled beef production is fixed in the population, as the
heritability of this trait is moderately high. There is a positive correlation between marbling and tenderness
thatincreases consumers acceptance.
Angus is good in reproduction traits. Early maturation ensures the early birht of first calf, good fertility helps to
reach high conception rate and finally Angus cows are good mother of their calves. Longevity, stayability mean
that older cows are still in the reproductive stock. There are no typical calving problems.
Calves are vigorous, loss of calves is minimal.
Characteristics: resistant to poor weather conditions, adaptable to production systems, good natured, easy to
handle, mature extremely early,have a high carcass yield, marbled beef, naturally polled.
3.15. ábra - Figure 3.15 Aberdeen angus cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.16. ábra - Figure 3.16 Aberdeen angus bull
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Beef Shorthorn
Shorthorn is a breed from northern England, from Tees River Valley. Shorthorn wasoriginally a dual-purpose
breed, and later improved for dairy type and for beef type. Today, these are individual breeds such as Dairy
Shorthorn and Beef Shorthorn.
Beef Shorthorn Herdbook was started in 1958. Beef Shorthorn has lost its competitiveness by the early 1970s
compaerd to other muscled, heavy beef breeds. The reaction of breeders to this challange was to introduce
Maine Anjou from France.
Most of the Shorthorns are Milking Shorthorns in England and Beef Shortohorns in Ireland.
One of the largest advantage of Shortohorns in the contribution of breed developments in both dairy and beef
breeds.
There are 3 colours of Shorthorn cattle: red, white and roan. These animals are horned or polled. Both bulls and
heifers have high daily gain and convert feed efficiently. Shorthorn cattle has early maturation, calving ease is
typical. Shorthorn crosses have better marbling, daily gain, feed utilization due to the contribution of Shorthorn
(Figure 3.17, 3.18).
Characteristics of Beef Shorthorn: high rate of gaining, good feed conversion, excellence in marbling and
tenderness, calving ease, good beef quality in extensive systems.
3.17. ábra - Figure 3.17 Beef Shorthorn bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.18. ábra - Figure 3.18 Beef Shorthorn cow
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Belgian Blue
Belgian Blue is a cattle breed from central and upper Belgium. Belgian Blue is also known as Belgian White
Blue, Belgian White and Blue Pied, in French Blanc Bleu Belge.
Belgian red pied and black pied cattle were crossed with English Shorthorn cattle in the late of 1800s. Later
Charolais bulls were also introduced to improve the local stock. These cattle were dual-purpose at the early
time, and from 1950s beef character was more and more important. The muscle hypertrophy or double muscling
characteristics has revealed in the 1960s. Since those years it is the main marker of the breed.
Belgian Blue is a large, heavy beef breed with muscular body (Figure 3.19, 3.20). Shoulder, back, loin and rump
gives a lot of meat. The colour is white or blue roan. Animals are quiet and have good temperament, easy to
handle.
Late maturation of cows and relatively high milk yield, compared to other beef breeds, are common.
Hypermuscularity causes problems at delivery, thus caesarean is used at birth. This latter increases cost and
more skilled labour required. Calves start to produce extreme muscle from the age of 4-6 weeks old. Belgian
Blue produces beef as pure breed or used as ternimal sire for crossing.
Concerning meat quality, fat content and shear force of steak is lower compared to some other beef breeds. Its
beef is less marbled than the „average”. Less marbling resulted in less tender beef. The lower shear force of
meat could be the consequence of large number of smaller muscle fiber, which is characteristics of myostatin
mutation.
The mutation, which has occurred in the myostatin gene causes increased muscle growth. The protein myostatin
plays significant role in muscle growth inhibition. This gene has also some contribution to fat deposition. As the
consequence of the mutation the gene shows disfunction that is resulted in accelerated muscle growth.
Feed conversion ratio of Belgian Blue is superior, due to the altered body composition. Low fat deposition and
increased protein production in muscle tissues requires less feed compared to fatty beef. Intensive gain, lean
meat and normal bone system of Belgian Blue makes the breed to become an excellent carcass breed, great meat
to bone and meat to fat ratio.
Low fiber content diet is fed to the animals as high protein and energy is needed during the fattening period.
The decreased fat deposition of bulls has caused a shift for slaughtering, thus weight at slaughter is larger than
most of the other breeds.
Belgian Blue cattle has: double muscling, muscle hypertrophy, excellent temperament, excellent carcass,
capacity for young meat development, high feed efficiency for fattening.
3.19. ábra - Figure 3.19 Belgian Blue bull
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3.20. ábra - Figure 3.20 Belgian Blue cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Blonde D’ Aquitanie
Blonde D’ Aquitanie is a French beef breed, originated from Aquitanie district in southwest of France. There are
three strains involved in the breed, such as Garonnais, Quercy and Blonde des Pyrenees. These type of cattle
were three purpose at the beginning, used for meat, milk and draft. When Blondes were improved as a beef type,
Limousin, Charolais and Shorthorn breeds were used for crossing, but breeders made selection later to the
original type. The first Blonde D’ Aquitanie herdbook started in the 1960s and the first animals were exported to
the USA in 1972.
Blondes have white to tan coloured hair, generally light, short hair. In crosses colour of Blondes is typically
recessive (Figure 3.21, 3.22). There are polled and horned animals as well. Horns are light colour and derker at
the tip. Profitabliy Blonde production is a result of a long period of breeding efforts.
Blondes a large, heavy, lean meat producer breed showing intensive gaining. Weight at weaning is an excellence
of the breed, even on high yield pastures. There are less problems with calving. Easier calving was the aim of
breeding programme to bred for longer and leaner animals at birth. Blondes are fine-boned cattle. Calves start to
show intensive muscle production form the age of four to six weeks of age.
These cattle are adaptable to different conditions, its characteristics as muscle to move skin independently on a
certain places of body, light colour, possibility for intensive sweating helps Blondes to live and produce
efficiently in wide range of environmental conditions, from Canada to Tropics.
Good carcass yield and lean red meat, that one is tender and marbled, is produced by Blondes. There is a
significant contribution of the long body of Blondes on meat production. Its efficient feed conversion is partly
due to the breed’s less external fat production and fine bone structure. Daily gain of Blondes is in some cases
lower than other modern beef breeds, but it is compensated by carcass yield.
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Advanteges of Blonde D’ Aquitaine breeding: intensive growth, beef production, good carcass, calm, easy to
handle, heat tolerant, good feed conversion ratio, ease of calving.
3.21. ábra - Figure 3.21 Blonde D’ Aquitaine cow
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.22. ábra - Figure 3.22 Blonde D’ Aquitaine bull
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Brahman
Brahman is the sacred cattle of India, originated from India. Brahman is a Bos indicus breed. Most of the
advantages of this breed are not achieved by improvement and selection of breeders but the environment. These
harsh, extreme conditions were extreme weather of India, pests, parasites, quality and quantity of feed. These
characteristics of Brahman started to generate the first overseas transport of animals. The majority of Brahman
cattle were used for crossing and only a few stocks were bred as pure bred.
Three strains of Brahman cattle were imported to the United States: Guzerat, Nelore and Gir. Guzerat had the
most popularity and the Brahman in USA at present is similar to this type.
Brahman is used for beef crossbreeding in several countries; European breeds are used in tropics as Brahman
blood contributed to these breeds.
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Some modern synthetic breeds were developed with crossing Brahman and other breeds, these are Braford,
Brangus, BeefMaster.
There are some characteristics, those are typical to the breed. Head, shoulder and neck are these parts of the
body (Figure 3.23, 3.24). A loose flap on skin hanging from the neck, it has long ears and there is a large boils
over the top of the shoulder. Loose skin gives the ability to enlarge the surface of body to cool it in hot climate.
It is also helped by increased number of sweat glands. Most of the Brahmans are horned but some strains are
polled. Bulls are intermediate in size (weight) they are about 1000 kgs, cows 500 to 700 kg.
Colour of the animals are from light grey to almost black but they can be red coloured as well. Some parts are
black, such as hooves, tip of ears, nose, a part of tail.
The average daily gain and weaning weight of calves are similar to other beef breeds. Brahman beef is popular
and there is a demand on market. These cattle are hardy, adaptable, intelligent, shy, docile. They are easy to
handle but kind handling is needed. Its reproductive traits are good, good mothers. Carcass, dressing percentage
is very good.
Brahman cattle is: heat tolerant compared to European cattle, good dressing percentage, longevity, intelligent,
shy, hardy and adaptable to a wide range of feed and climate.
3.23. ábra - Figure 3.23 Brahman
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.24. ábra - Figure 3.24 Brahman bull
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Charolais
Charolais is a French breed, originated from province Charolles in France. At the beginning charolais cattle was
a three purpose breed, used for meat, milk and draft. There are no data in details about the exact origin or when
the improvement of original cattle was started. White cattle, in south eastern France, was first mentioned in 878.
The white cattle remained for a long time only in its region, as late as in 1773 the spred has started but only in
France. The international export of Charolais has been started since the end of Second World War. The first
herdbook was established in 1864. The breeding aim was to improve a strong, heavily muscled beef cattle. Its
draft power was essential so strong bones were achieved. They selected for large size and high daily gain.
Nowadays, purebred stocks and its use in crossbreeding programmes are also common. The import to the United
States has begun because breeders were looking for larger and heavier cattle than the British breeds. Its light
colour helps to produce charolais in warm weather.
Charolais is a white, cream colour breed with a pink muzzle (Figure 3.25, 3.26). It is a horned, large breed with
long, broad and deep body. Naturally polled stocks can be found as well. The loins are large, produce a lot of
meat. Charolais is a late maturated breed with good feed conversion ratio, fast growth. Late maturation ensures
for breeders the large finishing weight. It is a calm, docile breed, easy to handle.
Charolais cattle: intensive growth and uniformity,late maturation, tremendous muscling and conformity, easy to
handle, good temperament, adaptable to extensive and intensive systems as well.
3.25. ábra - Figure 3.25 Charolais cow and calf
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.26. ábra - Figure 3.26 Charolais bull
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Chianina
Chianina is originated from Italy, primarily from the west centrl part of the country. Chianina is one of the
oldest cattle breed in the world. It can be found in roman sculptures and poets as Vergil and Columella wrote
about this cattle. The name of the breed refers to Chiana Valley in Tuscana in Central Italy. The phenotye of the
breed varied by region of origin in Italy, it has determined the size of the strain.
Chianina was exported to the United States in the programme of artificial insemination in 1971. It has
significant contribution in the improvement of Podolian breeds, such as Maremanna, Romagnola, Marchigiana.
This large breed has outstanding characteristics thus it is used as a terminal bull.
Chianina is a light coloured breed with short hir, colour varies from white to light grey (steel) (Figure 3.27).
Some dark colur can be found on the body, these are black tongue, nose, eye area and switch. It is the largest
cattle breed in the world. The cows are 150-160 cm tall, bulls are 160-180 cm tall at the withers. Legs are long,
much longer than the average of beef breeds. The breed is horned, horn is curve and short.
Chianina has an excellent growth rate, large muscles on the shoulders, back and rear quarters. Chianina
produces lean meat, but it is marbled, quality is outstanding. These cattle are good foragers with high carcass
yield.
Chianina cattle is famous for its: ideal as a terminal sire for beef, calving problems are rare - fine, small head,
high heat tolerance, hybrid vigour, resistance to disease and parasites.
3.27. ábra - Figure 3.27 Chianina bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Galloway
Galloway is a breed of Scotland from Galloway region, one of the oldest beef cattle breed. The origin of its
name refers to the word Gaul, who was the first inhabitants on that part of Scotland. That Scottish cattle was
dark coloured with wavy hair. Majority of Galloway cattle were black, but other colour varieties appeared, these
were red, brown, brindles.
At present there are Galloway phenotypes: Belted Galloway and White Galloway (Figure 3.28, 3.29).
Its hair is wavy and long. The coat is dual, the outer is coarse, the inner is soft and it is like a fur.Galloway is a
maternal beef breed. There are no calving problems, calves are vigorous and hardy. Long productive life is a
characteristic of the breed.
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Galloways are docile, hardy and robust animals. Cows defend against predators; they prevent their calves and
team up if there is a threat. There are legend how Galloways prevent any danger.
It is a medium size breed, cows are 500-700 kg, bulls are 800 to 1100 kg. Its beef is marbled and lean. There is
no thick subcutan fat, because of the douple, well insulated hair coat.
Galloway produces on grassland, a high variety of plant species are grazed, more than an „average” breed. It is
an advantage that no need grains for finishing, consequently produces beef at low cost that one is due to its
excellent grazing ability.
Galloway breed has traits: a maternal beef breed, developed for harsh environment, easy calvers and vigorous
calves, grass fed, juicy, tender, flavoursome beef, produces lean but well marbled beef, graze a lot of plant
species.
3.28. ábra - Figure 3.28 Galloway bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.29. ábra - Figure 3.29 Galloway cow and calf
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Hereford
Hereford cattle is originated from Herefordshire in England. It is the descendent of red cattle of roman Briton
and of a larger breed from Wales. The history of the breed goes back to the early 1600s. The breeders of County
Herefordshire made a decision to improve a cattle which efficiently produces high yield of bee fon grass. At
those time there was no cattle to achieve this aim. This was and today this is the most important characteristic of
the breed. Hereford cattle were larger in the 1700s and 1800s than today. Weight of animals has decreased as
profitability, efficient productivity was most important and the new type better fit to it.
Export of Hereford has started in 1817 and continued to several countries of the world.
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It is the first English breed of which one was stated as a true breed.
Hereford is coloured from red-yellow to dark red, head and underline is white (Figure 3.30). There are horned
and polled Hereford as well. Horn is short and curved, most of the Hereford ishorned. Easily adapted to different
climates, withstands on cold and hot environment as well. Hereford produces high quality of beef with fast
growing. Its longevity provides the high number of offsprings and bulls to serve for several years. These cattle
are good foragers, intentsive gain on grass based feeding as well. Medium size breed, cows are 500-550 kg. It is
a beef type, valuable cuts are well developed: loin, back and hind quarters.
Hereford cattle have special characteristics: generally docile and fast growing, good beef quality and
carcass,vigor and foraging ability excellent, early maturation, longevity.
3.30. ábra - Figure 3.30 Hereford bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Limousin
Limousin has an old history, it is a breed from Central and South-West France. The agriculture of that region is
known as low productivity because of its poor soil fertility. In this environment man made the breed an
adaptable, sturdy, vigorous cattle. Draft was the main utilization that was followed by slaughter…..later it has
changed to the reverse. There were no any genetics from outside to make any influence on development of
French Limousin.
The first herdbook is dated to 1886 in France. Earlier, some breeders used crossings which one resulted larger
animals, but in that harsh, lack of resources conditions these cattle did not produce efficiently. All the breeders
selected the original Limousin and improved. They achieved a high quality carcass, in the middle of 1800,
Limousin carcass was better than some other beef breeds.
Today, Limousin is used in breeding programmes in the United States. They introduced a Limousin-Angus
hybrid, which fits to every kind of production systems. Limousin become one of the major contributor sof beef
industry. Presence of Limousin is growing in the United States and it is stated that this breed is an ideal
complement to English breeds.
Limousin cattle is a light red, golden red colour breed (Figure 3.31, 3.32). Light coloured part of the body is
inside the thigh, under the stomach. Black Limousins can be found, calves of these animals are light fawn or
brown and later changes to black when they are matured. It is a large breed, cows are about 650 kg, bull over
1000 kg.
Limousin is the „butcher’s breed”. Its carcass has a high proportion meat and low proportion bona and fat.
Killing out percentage is high, produces lean beef. It is an early maturating breed. Production is ensured by low
cost, feed conversion ratio is good, good foragers. Limousin cows have high fertility, good milking ability, ease
of calving and high conception rates.
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Limousin cattle: beef with a low proportion of bone and fat,its lean beef optimal for market, excellent
productivity at a low cost, good feed conversion ratio, early breeding.
3.31. ábra - Figure 3.31 Limousin
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.32. ábra - Figure 3.32 Limousin bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Lincoln Red
Lincoln Red is an English beef breed from Lincolnshire, north-east of England. The origin of its genetics is
dated to the Scandinavians, who invaded Britain in the 5th and 6th century and they carried Bos urus cattle with
them. The local Lincolnshire cattle were crossed with Cherry-red Durham and York Shorthorns to improve the
breed.
Lincoln Red was used for power, milk and beef at the beginning, later, in the middle of 20th century, beef
purpose and dairy type divided. Beef type become more and more important, most of the breeders improved
beef traits.
In the 1970’s and 1980’s the number of Lincoln Red decreased, to avoid the unprofitable production, a crossing
programme has started again. European breeds were used to increase valuable cut, lean beef.
Lincoln Red is a 100% polled breed for couple of decades. Colour is deep cherry red and the skin is pink
coloured. It is a hardy, medium or large-framed breed with rapid growth. Cows are about 650 kg, bulls are 9501000 kg. In general, bulls have masculine character.
Early maturation and calving ease are typical for Lincil Red. Cows produce adequate amount of milk. Its beef is
full of flavour, succulent, popular on market.
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Lincoln Red is a beef breed (Figure 3.33): maternal characteristics are excellent: hardy cows, ease of calving, lot
of milk produced, hardy breed, easy to handle, longevity, profitable fattening either intensively or extensively,
marbled beef.
3.33. ábra - Figure 3.33 Lincoln Red
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
Maine Anjou
Maine Anjou is the old name of the cattle called today as Rouge des Prés (Figure 3.34). This breed is a French
one, from north western part of France. The original name comes from the Maine and Anjou river valleys.
Maine Anjou has two different genetics, Durham cattle of England and Mancelle cattle of France were crossed
and these Durham-Mancelle cattle were efficient beef producers and become more and more popular in the
country. Breeders started to use the Maine Anjou name in 1909.
Mancelle cattle of France were a red coloured cattle with white spots. It was a large, fast growing, muscular type
of breed.
The coat colour of Rouge des Prés is similar to the original colour of Mancelle, these are red animals, white
spots on the head, belly, rear legs and tail. It is a large beef breed, bulls are about 1100 kg or more (to 1400 kg),
cows are 650-850 kg. Rouge des Prés is one of the largest French beef cattle. These cattle produce good dressing
out, large valuable cuts, animals are smooth muscled. Cows produces high amount of milk, the breed was
evolved as a dual-purpose one. These animals are adaptable to various climatic conditions, withstand to
extremes.
Rouge des Prés cattle have: excellent carcass, good feed conversion ratio, good mother: ease of calving, plenty
of milk, docility, good growth rate and frame.
3.34. ábra - Figure 3.34 Maine Anjou bull
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Marchigiana
Marchigiana is a beef cattle breed native to Italy. Its origin region is the Marche and surrounding provinces. The
genetics of Marchigiana is widely discussed, some document says the breed is dated to the 5th century, while
others agree that it is a relatively new breed and serves as an independent one since 1933.
The phenotype of these cattle reflects to a common origin with Chianina or Chianina genetics were crossed. The
cattle in Marche province lived in harsh environment with limited resources of high quality feed. This condition
contributed to a natural selection driven by feed conversion efficiency.
These animals are large bodied, muscular beef type with fine bone structure (Figure 3.35, 3.36). The colour is
grey to white with short hair. There are horned and polled stocks as well, horns are medium-sized and black at
the tips. Marchigiana is not as tall as Chianina cattle, because its shorter legs.
The improved breed produces good carcass, high value meat in buttock and thighs, and has efficient feed
conversion. Maternal traits as early maturation, ease of calving, fertility were included in selection over times as
well.
Marchigiana cattle is worth to be bred as: excellent maternal capabilities,hardiness, good performance on poor
feed and climate conditions, desease resistance, good feed conversion ratio, fast gain.
3.35. ábra - Figure 3.35 Marchigiana bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.36. ábra - Figure 3.36 Marchigiana cow
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Salers
Salers is a French breed, from Auvergne region of France. The name of the breed reflects to Salers, a small town
in the country. It is one of the oldest cattle breed, Salers type animals can be found on cave paintings for 710 000 years. Salers grown up on grassland with little amount of grains. The higher altitude, rocky and poor soil,
rough conditions made the breed hardy and robust.
Salers was a three-purpose breed for long time, animals were selected parallel for beef and milk and used as
power as well.
Salers cattle is dark mahagony red or black (Figure 3.37, 3.38). They can be horned and polled, polled animals
are red or black. The coat is thick and longer and curly in winter times. This coat made the breed resistent to
cold climates. They were used for draft in harsh conditions, which resulted in strong legs and hooves. Ease of
calving is due to calves with small head, long body. Calves are „wants to live”, vigorous, mortality of youngs is
smaller than other „average” breed. These animals are easy to handle, because they are calm, docile and
intelligent.
Cows have short gestation period and the anatomy of their pelvic area contributes to the fact that there are no
calving difficulties.
Salers is a breed of: genetically one of the purest breed, some farms use them for milk production – cheese, calm
and intelligent, easy calving, fertile breed.
3.37. ábra - Figure 3.37 Salers bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.38. ábra - Figure 3.38 Salers cow and calf
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Simmental
Simmental is an old Swiss breed, its history goes back to the Middle Ages. It is originated in Simme Valley,
Berner Oberland in Switzerland. Simmental is a popular, widely distributed cattle breed. Historical writings
refer to a cross of large German cattle and an indigenous breed in Switzerland. The first herdbook was
established in 1806 in Berne. In the old times Simmental was a large, red and white cattle with outstanding milk
production and good carcass. They were strong and used as animal power. It was a universal cattle that made its
popularity. Today, most of these cattle are kept in Europe, and the others can be found in each continent. This
proves its excellent adaptability.
Simmental name is a collection of names/breeds similar to each other. It is Fleckvieh in German language areas,
Montbeliard is a Simmental breed of France and there is their own Simmental breed in several European
countries.
European Simmentals are gold with white or red with white (Figure 3.39). The Simmental inthe United States is
black or red coloured. Polled and also horned animals can be found in the breed. This is a large bodied breed,
the weight of mature animals depends on the purpose of type, beef or dairy. Generally, cows are 700-800 kg,
bulls 1000-1300 kg.
Selection criteria for a dual purpose breed are the low cost of production both for meat and milk produced.
Simmental cattle have good grazing ability, efficient feed conversion ratio, good foragers. They have good
maternal characteristics, docility, vigour of calves, good milking.
Simmental produces lean beef, red, low fat meat, calves have large weaning weight, rapid growth and after
finidhing excellent carcass.
Simmental cattle are known for: large frame with heavily muscled, productivity: high fertility, short intervals
between calving, early maturity, ease of calving, longevity, good grazing ability.
3.39. ábra - Figure 3.39 Simmental cows
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Wagyu
Wagyu is a Japanese beef breed selected and improved for special production. The meaning of the word is
Japanese (Wa) cattle (gyu). In the old times, cattle in Japan was the source of power for rice cultivation. These
cattle were isolated and bred in populations without gene migration for several centuries. One century ago some
European breeds made contribution to Japanese cattle, such as Simmental, Devon, Shorthorn, Brown Swiss,
Holstein, Angus.
There are black and red Wagyu strains as well (Figure 3.40, 3.41). At present the Wagyu from Kobe region is
the well known Wagyu cattle. These animals are housed, breed and feed in a special way for special demand.
These are the tenderness and flavour of its meat. Its beef is a premium quality, the price is much higher than
beef of any other breeds. Beer is included in the feeding programme, especially in the hot summer season.
Other unique practice applied is the massage of animals, which makes the muscle soft.
Wagyu cattle is bred for its: calm temperament, special growing, beef is very tender and marbled, its beef is
superior in palatability, soft fat, large ribeye, calving ease.
3.40. ábra - Figure 3.40 Wagyu bull
Source: http://www.ansi.okstate.edu
3.41. ábra - Figure 3.41 Wagyu cow
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4. fejezet - 4. Genetics of Cattle
There are more and more molecular genetic tools implemented to analyse DNA of individuals. Using these tools
the efficiency of selection and breeding could be increased and the process accelerated. Cattle is appropriate to
carry out molecular genetic work for development, the high value of individuals, long generation interval, birth
usually one calf, trait of interest depends on the sex, progeny test needs long time and it is expensive.
1. 4. 1. Genetics of beef production
Molecular biology methods play important role in genetic improvement since they allow the identification of
polymorphisms of genes encoding proteins which have functions in metabolic pathways involved in
economically interesting traits.
Quantitatively inherited traits are often controlled by a great number of genes. Localization of Quantitative Trait
Loci (QTL) can be done by ulinkage disequilibrium or candidate gene analysis. ulinkage disequilibrium means
finding of non-random allele associations at different chromosome loci. Candidate genes are known for
biological functions related to the physiology of an important trait or a disease. These genes can encode proteins
with structural functions or a member in a regulatory or biochemical pathway affecting the expression of the
examined trait and can be tested as QTLs.
SNPs (Single Nucleotid Polymorphism) are found in candidate genes, those also can be used as molecular
markers of economically important traits. SNP is a variation in nucleotid sequence of DNA when a single base
in the DNA differs from the base at a certain position.
Beef quality traits
The meat quality parameters of beef, and especially its tenderness, depend to a great extent on post mortem
factors (proteolysis which degrades muscle proteins during the post-mortem ageing, pH, and temperature).
Nevertheless, meat attributes depend also directly on the muscle biology of animals, which is regulated by
genetic, nutritional and other environmentalfactors. The genetic components are significantas genetic
improvement is constant and cumulative when inherited to the next generations.
Tenderness
Meat tenderness is one of the most important factor of quality parameters for the consumer. Postmortem events
are the main determinants of tenderness. Tenderization is primarily a result of calpain-mediated degradation of
myofibrillar and cytoskeletal proteins.
Two enzymes–µ-calpain (CAPN1 gene) and its inhibitor the calpastatine (CAST gene)-responsible for this
process, both of them depend on the calcium ion concentration in the muscle. Markers in the CAPN1 and CAST
genes have been suggested as being associated with meat tenderness.
The CAPN1 gene has been mapped to the telomeric end of chromosome 29 encodes the cysteine protease µcalpain which initiates the proteolysis of myofibrillar proteins (remove the Z-disc from the myofibrils) during
post-mortem degradation of muscle. The regulation of enzyme activity has been correlated with variation in
meat tenderness.
Calpastatin is known as specific inhibitor of the calpain. The bovine CAST gene, mapped on chromosome 7, has
a relationship with a QTL for shear force and has been proposed as a candidate gene for this QTL. The amount
of the calpastatin in muscle indicates that the activity of calpain can be downregulated which could result
toughness in meat. The calpastatin activity might be a predictive marker to meat tenderness and variations in the
gene sequence has the potential to become a candidate marker which is associated with meat tenderness. The
large variability in meat tenderness could be reduced if animals could be selected based on this potential genetic
marker prior to slaughter.
The lysyl oxidase gene (LOX) is located on cattle chromosome 7,close to the CAST gene. This gene is
associated with variation in tenderness, because the lysyl oxidase enzyme involved in the formation of ulinks
between collagen fibers during the early stage of its synthesis.
Marbling / intramuscular fat
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Intramuscular fat content, also assessed as marbling of meat, represents an important beef quality trait.
Deposition of intramuscular fat in beef cattle contributes to meat quality variables, including tenderness and
flavour. The marbling is influenced by the genetic background of cattle, as well as their nutrition and age.
On the centromeric region of bovine chromosome 14 has been located a QTL with an effect on marbling. The
positional and functional candidate gene for this QTL is TG gene encodes thyroglobulin (TG),the precursor of
triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine (thyroid hormones), signals for fat cells development.
Genetic markers of FABP4 (fatty acid binding protein 4) gene are also significant association with intramuscular
fat content. Fatty acid binding proteins play an important role in the regulation of lipid and glucose metabolism.
The FABP4 gene falls into a QTL interval for beef intramuscular fat content that was also reported on bovine
chromosome 14, suggesting that it may be also an effective candidate gene.
The third candidate gene on this QTL (chromosome 14) is the diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1 gene (DGAT1)
encodes the catalyst enzyme of the reaction between diacylglycerol and acyl-CoA, this is a final step in the
synthesis of triglyceride. The DGAT1 enzyme regulates the rate of triglycerides in adipocytes and has been
participated in energy metabolism.
The leptin (LEP) gene is located on bovine chromosome 4, several SNPs have been identified in both introns
and exons of the leptin gene among different breeds of cattle, encodes a 16kDa peptide hormone, leptin, which
is synthesized and released from adipocytes in adipose tissue. Leptin plays central and peripheral role as a
lipostatic signal regulating whole-body energy metabolism, makes it one of the best physiological markers of
body weight and composition, energy expenditure, reproduction and certain immune system functions. The LEP
gene was hypothesised as a candidate gene influencing meat intramuscular fat related traits in beef cattle,
because leptin is located 3.6 kb upstream of the microsatellite locus BM1500, which is associated with fat
characteristcs in beef bulls.
SCD (Stearoyl CoA desaturase) enzyme activity has been shown to correlate with fatty acid composition of
bovine adipose tissue, because this enzyme is the key in the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA).
SCD gene is located on chromosome 26.
A previous study reported a correlation between polymorphisms in the GHR gene and marbling score, which is
a trait that is closely correlated to intramuscular fat content.
Colour, pH, juiciness, flavour, drip and cooking loss
For cattle breeding intentions, meat colour, pH, juiciness, flavour, drip and cooking losses are highly complex
traits because they cannot be measured in vivo. However, information obtained from molecular markers of these
traits can improve the genetic selection.
Meat colour is the main factor observed by consumers when purchasing the product, the intensity of the red
colour has a large effect on consumers. Diet, stress, husbandry system, and slaughter age have an effect on the
meat colour, but few studies report the influence of genetic factors in cattle. Meat colour development is a
function of ultimate pH. A higher level of acidity (low pH) within the muscle causes the proteins to denature
and lose their ability to hold water. Meat with high ultimate pH will tend also to be darker and have less flavour.
The biological processes supporting the connection between calpastatin activity and colour and water-holding
capacity traits could involve a ulink through Ca2+ ion concentration and muscle contraction rate. If calpastatin
has an influence on rate of glycolysis and pH decline, this could influence meat colour and water-holding
capacity.
The marker on the CAPN1 (µ-calpain) gene has dominant effects on red and yellow intensities of the meat and
it is significantly associated with pH.
PRKAG3 (5'-AMP-activated protein kinase subunit gamma-3) expression levels have been shown to correlate
significantly with flavour and juiciness in beef. The researchers have been reported some SNP in the porcine
gene to affect meat quality traits including ultimate pH, meat colour, water-holding capacity, drip loss,
tenderness and cooking loss. SNP (E2FB) on the leptin gene has additive and dominant effects on drip losses.
SCD (Stearoyl CoA desaturase) enzyme activity has been shown to correlate with fatty acid composition of
bovine adipose tissue, because this enzyme is the key in the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA).
Several colour parameters in muscle have been showed an association with different genotype of SCD gene that
suggests a potential ulink between IMF percentage and colour.
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Beef quantitative traits
Growth and carcass traits
Growth and carcass traits, which are under the control of more genes, are important traits in livestock. Selection
of animals with higher growth rate and better carcass composition is significance to breeders and consumers.
The growth hormone (GH) is secreted by the exocytosis of somatotrophs in the adenohypophysis, its effects on
growth and metabolism by interacting with a specific receptor (growth hormone receptor, GHR) of the target
cells (especially in the liver). Alterations in the functional regions of the GHR gene can affect its binding
capacity and therefore alter the activity of the GH in the target tissues. The process of GH binding to GHR is the
signal for a cascade of intracellular metabolic pathways and culminates in the production of IGF-I (insulin-like
growth factor 1) by the target tissues. Directly or indirectly, through the action of IGF-I, GH is the major
regulator of postnatal somatic growth, stimulating anabolic events such as cell division, skeletal growth and
protein synthesis. In addition, growth hormone plays a significant role in the regulation of fat oxidation, in the
inhibition of glucose transport to peripheral tissues, and in the regulation of the activity of ribosomes involved in
the translation process, which influences protein synthesis. These events have direct impact on the metabolism
of nutrient distribution to different tissues and consequently, in carcass composition. Thus, GH and GHR have
been suggested as candidate genes for traits related to meat production in beef cattle.
Other genes and QTLs can also influence the carcass traits. Pituitary-specific positive transcription factor 1 (Pit1 or POU1F1) was also examined as a genetic marker. It is a pituitary-specific transcription factor that is
responsible for pituitary development and hormone expression in mammals. In cattle, Pit-1 was found to be
associated with growth and carcass traits. It was shown to control transcription of the GH, prolactin, the thyroidstimulation hormone, β-subunit, the GHRH receptor genes, and the Pit-1 gene itself.
On chromosome 4 is located the QTL for hot carcass weight and postweaning average daily gain. The QTLs,
that influence milk production reproduction and growth and carcass traits, are located on chromosome 5. The
location of some of these QTLs approaches the position of the IGF-1 gene and, since IGF-1 plays a fundamental
role in regulation growth and development, this gene is considered a strong candidate for the QTL effect.
Myostatin
The muscular hypertrophy is a heritable condition, which is encoded as myostatin gene (also known as growth
differentiation factor 8) responsible for producing double-muscling that primarily results the enlargement of
individual muscle fibers (hypertrophy), relative to normal cattle. Double-muscled animal has leaner carcass than
that not double-muscled and exhibit greater muscle mass with less fat. The locus causing double-muscling is
located at the centromeric end of bovine chromosome 2. Five different myostatin mutations have been detected
segregating the double-muscle phenotype in cattle. In Piedmontese, myostatin sequence contains a missense
mutation in exon 3, there is a guanine-to-adenine transition causing a substitution of a critical tyrosine with a
cysteine in the mature region of the protein.
In Belgian Blue there is an 11-nucleotid deletion in the third exon of myostatin sequence causing a frameshift
and premature translational termination. Both mutations (in Piedmontese and in Belgian Blue) produce an
inactive myostatin protein. Beef cattle with a single copy of the inactivated myostatin gene had a greater muscle
mass and less fat than normal animals.
Feed intake and feed conversion
In beef cattle production, feed intake and feed conversion are economically important traits to beef cattle
producers because feed is the highest variable cost in beef production. It is a fact that an improvement in feed
efficiency can improve the overall beef production system efficiency.
The traditional method to identify genetic markers affecting the RFI (Residual Feed Intake) and FCR (Feed
Conversion Ratio) is to identify QTL in the genome. FCR is the ratio of feed intake to body weight gain and is
highly correlated to the growth of the animal. RFI is the difference between the actual feed intake of an animal
and its predicted feed intake based on growth and body weight of an animal.
The whole-genome association studies have identified QTLs throughout the bovine genome with effects on RFI
and FCR. QTL affecting RFI were found on bovine chromosome 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 16, 20 and 29. QTL
affecting FCR were found on bovine chromosome 9, 12, 16, 17 and 21. In additional, QTL of average daily gain
(ADG) has been identified on chromosome 9, 14, 15, 17.
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Heritability (Table 4.1) and correlation (Table 4.2) of meat traits
Heritability means the relationship between genetics and environment, so that as each changes, the variation
between individuals within a population can be estimated based on these influences. In this context,
environment represents everything external to the genome that could effect expression. A heritable trait is most
simply an offspring's trait that resembles the parents' corresponding trait.
4.1. táblázat - Table 4.1 Heritability (h2) estimates of cattle carcass and quality traits
Trait
Range h2
Fat thickness
0.30-0.60
Longissimus muscle area
0.05-0.60
Rib thickness
0.25-0.40
Bone weight
0.40-0.50
Marbling score
0.25-0.40
Carcass weight
0.20-0.40
Lean yield
0.35-0.65
Ultimate pH
0.20-0.40
Drip loss
0.25-0.35
Cooking loss
0.05-0.15
Calpastatin activity
0.35-0.50
Tenderness
0.10-0.50
Shear force
0.25-0.35
Lean colour
0.10-0.20
Juiciness
0.00-0.30
Source: Koots et al., 1994; Wulf et al., 1996; Splan et al., 1998; Kim et al. 1998
4.2. táblázat - Table 4.2 Correlation coefficients between carcass traits and meat quality
Traits
1
2
3
2
-0.02
3
0.01
-0.24
4
-0.01
-0.53
0.39
5
-0.20
-0.13
0.16
4
5
0.26
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6
0.35
-0.01
-0.10
-0.18
-0.74
7
0.06
0.18
-0.21
-0.26
0.12
-0.18
8
0.15
0.05
-0.14
-0.42
-0.08
0.13
-0.44
1=cold carcass weight; 2=cooking loss%; 3=tenderness, points; 4=juiciness, points; 5=muscle, %; 6=fat, %;
7=color, points 8=marbling, points.
Source: Pacheco et al., 2011
2. 4.2 Genetics of milk production
Several genes, gene polymophisms, QTL regions were discovered associated to milk production traits (Table
4.3). Selection efforts to improve this group of traits in dairy breeds achieved great progress in the last decades.
The dry matter cow milk consists of 4.7% lactose, 3.8-4.5% fat and 3.5-4.0% protein. Proteins in milk are
different types of caseins (80% of total protein content of milk), beta lactoglobulin, alpha lactalbumin,
lactoferrin and several minor proteins.
4.3. táblázat - Table 4.3 Genes involved in milk production traits and those have
significant effect on animal performance and/or product quality
Gene
Short name
ATP-binding cassette, sub-family G (WHITE), member 2
ABCG2
ATP citrate lyase
ACLY
ATPase, Ca++ transporting, plasma membrane 2
ATP2B2
Major histocompatibility complex, class II, DRB3
BoLA-DRB3
UDP-Gal:betaGlcNAc beta 1,4- galactosyltransferase, polypeptide 1
B4GALT1
Butyrophilin, subfamily 1, member A1
BTN1A1
Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 20
CCL2
Casein alpha s1
CSN1S1
Casein alpha s2
CSN1S2
Casein beta
CSN2
Casein kappa
CSN3
Diacylglycerol O-acyltransferase 1
DGAT1
Epidermal growth factor (beta urogastrone)
EGF
Growth hormone receptor
GHR
Inhibitor of DNA binding 2, dominant negative helix-loop-helix protein
ID2
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Potassium channel, subfamily K, member 1
KCNK1
Lactalbumin, alpha
LALBA
Leptin
LEP
Lactoglobulin, beta
LGB
Lactoferrin
LTF
Milk fat globule-EGF factor 8 protein
MFGE8
Non-metastatic cells 1, protein (NM23A) expressed in
NME1
Prolactin
PRL
Parathyroid hormone-like peptide
PTHLH
RAR-related orphan receptor alpha
RORA
Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5A
STAT5A
Transformation related protein 53
TP53
Xanthine dehydrogenase
XDH
Source: Ogorevc et al., 2009
The proportion of genetic variance of milking traits on different regions (chromosome) are listed as follows:
milk yield is 6.2%, 14.7%, 7.1%, 4.1% on chromosome 7, 14, 20, 26 respectively; fat yield is 4.9%, 4.7%,
10.3%, 3.3% 5.3%, 6.5% on chromosome 6, 7, 14, 19 , 20, 26 respectively; protein yield is 3.1%, 4.7%, 9.1%,
4.2%, 5.8% on chromosome 6, 7, 14, 20,26 respectively; fat content is 4.3%, 35.5%, 3.5%, 8.0% on
chromosome 6, 14, 19, 20 respectively; protein content is 5.8%, 10.4%, 8.7%, 13.7% on chromosome 3, 6, 14,
20 respectively.
Milk protein genes
Caseins
Caseins have the highest m/m% proteins in milk, these are αs1, αs2, β and κ caseins. The proportion of caseins
in milk as follows:
- α-casein 50-55%
- β-casein 30-35%
- κ-casein 10-20%
These froms are found on BTA chromosome 6, within a range of sequence 250 kb. These can be found in casein
micelles with calcium, most of the caseins are calcium sensitive, these ones precipitate at low Ca concentration,
the only exception the κ casein, as it remains still in solution if calcium concentration increases. Beside calcium,
magnesium and phosphate is bond to the micelles, and these ions and micelles form an interaction which results
the milk a white colour.
Casein molecule is linear, composed by bipolar lipophilic and hydrophilic amino acids, thus its emulsification
ability is excellent.
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Casein genes are not conservative, there are a lot of mutations in the gene sequence, differences are large
between species and silent and non-silent mutations are found as well. β casein is the most polymorphic milk
protein gene as it has 13 variants.
Effect of casein haplotypes on milk traits were reported, factors influenced are fat content of milk, protein yield,
fat yield, milk yield of different breeds.
α-lactalbumin
Alpha lactalbumin is a protein in milk in a concenztration of 1 gram per liter. It binds to calcium and zinc as
serve as a bactericid agent in the milk. α-lactalbumin is active in lactose synthesis, as the protein is the
regulatory subunit of lactose synthase and with β-1,4-galactosyltransferase forms the lactose synthase complex.
The amino acid sequence of α-lactalbumin slightly differs from c-type lysozymes that refer to a common origin.
Polymorphism study showed α-lactalbumin genotypes have effect on milk yield, protein kg, milk fat kg, protein
%, fat %. BB animals have higher percentage values (milk protein, milk fat), in contrast to AA homozygous
animals which produce more quantities. Highest differences between mutant and non mutant alleles can be
found in case of intensive production dairy stock.
β-lactoglobulin
β-lactoglobulin (BLG) is also a whey protein in milk, its concentration is about three times higher than alphalactalbumin, thus it is the major whey protein, it constitutes half of the total whey protein.
It belongs to the lipocalin superfamily, and this molecule binds to hydrophobic molecules, that suggest a role in
transport mechanism. Beta-lactoglobulin binds retinol and may provide this retinol to the offspring by milk
ingestion, but this theory is not completely proved, but it is known that BLG binds several types of ligands. The
function could be that BLG is a food for neonatals, basically it is a source of amino acids.
β-lactoglobulin gene is mapped to the chromosome 11 in cattle and goat and to the chromosome 3 in sheep.
β-lactoglobulin-like pseudogene was found on the same chromosome as BLG, that has a similar number of
bases and the same number of exons.
One of the first role of β-lactoglobulin polymorphism in animal production was its significant influence of
cheese yield. Some studies reported associations to reproduction traits of β-lactoglobulin variant, but some did
not prove it. The effect of SNP in BLG on milk yield is still not well-known. Some studies did not find
associations with investigated trait, others found but in some cases AA animals produce higher yield, while in
another breed BB cows were better. The influence on milk total protein content, casein content, fat content were
reported as well.
Lactoferrin
Lactoferrin is a transferrin protein, which is an iron-binding glycoprotein. Lactoferrin has bactericid effect. The
unique of lactoferrin is ability to bind iron, which also utilized by several pathogens, this phenomen is called
„alimentary immunity”. It is an antioxidant, fungicid, anti-inflammatory protein, it regulates cytokines, those are
responsible for inflammation. An other benefit of latoferrin that it stimulates phagocytosis, which act also a
defend against pathogens.
It has a large gene, transcriptional unit is about 34.5 kb, it was mapped on the bovine chromosome 22.
Its role in immune system/infection of pathogens was found on gene variants, AA genotype animals had lower
somatic cell counts. It shows that this protein prevents mastitis in dairy cows, others studies has strenghten this
findings and significant association was reported between lactoferrin genotype and occurence of mastitis. The
infected areas have higher lactoferrin concentration than others, this lactoferrin expression could reach as high
as 30-fold increase.
3. 4.3 Genetics of reproduction
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Reproduction is a complex trait with many components. The antagonistic relationship between reproduction and
production at the gene level may be explained by pleiotropic gene effects, ulinkage, or further complex
physiological associations.
Most important traits of cattle reproduction are conception rate, calving interval, early maturation, services per
conception, weight of calves at birth. Age at first calving is important because untill the birth of the first calf the
life of the heifer is inproductive, the first product to compensate the cost of heifer rearing is the calf. The
interval between two calvings is crucial for beer and dairy production as well, the shorter the better. For beef
stock, calf is the only product of cows, for dairy cows, the long calving interval mean higher total milk
production per lactation but it prolongs the low daily yield last phase of lactation. The genetic factor of these
traits is generally less significant than the influence of environment, the heritability value is about 0.1-0.3 (Table
4.4), that also reflects to the usefulness of selection efforts.
4.4. táblázat - Table 4.4 Heritability (h2) of reproduction traits in beef cattle
Trait
heritability
Age at first calving
0.10-0.45
Calving rate
0.10-0.20
Calving success
0.05-0.10
Days to calving
0.05-0.10
Number of calves
0.10-0.40
Pregnancy rate
0.10-0.30
Probability of pregnancy
0.10-0.60
Twinning rate
0.05-0.10
Birth weight
0.25-0.50
Source: Gutiérrez et al., 2002; Meyer et al., 1990; Minick Bormann et al., 2006
Fertility of bulls
Optimized male fertility can help the selection of bulls with a high semen quality, increase the rate of successful
fertilization.
Spermatogenesis is a complex process of male germ cell proliferation and differentiation, it is affected by
hormones (growth hormone, GH) and growth factors such as insulin-like growth factors I and II (IGF-I and II).
Research showed widespread distribution of the growth hormone receptor and its binding proteins. The activity
of GH is partly mediated by IGF-I, which has been demonstrated in bovine seminal plasma.
Genetic correlations among semen production and quality traits showed a negative relationship between semen
volume and concentration and a favourable relationship between semen concentration and most quality traits.
The most important candidate genes for bull fertility are TNP1, CRISP2, PRND, TNFa, CATSPER2, CNGA3,
STAT5A.
Abortion
Several genes and its SNPs can influence the embryonic survival (GHR, PRLR, STAT5A, andFGF2). STAT5A
(Signal transducer and activator of transcription 5A) is associated with 2 mechanisms of embryo death: a
prefertilization mechanism involving sperm factors that cause low fertilization rate, and a postfertilization
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mechanism that causes incompatibility between the male pronucleus and the oocyte, which in turn leads to death
of the embryo. So, STAT5A was chosen as a candidate gene for early embryonic survival which has a key role in
the initiation and maintenance of pregnancy in ruminants.
The embryonic survival and fertilization rate are influenced in cattle by the fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2)
gene. Bovine FGF2 has been mapped to chromosome 6, with 3 exons. FGF2 is expressed by the endometrium
throughout the estrous cycle and early pregnancy, one of the SNPs of the gene is associated with a significant
decrease in embryonic survival.
Calving ease
Calving traits are complex since they are influenced by the size of the calf as well as the pelvic dimensions of
dam. Calving traits have huge economic importance due to veterinary treatment costs, calf loss and lower
production of cows affected by dystocia.
Several genes influence the calving ease: PLAG1, MOS, CHCHD7, RDHE2, RPS20, LYN, TGS1, PENK were
identified as functional candidate genes for the paternal calving ease QTL on bovine chromosome 14 and three
significant QTL were identified on chromosome 20 which also influence the calving ease.
Birth weight
Birth weight is the valid indicator of body weight of mature animals. The correlation of birth weight and mature
body weight is high, so from the birth weight is predictable the mature body weight of animals. Allelic
variations of bovine growth hormone gene (GH) have been reported to be associated with also reproductive
traits. Association of candidate gene with economic traits will help the researchers to find some genetic marker
for economic traits. QTLs for birth weight were detected in the 70 to 110 cM interval on chromosome 5 and on
telomeric end of chromosome 2.
Calf birth weight is the most significant factor affecting dystocia (calving difficulty). Effects of dystocia are
really wide; this includes many aspects of calf production, including death of calves and cows, increased disease
tendency, and lower calf weaning weights. In addition, cows surviving dystocia exhibit longer postpartum
intervals, decreased milk production, and lower conception rates. Two QTL region on bovine chromosome 6
have direct effect on dystocia. Some studies have found a higher correlation between birth weight and calving
difficulty than between birth weight and yearling weight. Heritability of the birth weight is range from 0.25 to
0.50. The strong positive genetic correlation between the birth weight and yearling weight indicates that bulls
selected for increased postnatal growth potential may be expected to also sire calves having greater birth weight,
resulting in increased risk of dystocia.
Twinning
Twinning is a complex trait that is associated with as abortion, dystocia, reduced birth weights, and reduced
neonatal calf survival. Twinning rate in cattle is likely to be inherited as quantitative trait, controlled by many
genes modified by environmental factors. Heritability of twinning rate is low (h2= 0.09), and application of
genetic markers of twinning application is useful in reducing twinning rate. Twinning or ovulation rate QTL has
been identified on bovine chromosome 5, 7, 19, 23. The correlation between ovulation rate and twinning rate is
high (0.80 - 0.90), consequentlyit can be expected that the QTL for ovulation rate is the QTL orit is connected
tothe QTL for twinning rate.
4. 4.4 Genetics of disease resistance
Health status of cattle, occurence of diseases have significant impact on animal production. If animals are sick,
both for beef and dairy stock, the intensity of production is decreasedor the animals are out of production for a
certain period of time. Veterinary costs are also added to the production cost.
Man use selection for increase productivity of animals, this activity is successful for all kind of purposes. In
contrast to artificial selection, natural selection is made by nature and contributes to achieve disease resistance.
In some cases human selection disappears the results of natural selection for disease resistance. The problem
occurs when disease resistance is an attribute of cattle, those are not excellent in production. Several studies
revealed inthe findings of breeds, stocks which can be used as genetic resource for breeding, crossing
programmes to improve resistance.
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Mastitis
The occurence of mastitis in a dairy cow has worsen the economics of milk production. The estimated economic
loss due to mastitis can reach the amount of one hundred to two hundreds of USD. The heritability of mastitis is
generally low, mastitis incidence has heritability about 0.05 and h square for somatic cell count is only a slightly
higher, as about 0.1. Mastitis is monitored by somatic cell scores of milk, which one is measured routinely. The
correlation between mastitis and soamtic cell score is above 0.7. Unfortunately there is a correlation between
incidence of mastitis and high milk production.
The investigation of markers in connection to mastitis-causing pathogens is important for breeding against
occurence of mastitis. The characteristics of udder influence the invasion of pathogens. These are the length of
teat canals, diameters of canals. These factors determine the milking speed, the problem that good milkers are
the animals more susceptible to mastitis, pathogen infection. An other phenomen is that fast milkers tend to be
the high yield milkers, but this correlation is weaker than correlation of mastitis and the mentioned anatomy
traits. Well attached udder decreases the occurence of further udder problems, those may lead to infection and
ensures long productive life.
Mastitis is correlated to other traits, which means that mastitis is indirectly influenced by genes, those are
responsible for not immune system, but reproduction and longevity. Lower resistance to mastitis correlates to
poor fertility. Long calving interval, worse conception index, higher number of days to first service is associated
to more frequent occurence of mastitis.
Some studies found weak to medium corrleation between clinical mastitis and longevity.
Major histocompability complex genes are investigated as markers for occurence of mastitis. This
immunological attempt revealed associations with major histocompability complex class I type and class II type
and mastitis, but there are studies reported no associations between genes and infection.
Other genes, which onesmay have a role are IgG2 isotype, non-MHC leucocyte antigens.
Candidate genes are listed in the table below, which role was proved in more than one study, where the
approach was association search, expression study and/or the gene is inside a QTL region that was associated to
mastitis: actin beta, BoLA-DRB3, Complement component 5a receptor 1, hepatocyte growth factor,
haptoglobin, interleukin 6, interleukin 8, interleukin 12b, lipopolysaccharide binding protein, lactoferrin, nuclear
factor of kappa light polypeptide, protein kinase, DNA activated, catalytic polypeptide, serum amyloid A3, tolllike receptor 2, toll-like receptor 4, tumor necrosis factor, alpha-induced protein 3.
Bovine leucosis
Bovine leucosis caused by a virus, occured in adult cattle. The infected young animals did not show any signs of
disease, later it can cause persistent lymphocytosis. The virus is an exogenous C-type oncovirus belongs to
Retroviridae. There is no treatment for the disease, but there are ways to decrease the occurence in a country or
eradicate the virus. If the prevalence of infection is high in a country, it is high cost to slaughter all the
seropositive animals.
The transfer of infected lymphocytes makes the other animal to be infected. It makes a permanent antibody
response, and sometimes lymphocytosis, lymphosarcoma.The number of B-lymphocytes is increased and in
some cases lymphoma is formed in lymph nodes after a long time of subclinical phase. The virus is associated to
enzootic bovine leukosis, that one is the most common neoplastic disease in cattle.
Bovine leucosis cause a large economic loss in several countries, prevalence is between some percent to almost
100 percent on farm and country level as well. The bovine leukemia virus declines milk and fat yields in dairy
stocks.
Susceptibility to bovine leucosis is depends on genetic factors is known for a long time. Association is found for
bovine lymphocyte antigen. Bovine lymphocyte antigen class I types and class II types are used in further
analyses. Both BoLA-DRB2 and BoLA-DRB3 genes are associated for the disease. Mutations in the sequence
of BoLA-DRB2 and BoLA-DRB3 are associated to persistent lymphocytosis in some studies.
Brucellosis
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Brucella abortus is the bacteria which infect the animals, but in some cases Brucella suis and Brucella melitensis
are responsible for the disease. Brucella bacteria causes abortions, but resistant cows do not abort. The problem,
that Brucella can spread rapidly in a population, there are several ways for infection. Source can be the feeding
of contaminated feedstuffs and water, which one is more significant in a shaded place as the bacteria cannot
survive in direct sunlight. Artificial insemination may cause transmission of bacteria if the semen is infected by
Brucella. Other ways could be through wounds or mucous membranes.
Vaccination of animals using Brucella abortus strains decrease the incidence of brucellosis, but the focus should
be on prevention. The most important for eradication to avoid new comers to the stock. A herd is free from
Brucellosis if more than one test is negative for each animal.
Some decades ago breeders found some cattle are resistant to brucellosis and the majority not. Experiments were
conducted to estimate the heritability of variation in brucellosis resistance and evidence was found for the
genetic background.
Anti-LPS immunoglobulin G2a were found to be associated to the disease, the frequency of A allotype was
higher in susceptible animals.
NrampI gene polymorphism also influences the resistance to brucellosis. NrampI gene belongs to the group of
genes play active role in metal ion-transpoting. It is found in cattle and bacteria as well, both uses the same
sources, compete for each other and try to use the essential cations. Protein derived from NrampI prevents
microbial activity as blocks the nutrients which are essential for microbial proliferation.
Dermatophilosis
Dermatophilosis is caused by a bacteria species: Dermatophilus congolensis. The bacteria causes a skin
infection, it could be limited to a certain part of the body or in severe form the whole are is affected. Symptoms
are skin lesions and in some cases, if the animals are untreated in death. The occurence and the economical
consequences are significant in hot tropical, humid climate.
The genetic of resistance to dermmatophilosis was proved and genes were tested for this economic value trait.
The bovine lymphocyte antigen DRB3 gene have mutations in exon 2 which have strong association with
dermatophilosos resistance. The gene polymorphism of bovine lymphocyte antigen A8 class I type is also
correlates to resistance but the association is found to be weaker.
Trypanosomiasis
The disease is transmitted by tsetse flies, and it is caused by Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma vivax
and Trypanosoma congolense, which haemoprotozoa species belongs to the order Kinetoplastida.
Most of the infection is derived from the bite of tsetse flies, as they are in the saliva of flies, but minor part if
infection is due to mechanical transmission. Syptoms are weight loss of animals, abortion, anaemia,
lymphadenopathy, in most severe form it can cause death of cattle.The incubation period is from some days to
eight weeks. In several countries, the disease is responsible for a huge economic loss in cattle industry.
The control of occurence of disease is very difficult, there are no effective means on large scale. The immune
response of animals is not able to completely eliminate Trypanosoma, that means some animals have no
symptoms but carriers of disease. The control of tsetse flies, antiparasitic drugs, the raise resistant breeds are the
possibilities to decrease the loss. Unfortunately, there are no vaccines for trypanosomiasis.
Animals resistant to trypanosomiasis are called trypotolerant. The first animals found to be trypanotolerant are
West African cattle. These are Bos taurus cattle, while Bos indicus ones are most susceptible. The APOL1 gene
gives resistance against Trypanosoma, but this gene can be found only in humans and primates. The APOL1
protein is lethal to Trypanosoma, a project is focusing on the indroduction the APOL1 gene into cattle genome
and the first stock is expected to born in 2013.
Helminthiasis
Helminthic infection is an endoparasite infection, which is located in the gastro-intestinal system of cattle. The
economic loss of helminth infection varies from lower weight gain, loss of weight, reduced fecundity, delayed
productivity, increased susceptibility to secondary infection, no any change in production to death of animals.
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The way of infection is through the ingestion of feed. The forage is contaminated by larvae, the host animal
dissiminates pre-infective stages of helminth on grassland or other feed source.
Helminthiasis is influenced by the age of animal, most of the infected animals are calves and adults seem to be
less susceptible. The heritability of resistance measured as faecal egg output is estimated for calves before
weaning as low as about 0.05, the situation is much more better after weaning as heritability rises to 0.3-0.6. The
sex of animals has also a significant role in disease as usually helminth infection is higher in bulls, but probably
it is due to the improper management of males.
Some breeds seem to be more resistant to helminths than others, season also show some influencing effects.
Selection programmes for decreasing helminthic infection shows significant progress, which reflects to the
genetic background of problem.
Serum antibody concentration is associated to disease and it may have a role in the development of resistance. It
is suggested that a few number of genes involved in the parasite resistance of host system. BoLA class I type is
found to be associated to faecal egg output as a signal of helminth infection.
Tick resistance
External parasities of livestock are the subject of several studies as ticks have negative impact on reproduction,
weight gain or weight loss of individuals, milk yield, makes damage on leather or such a basic factor as survival
rate. These blood-feeding parasities directly directly decreases production efficiency, nevertheless indirectly
serves as a vector for viruses, bacteria and protozoa diseases.
Several tick species makes problem for breeders, these are Amblyomma americanum, Amblyomma hebraeum,
Amblyomma variegatum, Boophilus microplus, Boophilus decoloratus, Haemphysalis longicornis,
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, Ixodes rubicundus.
Tick resistance shows a high heritability and breeders achieve quick improvements. Selection of animals for tick
resistance could be increased by more than 10 percent in three generations if the most of the original stock was
non-resistant.
There is a difference between Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle in resistance to external parasities, which one is
the fact for internal parasities as well.Zebu, as Bos indicus cattle is more resistant. A seasonal fluctuation is
resistance was also found.
The susceptibility is measured as number of ticks on the animal. This trait was found to be inherited, heritability
is estimated for 0.3-0.4.The heritability of trait and the segregation of populations in resistance reflects that
susceptibility/resistance of tick is coded in a few number of genes.
Interferon gamma gene polymorphism is associated to tick resistance in cattle. Some polymorphisms were
identified and more than one were in correlation with the investigated trait. Interferon gamma gene plays a role
in innate and adaptive immunity as well.
A quantitative trait loci mapping study revealed in six QTL regions on chromosome 2, 5, 10, 11, 23 and 27
those are strongly associated to tick resistance. Other studies found markers on chromosome BTA 4, 7, 14, 18
and 23.
Potential role of interleukins was found as microsatellite markers in the region of interleukin 4 are associated to
resistance, interleukin 2 is down regulated when animals are challenged to ticks and in resistant cows interleukin
8 is also down regulated. The cytokine interleukin 2 acts in proliferation and differentiation of T cells,
interleukin 4 induces differentiation of Th0 cells to Th2 cells, interleukin 8 is a chemo-attractant for monocytes
and leukocytes to the place of infection.
5. 4.5 Marker Assisted Selection
Marker Assisted selection is very useful and beneficial when a trait is complicated to be measured or cannot be
measured, these are traits connected to sex, not expressed, sample collection is difficult and/or invasive.
A huge amount of DNA data of individuals are created by 50K SNP chip and 770K SNP chip as well. 50K
reflects to genotyping for 50,000 single nucleotide polymorphism, 770K means ~770,000 SNPs. These SNP
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panels are expensive for routine analyses, but it should be noted that the cost for one SNP is lower than ever.
There is a demand and interest in developing low density DNA SNP panels for low cost. Low density panels are
efficient for traits those are influenced by not a large number of genes.
The number of SNP involved determines the correlation between molecular breeding values (MBV) and
investigated trait. Table below (Table 4.5) shows the dairy lifetime net merit estimated by DNA mutations. The
SNPs involved in the study were selected as SNPs of the largest effect or equally spaced on chromosome.
Animals were bulls (rPT_All), bulls with genotyped sires (rPT_Sire), and bulls without sire genotype data
(rFT_NoSire).
The correlation between progeny test data and SNP results were higher using more SNPs, the range was
between 0.253 and 0.612. SNPs of largest effect are better to predict the trait, differences between SNP selection
methods are larger when smaller number of SNPs are involved (eg. 300 SNPs 0.428 and 0.253, 2000 SNPs
0.567 and 0.539 for selected and equally spaced SNPs respectively).
4.5. táblázat - Table 4.5 SNPs in the genome and dairy lifetime net merit
Number of SNP
Method of SNP Selection rPT_All
rPT_Sire rPT_NoSire
300
Largest Effects
0.428
0.447
0.312
300
Equally Spaced
0.253
0.262
0.202
500
Largest Effects
0.485
0.503
0.369
500
Equally Spaced
0.333
0.348
0.245
750
Largest Effects
0.519
0.530
0.441
750
Equally Spaced
0.435
0.450
0.348
1,000
Largest Effects
0.537
0.549
0.460
1,000
Equally Spaced
0.422
0.438
0.321
1,250
Largest Effects
0.554
0.567
0.461
1,250
Equally Spaced
0.477
0.489
0.395
1,500
Largest Effects
0.559
0.576
0.445
1,500
Equally Spaced
0.518
0.534
0.412
2,000
Largest Effects
0.567
0.582
0.469
2,000
Equally Spaced
0.539
0.559
0.408
32,518
All Available
0.612
0.627
0.511
Source: Weigel et al., 2009; cit Eenennaam, 2012
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5. fejezet - 5. Dairy Management
Dairy production is one of the most intensive, high cost, high production system is animal production. Dairy
cow during lactation period requires the most energy, protein, calcium and phosporus. The fast metabolism, the
large daily feed intake, the activity of ruminal bacterial populations results a sensitive balance between the
biological need of the ruminant and its microbial flora and fauna in the rumen, and the wish of farmer
concerning milk production. The difference in milk quantity produced during a lactation period is large, the
production of intensive, modern, large framed dairy cows may exceed the amount of 15 000 or 20 000 litres, on
farm level, the production above 10 000 litres is not rare. In contrast to these breeds, the original genetic
background, that functions as milk production for calves rearing is about 1500 litre of milk in a year.
High input – high output production is provided by proper housing, nutrition and reproduction management.
1. 5.1 Housing of dairy cattle
Cattle nutrition is the major cost during production and it is a continous one, but the largest investment of a farm
is the establishment a new barn. There are several kinds of housing systems, each of them has advantages and
disadvantages, but there are always solutions which fit to a certain circumstances. There is no only one type of
housing, which is said to be the best one, but there are requirements of animals, management, which have to be
taken into consideration during planning. Table 5.1 shows the distribution of cows and calves by categories in a
dairy farm.
There are general aspects on the site of the dairy farm. The frequent movement of transport vehicles, such as
milk and feed makes the road, distance to highways important. Depending on the weather and precipitation
conditions the drainage of site, soil type is essential factors. The supply of good quality and adequate amount of
water and electricity is required. Presumably, the area around the farm will function as feed source such as
grazing or site for forage production, thus the fertility and type of soil have great influence of feeding cost.
Housing of calves, weaned early, and housing of growing animals are the same as it was described in the section
of beef cattle housing.
Dairy barn design
The major question to start designing the whole dairy production system is the size of stock. The number of
cows and offsprings determine the required capacity and the number of groups. The group of milking cows
should be separated from dry cows, heifers, growing bull as they role, needs, size is not the same. Traditionally
the number of cows in a group in not more than 100, that suggestion is based on the recognition of group mates,
which decreases stress, as hierarchy among individuals is stable.
The cows can be grouped according to the milk production or lactation stage. Cows divided into groups by milk
yield means that cows with low yield form a feeding group, moderate yield cows an other and like that. The
problem of this grouping idea is that in most cases the variability in milk production of a certain day between
animals in a group is huge because some of them are in the early stage of lactation and these animals are on the
top of milk production, while others just before dry period and produce as low as 15 liters of milk daily. If
animals divided by lactation stage the differences in daily yield is assumed to be less as the lactation milk yield
in a farm is in the range of approximately 7000-9000 liters, 8000-9500 liters, 10000-12000 liters.
The number of animals is twice as the number of cows. Designing the housing mean that barn is needed for
calves, young stock, milking cows, dry cow, cows calving and for a short term nursing. Additional buildings on
the farm are milking parlour, but it depends on the type of barn, office, storage and handling manure, roughage,
concentrates, bedding material.
5.1. táblázat - Table 5.1 Typical management categories of a dairy herd based on
continuous calving.
Size of stock (Number of 40
animals)
80
150
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500
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Cows
Cows in lactation
16
33
62
83
208
Dry cows
4
7
13
17
42
Total number of cows
20
40
75
100
250
0-2 months
1
3
6
8
20
3-4 months
1
3
6
8
20
5-8 months
4
7
13
17
42
9-12 months
4
7
13
17
43
13-15 months
2
5
9
12
30
16-24 months
8
15
28
38
95
40
75
100
250
Calves and heifers
Total number of calves and 20
heifers
Information about the system: half of the calves are females, male calves sold at birth, calving interval is 13
months, calves mortality is 5 percent, replacement of cows is 25 percent per year
Source: veepro.nl
The climatic conditions inside the stall may ensure the optimal conditions for profitable milk production, it may
increase production cost with increased feed intake or/and decrease performance in milk production and
reproduction as well. Temperature, wind, humidity, rain, snow, sunlight are the main climatic factors. The
answer of barn design are in level of protection or in other world we have to determine what is the necessity to
make difference between climatic conditions inside and outside. Generally, the more changes needed in climatic
conditions, the investment is more expensive.
If the weather is appropriate for the animals grazing is the cheapest solution. The next step is to use shelters
followed by housing in barns with roof and additional equipments for better climate (water spray, ventilation,
automatic roofs). The intensity of milk production determines the proper housing conditions (Table 5.2)
The occurence and consequences of heat stress is more severe and frequent in a lot of dairy farm sin several
countries. Animals tolerate cold weather, when the temperature is slightly below zero; it is not a stress for the
majority of the animals, in contrast, the warm weather at temperature of as low as 23 Celsius degree (Figure
5.1). The severity of stress is influenced by relative air humidity. In humid and hot weather 40 Celsius degree
increase the mortality in the stock.
Heat stress has typical signs in dairy cows, the most obvious is the decrease in milk yield. Other symptoms are
lethargy, rapid breathing (number of breath per minute may exceed 90-100), open mouth breathing and
decreased feed intake. The symptoms are more radical if the animal is ill or other stress factors still exist. The
signs are more severe in high production cows, the milk yield may decrease by 20-30 percent. The problem of
intensive milk production, that these animals ingest more feed, digest it, and produce more heat, by itself and the
microbial activity as well.
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5.1. ábra - Figure 5.1 Temperature in combination with humidity causes heat stress for
dairy cows
Source: veepro.nl
5.2. táblázat - Table 5.2 Heat production, ventilation capacity and recommended ridge
opening at different production levels at a barn
milk production
heat production
ventilation capacity
open ridge
(kg)
(Watt)
(m3/hour)
(cm2/cow)
6000
759
460
1080
8000
865
524
1230
10000
971
588
1380
Temperature of 20 Celsius degree, temperature difference is 5 Celsius degree between inside and outside of
barn, difference in outlet/inlets heights of 5 meters
Source: veepro.nl
Beside the comfort of milking cows, dry cows, growing bulls, heifers, calves, aspects such as ease of
management, movement of workers and their efficient working activity, storage and handling feedstuff and
manure or slurry are significant issues to be considered during planning. Free movement of cows, on non
slippery surface, to the parlour and back to the barn should be provided. The capacity of milking parlour has to
be adjusted to the number of milking cows in a group and number of groups. Besides milking capacity the
holding pen should be adjusted to the parlour and group size. In case of three milking per day, the cows should
not wait longer than 50-60 minutes on the holding pen.
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The whole system should be designed for efficient production, safe for workers and animals and let cattle to
express their natural behave, limit stress factors to achive welfare (Figure 5.2).
5.2. ábra - Figure 5.2 Enough place for feeding decreases stress
Source: veepro.nl
Depending on the climate, especially the average temperature in winter, there are two types on housing: cold
and warm barn. Cold barn is used in most of the countries, it is typical in moderate, mediterranean and warm
climatic conditions. There is no heating in the barn, animals and manure produces heat. Inside the barn the
temperature is slightly warmer than outside, this difference is usually some Celsius degree. Some equipments
and watering should be protected against freezing. The cost of cold barn is less than the cost of warm housing,
this cost mean operation and capital investment as well. Warm housing is a system, where the temperature is not
below zero Celsius degree, no special protection against freezing is needed. Insulation of rooves and walls are
better, it keeps heat produced by animals inside. Ventillation is used to remove moisture, and to control
temperature.
The most popular housing systems are tie stall barn, free stall barn and loose housing. All of them have
advantages and limitations, to make the decision several aspects should be considered.
Tie Stall Barn
In tie stall barns cows are fed and milked in the barn. There is no walking to other buildings, as milk barn is
inside the barn of cows. Each cow has its own tie stall, where stand, eat, lying down, ruminate and the animal is
secured by a rope or chain. Cows do not disturb the others as they are separated by metal bars. The feed is
placed in front of each cow and usually two cows use one watering place, that watering system is operated by
the animal.
Pipelines are built is the barn, the pipeline of milking and vacuum is placed on the top of the stalls and running
perpendicular to the tie stalls. The milk is transported in a closed system directly to the cooling machine, where
it is cooled until selling. Usually trucks transport milk from farm daily to the milk industry.
The length of stall varies in different systems. In the short stall, the faeces and urine in deposited out of the stall
and removed by scraping (usually mechanical). This system requires the less amount of bedding material.
This type of stall are built in small or medium farms, usually not more than 70-90 cows are housed in tie stall
barns.
Advantages of tie stall barns:
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• Easier to monitor the feed consumption of cows. Animals are not changing place so they are fed as
individuals. The probability of the fact that the genetic capacity of a cow can be expressed in performance is
higher compared to free stall barn, where a more or less diverse group of cows are handled as one „feeding
block”.
• Easier to monitor the individual itself. The animal keepers see each cow more times, compared to other
systems. It means that man controls cow not only during milking (three of four times per day), but at any
other work in the barn. The earlier discovery of any problem mean less loss of production, less occurence of
severe disease, veterinary cost decreases.
• The area for a cow is less compared to free stall barns plus milking parlour. It means less area to manage and
clean.
The size of tie stalls depends on the size of cows, most of the design suggestions refers to the weight of animals.
If the weight of is 400 kg, 500 kg, 600 kg, 700 kg, 800 kg the optimal width of the stall is 1050 mm, 1150 mm,
1250 mm, 1350 mm, 1450 mm respectively.
A slight slope from the front of animals ensures the drainage and cows like to rest when the front is on higher
place than the rear part. The optimal slope is two to three percent, a higher slope does not retain the bedding
material and it moves to the rear and accumultes.
A thick lyer is bedding straw can prevent injuries of the leg and comfortable for the cow. If straw or other
materials such as sawdust, sand, leaves, paper based bedding are expensive, not available or some may cause
problems with manure management or the increased need for human labour is expensive, other solutions should
be applied.
sand, as a non-organic bedding is a proper solution, but there are some factors, which limit the widespred of its
application. Manure with sand is a difficult material to be properly handled and sand bed is labour intensive.
The main advantage sand contains less bacteria, occurence of mastitis is less frequent and does not harm the
udder.
Bedding mattress is a good, comfortable type of bedding (Figure 5.3). These are fillet with rubber, parts of old
car tyres. Injuries are minimal, and the mattress should be strong and durable, as it has to resist the movement
and pressure of hooves. A good quality mattress is advised by several experts. The thickness of theses
mattresses is 8-10 centimeters; it provides good heat insulation when laid on concrete floor.
Mats are also widely used and made of synthetic rubber. It is a long lasting material and also should be covered
with a thin layer bedding.
5.3. ábra - Figure 5.3 Bedding matrass
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Source: veepro.nl
Free stall barn
There some sub-types of free stall barns (Figure 5.4), but in general it can be assumed that free stalls are
suggested for stocks larger than 50 individuals. In the resting areas of barn cows resting, ruminating in cubicles
(Figure 5.5). The length of the stall determines the amount of bedding material.
The size of free stall differs from the tie-stall, in case of free stall it is thinner in width and shorter in length. If
the weight of animal is 500 kg, 600 kg, 700 kg, the suggested stall width is 1100 mm, 120 mm, 1200 mm
respectively, the length including curb is 2250 mm for cattle weight of 500-700 kg. These values may vary in
function of the type stall rows, and the design how these stalls are situated inside the barn (Table 5.3).
5.3. táblázat - Table 5.3 Optimal size for free stalls in different barns (in cm)
Type
Length (cm)
Width on centre (cm)
Free stall (sidewall of building)
204-250
110-115
Free stall (inner row)
220-230
110-115
Free stall (double row)
440-460
110-115
Passage alley between rows of free stalls
220-250
Cow alley behind the feeding rack
300-350
Source: veepro.nl
5.4. ábra - Figure 5.4 Inside a free stall barn
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Source: veepro.nl
Natural ventilation is used to control air moisture. The building and the doors should be oriented according to
the direction of prevailing wind.
5.5. ábra - Figure 5.5
Source: veepro.nl
Free stall, cubicles housing system is widespread in a lot of countries. It is used in warm, arid, wet and cold
climates with some necessary special changes in design and equipments (Figure 5.6).
The major advantages of free stall systems that cows are resting on clean bedding that uses less bedding
materials compared to straw yard housing (Figure 5.7). The udder health is better, mastitis is less frequent. Cows
move freely and they can separate from each other, which reduces conflicts and ensures calm rumination.
Cubicles always suggested to be built in barn if bedding material is high cost or availability is limited.
5.6. ábra - Figure 5.6 Cows in the barn at feeding time
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Source: veepro.nl
5.7. ábra - Figure 5.7 Free stall for resting, free movement
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Source: veepro.nl
Corral system to decrease heat stress
Corral housing is used in regions with hot climatic conditions, warm and humid environment results poor
efficiency decreased feed intake and milk production or in extreme conditions feed refusal.
The cows move freely in the barn, the rest area has a slight slope of 1.5-3 percent, which is favoured by the
animals. Animals are walking on concrete surface that is cleaned by scrapers. There is an open ridge on the roof
and the hot air accumulates and escapes on the top. The ceiling at the wall is not less than three meters (Figure
5.8). The barns are open and ventilation is used. Shade is provided for animals not walking on the direct
sunlight.
Comfort and welfare of animals is provided by the cooling devices. Corral coolers are placed on the roof and
one cooler is built in for 12-15 cows. Evaporative fan cooling injects water to the air, it produces very small
water particles. The water injection is controlled and changed as temperature and humidity alters. These very
small particles are not forming a layer of water on the surface, but remain in the air and evaporate before
deposition. During evaporation energy is taken, as it is needed to weaken the hydrogen bonds, from the
environment and the the surrounding air will be colder.
5.8. ábra - Figure 5.8
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Source: veepro.nl
Loose housing
The largest amount of bedding is used by loose housing systems. It is a good solution if the straw or other
material is available and low cost. The produced manure is not removed frequently, thus is forms a thick layer,
new, dry bedding is regularly put on the top to keep the animals dry. There is not individual resting place for the
cows.
The size requirement of a cow in the barn is 6 m2, for dry cows and heifers 4 m2. The annual need of straw
varies by climate and the period of time, while animals are kept on pasture. During winter, when all the cows are
housed, from 1 to 3 tons of bedding material is used per cow. The higher amount significantly decreases the
overall veterinary cost and the occurence of mastitis. The heat produced by excreta and straw mix is useful in
winter and contributes to the decreased number of pathogens in certain layer of bedding. The exercise area for
heifers, dry cows and milking cows is not less than 6-7 m2. As the floor/bedding level is higher and higher the
minimum height of ceiling is more compared to stall barns. It is about 3 meters or higher. In some cases there is
no roof on the yard, but it is not suggested for dairy cattle, mostly used for beef stock. Without roof the dry
matter content of manure decreases, it is diluted with precipitation, it needs extra effort and cost to maintain the
surface of bedding dry. Partial cover is a low cost solution during wet season.
At the feeding site the floor is usually concrete, where manure is removed by scrapers. It ensures a hard surface
that is good for hooves and not the total amount of faeces and urine is deposited on the straw yard that means
less a decreased usage of bedding material.
Advantages of loose housing:
• cattle move freely
• animals prefer large bedding area
• bedding is soft and comfortable
• no risk of not proper size and other parameters of resting place (cubicles).
The free movement unfortunately has disadvantage as well. Cows in heat trailing others, moving a lot, spend
less time to rest and the consequence is the more frequent injuries. Lying cows are not protected and separated
so treading harms their leg, udder or teats.
2. 5.2 Manure handling and storage
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The faeces and urine of cattle are removed from the barn with different methods and equipments (Figure 5.10).
Slatted floor produces slurry and faeces and urine falls down from the floor (Figure 5.9).
5.9. ábra - Figure 5.9 Slatted floors in the stable is advised
Source: veepro.nl
Manure consist of faeces, urine and bedding material is removed daily or only two or one times in a year, it has
higher dry matter content and requires other handling and storage methods. The frequency of removal depends
on the housing system eg. long tie stall versus straw yard. In case of straw yard the limiting factor is the type of
building, more precisely the possibility in height to increase bedding layer because of gates, fences, watering
place, feeding area. The timing of manure removal can be every month or only at the beginning of vegetation
period.
There regulations in each country about manure management concerning environmental issues. Nutrients from
manure and slurry through the soil may contaminate groundwater with pathogens, excess nutrients, especially
nitrates.
The planning of storage capacity depends on the volume of manure/slurry production and the duration to store
it. The best way if this nutrient rich material is stored for a short term and used for biogas production or as a
nutrient for plants on the land. Spreading on the has to be done when the risk of leaching is low, it is the case
when the soil is dry.
The volume of slurry is much more than manure per cow. A rough estimation is that a cow produces about 70
liters of slurry per day. The total manure, faeces and urine included, produced by one animal unit (500 kg live
weight) per day is 40-45 kg, which is calculated to include 13 kg urine. Dry matter content of daily volume is 6
kg, total Kjeldahl nitrogen 0.2 kg, ammonia-nitrogen 0.04 kg, total phosphorus 0.05 kg, potassium 0.15 kg,
calcium 0.08 kg, magnesium 0.03 kg, sulphur 0.025 kg, sodium 0.025 kg.
5.10. ábra - Figure 5.10 Mechanical scraping of manure
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Source: veepro.nl
The aim of manure treatments are:
• reduction of negative effects on environment
• decrease odour, especially there are inhabitants in the close distance
• mass reduction, less weight means save cost on manure transport
• decreasing microbial pathogens, it concerns animal and human health issues as well
• if the farm is large and there is no other possibility to utilize manure only the spread on arable land, the
reduction of total nutrients could be important
• treatment towards a new product: beside nutrient for plants, the treated manure can be sold; it can be used for
biogas production for energy sources, after composting it is a higher value product, after pathogen elimination
its solid part can be used as bedding material.
Diluted slurry can be treated in lagoons. These lagoons cover large area, and microbes digest its nutrients. Using
anaerobic digestion methane is produced that can be used as energy to heat or to convert it into electricity.
Separation the solid and liquid part of manure makes possibilities for further applications. The solid part after
separation can be composted as manure from a dairy farm contains too much water.
3. 5.3 Milk synthesis and milking equipments
Milk synthesis and secretion
The synthesis of milk starts with precursors entering the epithelial cell. The precursors are molecules, which will
be used to build up the components of milk. These precursors originate from the digested feed and through the
blood arrive to the udder (Figure 5.11). As these precursors from extracellular fluid enters udder cells through
basolateral membrane, they will be involved in the pathway of milk fat, milk protein, lactose and other
components synthesis.
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The volume of milk is determined by the genetics of cattle, quality, quantity, nutrient value and digestibility of
feed, housing, milking, climate and several factors. The regulation and synthesis of milk and milk components is
controlled by enzimatic activity in the udder.
The volume of milk depends on the amount of lactose sythetized. The lactose is the most constant component,
as its concentration in the milk does not change. Its total amount increases linearly as milk yield, but the
concentration is 4.6-4.7 percent. As lactose is secreted into the cavity of alveolus, the osmotic pressure
increases. The osmotic imbalance between the two sides of cell increases the water flow from blood to milk.
The lactose synthesis is regulated by lactose synthesize enzyme. Lactose synthesis depends on the source of
glucose, that one is controlled by availability of propionate and the propionate production in the rumen depends
on energy concentration of feedstuffs.
During milk fat synthesis glicerol, acetate and butyrate are the major sub-components. The low fiber content of
feed decreases acetate produced by the microbial activity in the rumen, thus depresses milk fat percentage.
Approximately 50 percent of milk fat is originated of acetate and butyrate from activity in the rumen. These are
used to form short-chain fatty acids, while about half of the milk fatty acids are synthesized in the udder and the
second half is from fat content of feed. Roughage and concentrates eaten by the cow alters not only the fatty
acid composition of milk fat but milk fat concentration as well.
Milk proteins are described before, their synthesis is regulated by different enzymes included in a certain
pathway. Protein content of milk is high during the period of colostrum, but these immunglobulins are not
synthetized in the udder but derives from the immune system transported by the blood.
The secretion of milk is a continuous process. For the production of one litre of milk, 400-450 litres of blood
should enter the udder to transport nutrients and water. The produced milk is accumulated and the pressure is
increasing in the alveoli, which is a signal to decrease the permanent synthesis. The secretion of milk is also
decreased to a minimal level just before milking and during milking. The frequent milking increases yield, and
get rid of pressure from udder. Cows with moderate milk yield are usually milked two times a day, 12 hours
interval between milkings. High-production cows are milked in every 8 hours, it means that in the night as well.
Several studies showed that four and as much as five times milking per day produces higher amount of milk
than less frequent milking. As frequency increases the cost is higher as well, it can be assumed that five milking
times per day, instead of four times, the labour, electricity, water, overall parlour operation and extra feed cost is
more than the income of milk additionally produced.
5.11. ábra - Figure 5.11 Basic anatomy of an udder
Source: veepro.nl
Milking equipments
Some accessories are described here, those have special function during and before the milking process.
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Before entering the parlour, cows waiting in the collecting yard. The mud and dust on their udders depends on
the climate, precipitation, housing system and bedding. Spraying units can be set on the collection yard or inside
the parlour as well. Its function to clean the udders and during summer it cools the animal as well. Disinfection
liquid can be sprayed after cleaning to prevent mastitis. Cooling sprays can be operated on upper parts of the
yard to make a fine moisture on the surface of the body and as it evaporates cools the cow. Natural ventilation or
ventilation equipments provide air movement to decreases heat stress.
The possibility to collect data of an animal requires a device operated by a computer to recognise the cow. A
radiowave emitted from the unit and the signal is detected. Data is collected during milking, it activates the
feeder in the parlour or provides information about the activity of the cow if it is attached to the leg. Pedometers
are devices with great assistance and benefit in heat detection. Higher activity, more steps during the day warns
the farmer to check the cow, whether it is in standing heat. It decreases calving interval and increases conception
rate.
Feeders in parlour give concentrates to the cow during milking. Another possibility to fix feeders inside the barn
(Figure 5.12). The amount of feed depends on the quantity of milk. If concentrates are fed in the parlour, cows
ingest only roughage and not total mix in the barn.
5.12. ábra - Figure 5.12 Identification of individuals and optimized amount of
concentrates
Source: veepro.nl
During milking the milk flow and yield is recorded and equipment, called mastitis detector measures salt content
of milk that changes the conductivitiy of liquids that reflects to the number of somatic cells in the milk (Figure
5.13).
Milking parlour
Rotary parlour
The rotary parlour is like a carussel, the system has a round shape. It is a relatively new development, suggested
for large stocks. Cows enter into a large turntable which moves slowly. The milkers do not have to walk on long
ways as the cows arrive to them. There are two different systems: milkers and milking units are inside the circle
or outside.
Milking clusters attached to the teats manually and removed automatically. There are possibilities to use
concentrate feeders for individual nutrition.
Tandem parlour
Tanden parlour is one of the first parlour systems. The two rows of cows are parallel, animals standing in the
barn and occupy the longest part of the side along the pit. Milkers can see the full length of the cow and attach
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the clusters to the teats from one side. The capacity of this type of parlour is limited because it requires
relatively long pits and a lot of movement of milkers. Usually three or four stalls are either side of the pit, thus it
is not suggested for farm with more than 80-100 animals.
An advantage, that each stall has an entry and exit gate, if the gates operate automatically, the cows after cluster
removal leave the stall as gate opens and the next cow is allowed to enter to start milking. Consequently if there
are good milking cows with slow milk release, it does not expand the duration of milking the stock as not all the
cows at the same time in the parlour waits for the slowest one.
Chute parlour
Chute parlour is very similar to tandem parlour, the design of the stalls are the same: cows standing parallel on
both sides of pit. The main difference is that chute parlour requires less space, thus building of parlour saves
cost. The number of stalls on each side is three or four and the cows enter to each side as a group and leave it
together at the same time. There are no gates at each stall, cows waits for the slowest one during milking.
Herringbone parlour
Herringbone parlour is a modified chute parlour, it looks like the skeleton of a fish. Cows stand in the stall at an
angle of 30-35° to the side wall. It means that the milkers walk less distance in the pit. As shorter pit is used for
the same number of cows, the capacity of this parlour is larger, in the largest ones two rows of 24 cows are
milked. Cows have to wait for the slowest one that increase time spent in the parlour, which is more significant
in a row of 24 cows.
Trigon parlour
Trigon parlour uses larger pit, it is advised to build for large stocks. Cows are milked in three rows and the
design of parlour is a triangular. Cows stand in a stall in angle such a sin the herringbone parlour. The entry and
exit gate functions as in herringbone parlour.
Polygon parlour
Polygon parlour is a four rows parlour, where the rows have a diamond shape. Cows in each row are milked as a
single group. It is used for large number of cows, the disadvantage is that it is not possible to expand it.
5.13. ábra - Figure 5.13 Data collected by software in the milking parlour important for
management decision
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Source: veepro.nl
Milking robot
Robotic milking is the newest milking system. There is no need for parlour, no additional building is required.
Milking robot is placed in the barn, cows voluntarily enters into the equipment, which recognizes the animal and
depending on the number of daily milking adjusted it milks the cow or not. The number of milking is more
compared to milking in tie-stall barns or in parlour.
As the cow arrives it is recognized by the computer as she wears an electronic tag and the laser of robot finds
the teats, the arm moves and attaches the cups to each individual teats. The sensor during milking measures
continuously some factors and collects to inform the farmer. Colour is measured to search for blood in the milk,
conductivity is in close correlation to mastitis and milk flow and quantity is also detected. These data helps to
manage a healthy dairy stock, prevents severe diseases.
There are several advantages of robot milking. It saves time for farmers, the robot clean and disinfect the udder
itself, milk the cow and feed concentrates as it is required based on milk yield of cow. The precise nutrition
adjusted to the daily change of need makes the milk production efficient and profitable. There is no collecting
yard for cows, waiting for the parlour, so it saves time for the animals to express other activities such as feeding,
resting and rumination. Most of the cows like to enter into the milking robot as there is no stress and she obtains
the portion of concentrates.
Milking robot is worth to be invested in if the human labour is expensive and the service is easily available.
Some extra time is needed for robotic milking when new cows have to be trained and some of the animals are
not well suited for the equipment.
4. 5.4 Nutrition of Dairy Cow
Beside the energy content of feed, chemical analyses is used to determine the nutrient value. Dry matter content
of feedstuffs extremely variable, it is organic or inorganic material. The non-organic content is the ash content,
those are macro, mezo and micro elements. The organic matter is grouped depending on its nitrogen content,
those are crude proteins and nitrogen-free compounds. Nitrogen-free compounds are carbohydrates and fat
(Figure 5.14). Chemical composition and nutritive value a cattle feed is presented at the end this chapter in
Table 5.5.
5.14. ábra - Figure 5.14 Composition of feedstuffs
Source: veepro.nl
Beside energy the protein content of feed is the most important factor in intensive dairy farming. It is required
for maintenance, reproduction, growth, milk production and fetal development as well. The microbial activity in
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5. Dairy Management
the rumen provides amino acid to the cow, as the microbes use non-protein nitrogen sources such as urea. As the
milk production of beef cows as low as one fifth or one eights of milk yield of dairy cattle, the protein content of
feed is not limiting milk synthesis if non protein nitrogen available in the ration. Microorganisms in rumen
degrades a certain part of total protein content of feed, the ratio of degraded and undegraded protein depends on
the type a feed. Proteins of animal origin is poorly degraded in the rumen, the ratio of protein undegraded is
usually as much as half or more than 50 percent of the crude protein content (Table 5.4). There is a difference in
ruminal degradation in case of plant origin feeds as well, the major part of protein of high fiber content forages
are degraded, while the major part of proteins in concentrates are not degraded in the rumen.
5.4. táblázat - Table 5.4 Ratio of undegraded protein in rumen of different feeds
Feed
Percent
of
undegraded
protein Feed
Percent of
protein
undegraded
Alfalfa pellets
59
Alfalfa fresh
28
Blood meal
82
Barley
27
Brewers’ dried grains
49
Beetpulp molasses
35
Cottonseed meal
40
Maize silage
31
Maize
52
Grass silage
29
Fish meal
60
Oats
17
Grass (fresh)
40
Soybeans
26
Meat and bone meal
49
Sunflower meal
26
Sorgum
54
Tapioca meal
36
Sugarbeet
45
Wheat bran
29
Source: veepro.nl
Microorganisms degrade feed protein and produce ammonia and fatty acids. Non protein nitrogen sources also
produce ammonia in the rumen. This ammonia is required for the microbes as nitrogen for amino acid synthesis,
if its availability decreases the microbial activity is depressed, which contributes to a less efficient feed
utilization of the cow. In contrast, high ammonia concentration in the rumen may results in loss of nitrogen or
cause ammonia toxicity. The volume of protein produced by microbes in the rumen is significant, it varies,
depending on the type of feed, in the range of 500 to 1500 grams per day. The microbial biomass, passed to the
abomasum, is also a protein source for the cow with its digestibility of fourty to fifty percent.
The ruminal bacteria population partially utilize the fat of forage and grains. These microbes saturate
unsaturated fatty acids, which mean they put two hydrogen atoms, instead of double bonds between two carbon
atoms in the chain. There is a hydrolysis of lipids as microbes disrupt the bond between fatty acids and glycerol
that makes fatty acid free. There some ways to prevent or decrease the extent of ruminal hydrolysis of lipids in
feed as it may have detrimental effect on production.
Cattle does not produce cellulase enzyme, thus the efficiency of fiber digestion is limited, but microbes in the
rumen are able to ferment cellulose and hemicellulose as the major carbohydrates in forages. The efficiency of
fiber utilisation is about 80 percent, but it depends on several factors, such as type of feed, feed manipulation,
other nutrients in the ration, microbial flora and fauna in the rumen. High fiber content diet is essential for
ruminants, it stimulates rumination, contraction in the digestive apparatus. During fiber fermentation volatile
fatty acids are produced by microbes and absorbed through the rumen. These are acetic, propionic and butyric
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5. Dairy Management
acids and used as energy sources for the cow. In contrast to fibrous carbohydrates, starch and sugars quickly
fermented by the microbes.
Lactation and dry period
Dry period of cows usually last for two months. During this stage the fetus of pregnant cows increases and the
cow requires more nutrients and energy than required for maintenance. Beside the pregnancy an other task is to
increase body reserves and prepare the cow for the next lactation period.
Basically there are two tpyes on nutrition for dry cows. A) Dry period is one phase and the daily ration is the
same for two months, B) minimal of zero concentrates are used in the first month and an increased energy intake
is provided by 20-30 percent of grains in the ration during the second month. The concentrates assist to the
growth of rumen papillae, which has more importance for first calving heifers, which supports the milk
production, especially at the beginning of lactation.
Farmers have to consider that the aim to build up body reserves and not to make cows fat, as cows with to high
condition scores ingest less feed daily and the occurence of dystokia is more abundant. The ideal body condition
score is 3.5 out of 5 point to be reached till calving. The decreased feed consumption increases the negative
energy balance after calving, that makes problem in milk production and conception rates. There is a need for
large amount of calcium during milk synthesis as it contains high level of calcium. Hypocalcaemia of cows
occurs if they are fed with high calcium content feed in dry period. During the dry period the suggested
decreased calcium intake reduces the release and increases the absorption of dietary calcium, which helps to
reserve calcium. Most of the technologies suggest keeping heifers and dry cow on grassland, but during grazing
the daily calcium intake is often more than required.
During lactation the daily milk production reaches its maximum in a short time followed by a slight, but
continuous decrease (Figure 5.15). The peak is about the one and half month after calving and the daily
production is 40 to 60 kilograms of milk. Just before turn the cows dry the dialy milk is ten to fifteen kilograms.
The length of lactation is between 330 – 450 days, depending on the date of conception. The standard lactation,
which can be used for comparison milk production of cows, last for 305 days. The cows should be inseminated
at the second estrus after calving, because one cycle is not enough time for involution.
The cow may loss 10 percent of its bodyweight that resulted in 40-70 kg lighter animals during the first three
months of lactation. Cows in the first period, that lasts for 90-100 days, fed with high level of concentrates to
minimize weight loss, but it is not possible to meet nutritional requirements of the cow in this period. The daily
ration is half amount concentrates and hal roughages, or grains is a little bit more than 50 percent, but it cannot
be increased anymore, because low fiber content of ration causes rumen disfunction and metabolic disorders.
The weight loss and negative energy balance must be tolerated. In this period cows are the most susceptible to
infectious diseases as well.
During the second period of lactation, which can be assumed as 100 days, dry matter intake reaches its
maximum, the body weight is maintained and slowly start to restore its reserves. The milk production is still
high. Cows ingest more roughage than concentrates, which supports ruminal activity, the energy and protein
concentration of feed is lower compared to the first period of lactation.
In the third period the daily milk production continuous its decline and well as feed intake but the feed provides
energy enough to produce weight gain, daily 500 to 700 grams. The protein content just like as energy content is
the lowest in this period of lactation and the daily ration does not contain more than 30 percent of grains.
5.15. ábra - Figure 5.15 Milk production, feed intake and body weght during lactation
and dry period of cows
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5. Dairy Management
Source: veepro.nl
5.5. táblázat - Table 5.5 Chemical composition and nutritive value of foods of the
ruminants
Denomination
dry
Energy- and protein values, chemical composition of dry matter
matte
r
NEm NEg MPE MPN Crude Crud Crude Nitro Ash Calci Phosp
protei e fat fibre gen
um
horus
n
free
extrac
t
g/kg
MJ/kg dm
g/kg dm
198
7.05 4.49
114
114
176
49
201
476
98
6.3
2.5
First cut , before 244
flowering
5.60 3.19
84
87
139
41
258
489
73
6.1
2.7
harvesting
summer
in 345
5.82 3.39
81
69
107
40
232
545
76
6.3
2.4
harvesting in autumn 276
6.23 3.76
106
109
170
45
232
460
93
6.0
2.5
ROUGHAGE (fresh, green)
Gramineae
Perennial ryegrass
First cut, young
Barley
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before flowering
200
6.33 3.85
87
79
127
25
295
468
85
4.2
3.2
in flowering
260
5.89 3.45
74
58
94
18
319
395
74
3.90
2.9
in milky ripening
310
5.74 3.32
79
56
92
17
340
478
73
3.50
2.6
200
6.88 4.34
103
128
200
58
216
429
97
4.7
2.3
before 236
5.58 3.17
88
100
159
52
251
451
87
4.4
2.3
350
4.65 2.32
74
74
118
45
297
466
74
4.2
2.4
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 324
5.74 3.31
97
108
169
59
240
445
87
7.3
2.1
harvesting
summer, (later)
in 350
4.60 2.27
80
73
116
56
280
461
87
6.3
2.3
harvesting in autumn 269
5.48 3.08
103
106
165
53
242
447
93
5.8
2.1
222
6.91 4.36
107
128
201
53
206
447
93
6.0
3.1
before 267
5.86 3.42
89
97
155
45
261
459
80
5.6
3.2
360
4.56 2.23
74
75
120
41
292
477
70
5.2
3.2
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 314
5.87 3.43
99
113
178
53
242
442
85
7.0
3.5
harvesting
summer, (later)
in 360
4.49 2.17
82
78
125
48
275
474
78
5.9
3.4
harvesting in autumn 288
5.69 3.27
106
113
176
50
226
458
90
6.1
3.4
Orchard grass
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
First cut, flowering
Lawn,
meadow
pasture,
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
First cut, flowering
Corn
before flowering
150
6.17 3.71
85
70
116
25
225
566
68
5.2
2.6
after flowering
190
5.89 3.45
82
61
100
22
245
557
76
4.6
2.4
209
7.01 4.46
115
136
210
50
205
445
90
4.8
2.4
before 254
5.50 3.10
90
98
154
40
273
453
80
4.2
2.2
Hungarian brome
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
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5. Dairy Management
First cut, flowering
355
4.85 2.50
80
77
121
38
305
471
65
4.0
2.1
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 325
5.86 3.42
108
125
194
51
252
418
85
6.8
2.4
harvesting
summer, (later)
in 381
4.26 1.95
84
81
129
40
292
463
76
5.6
2.3
harvesting in autumn 284
5.94 3.49
118
131
203
49
207
444
97
6.4
2.2
229
6.25 3.78
100
120
188
48
221
445
98
4.6
2.4
before 253
5.54 3.13
86
94
150
40
259
468
83
4.5
2.3
317
4.01 1.72
70
74
119
37
277
490
77
4.3
2.3
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 311
5.53 3.12
92
99
157
50
244
459
90
5.3
2.1
harvesting
summer (later)
in 370
4.33 2.02
81
78
125
42
270
479
84
6.4
3.7
harvesting in autumn 285
5.80 3.37
103
104
163
47
224
481
85
5.0
2.3
204
7.24 4.66
118
139
214
54
192
439
101
7.0
2.2
before 257
5.98 3.54
95
99
156
43
256
457
88
6.8
2.3
362
5.36 2.97
84
78
123
38
294
468
77
6.7
2.4
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 279
6.03 3.58
105
113
175
54
221
461
89
8.3
2.5
harvesting
summer (later)
in 324
5.20 2.82
86
72
113
47
260
493
87
7.5
2.2
harvesting in autumn 284
5.89 3.45
95
108
166
44
239
256
95
6.5
2.4
first cut, beginning 294
of flowering
5.69 3.27
83
79
127
41
262
502
68
5.1
2.5
harvesting
summer
6.00 3.55
95
93
147
43
241
487
82
8.1
2.2
Tall fescue
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
First cut, flowering
Meadow fescue
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
First cut, flowering
Common
grass
meadow-
in 336
Rye
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5. Dairy Management
before flowering
180
6.12 3.66
91
105
170
42
242
446
100
4.6
3.7
flowering
207
5.72 3.30
84
79
127
32
305
465
71
4.2
3.3
milky ripening
227
4.84 2.49
73
62
101
29
382
422
66
3.6
2.9
milky ripening
227
6.65 4.14
88
56
89
28
217
619
47
7.2
2.6
milky-wax ripening
267
6.86 4.32
88
52
82
28
194
651
45
6.4
2.3
wax ripening
325
7.07 4.51
88
50
78
35
187
656
44
4.8
2.4
full ripening
421
7.40 4.80
91
49
77
32
175
675
41
4.2
2.9
Before flowering
190
6.48 3.98
88
90
146
37
254
473
90
4.9
3.8
flowering
251
5.30 2.92
73
60
100
24
315
476
85
4.0
3.1
young
200
5.87 3.43
78
67
110
32
296
486
76
4.3
3.3
268
6.88 4.34
104
119
187
52
203
474
84
before 334
6.20 3.73
87
84
134
42
274
485
65
426
4.36 2.05
70
66
105
42
297
503
53
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 371
6.02 3.57
99
109
173
50
262
442
73
harvesting
summer (later)
in 481
4.19 1.89
76
70
113
43
287
500
57
harvesting in autumn 345
5.90 3.46
104
107
167
55
233
473
72
5.78 3.35
89
88
139
44
264
485
68
5.5
2.3
Corn silage
Sudan grass
Crested wheat grass
First cut, leafy
First cut,
flowering
First cut, flowering
Festuca pseudovina
First cut,
flowering
before 382
First cut, flowering
457
5.34 2.95
79
68
108
43
305
488
56
5.6
2.4
Oats in flowering
208
5.77 3.35
77
60
99
27
326
473
75
3.9
2.9
224
7.09 4.52
108
132
208
55
198
451
88
5.7
2.7
Red canary grass
First cut, leafy
77
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First cut,
flowering
before 268
6.31 3.83
94
111
178
53
250
444
75
5.5
2.5
352
4.41 2.10
75
84
135
44
280
465
76
5.0
2.4
harvesting
summer (earlier)
in 275
5.82 3.39
102
127
201
54
235
422
88
6.5
2.2
harvesting
summer (later)
in 314
4.64 2.31
86
95
153
57
260
452
78
5.8
2.2
harvesting in autumn 266
5.19 2.82
106
123
192
49
212
452
95
5.8
2.2
First cut, flowering
Other green food
sugar-beet, leafy
174
6.10 3.64
86
82
137
24
107
525
207
10.8
2.5
sugar-beet, leaf
145
5.80 3.37
79
82
142
22
137
519
180
12.0
2.6
in 142
5.76 3.33
96
119
196
27
194
496
87
13.5
3.8
common reed, young 250
3.10 0.86
63
80
140
20
344
408
88
4.6
2.7
Raphanus sativus
130
5.59 3.18
87
93
151
29
137
529
154
rape
118
6.57 4.06
100
131
216
45
185
421
133
16.1
4.3
collard greens
134
6.57 4.06
97
92
145
25
159
552
119
10.5
3.6
Barley silage, milky 258
ripening
4.89 2.54
58
53
86
42
357
438
77
4.0
3.1
Wheat silage, wax 404
ripening
5.36 2.97
63
54
89
44
259
531
77
2.5
2.0
Sugar-sorghum
silage
244
5.46 3.06
63
55
92
22
288
536
62
4.1
1.3
medium
286
5.05 2.69
58
70
127
50
319
397
107
5.9
3.0
low
314
4.58 2.25
55
58
107
36
365
395
97
2.3
1.9
good
593
5.48 3.08
76
90
157
30
270
446
97
6.5
3.3
medium
551
4.12 2.46
64
69
127
28
326
437
82
6.6
3.7
white mustard
flowering
ENSILED FEED, SILAGE
Gramineae
Grass silage
Grass silage
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Corn silage
milky ripening
262
6.23 3.76
67
58
98
30
256
553
63
4.1
2.0
wax ripening
353
6.79 4.26
73
55
93
35
217
605
50
3.3
2.5
wax ripening, few 354
grain
6.06 3.60
68
57
96
30
276
533
65
3.8
1.9
full ripening
455
6.84 4.30
75
51
85
31
193
645
46
3.2
2.5
full ripening,
grain
few 462
6.38 3.89
71
50
85
31
253
581
50
3.7
2.0
Corn+sorghum
silage
291
5.82 3.39
67
55
101
23
291
517
69
4.2
2.1
Green maize silage
222
5.48 3.08
63
52
83
23
321
479
94
4.6
2.0
Rye silage
193
4.61 2.28
56
61
104
31
370
405
90
3.8
3.0
Silo-sorghum silage
317
5.43 3.04
59
56
98
44
285
500
73
4.2
2.1
Sudan grass silage
182
5.08 2.71
55
69
121
38
331
433
77
3.9
2.0
good-medium
232
5.65 3.23
67
127
219
50
251
356
124
16.8
2.9
medium
224
5.31 2.93
64
113
197
48
279
361
115
15.6
2.6
low
260
4.49 2.17
59
100
174
45
328
352
101
13.4
2.2
good
356
6.03 3.58
79
135
229
49
208
406
108
17.2
3.0
medium
350
5.34 2.95
74
117
201
45
286
363
105
15.8
2.7
good
517
5.89 3.45
84
135
229
41
221
408
101
17.5
2.9
medium
522
5.42 3.02
86
126
213
31
272
389
95
16.0
2.8
low
556
4.95 2.59
83
113
191
30
313
380
86
13.2
2.3
Red clover silage
260
5.60 3.24
74
104
176
48
282
392
102
14.3
2.2
Fabaceae silages
Alfalfa silage
Alfalfa
withered
silage,
Alfalfa silage
HAY
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Hay of gramineae
Green maize hay
845
5.08 2.71
77
46
71
24
280
528
97
4.2
2.1
Orchard grass hay
860
4.74 2.40
91
82
125
35
325
422
93
4.2
2.4
brome 860
4.88 2.53
88
71
108
29
337
450
76
4.0
2.1
860
4.61 2.29
88
80
122
32
342
423
81
4.3
2.3
Good quality
888
5.47 3.07
100
94
143
28
270
462
97
5.2
2.9
Medium quality
874
4.99 2.63
94
85
129
27
300
451
93
4.8
2.8
Low quality
879
4.64 2.31
88
74
115
27
340
440
78
4.6
2.5
very low quality
854
3.74 1.47
72
56
93
22
391
428
66
3.8
2.0
good
840
4.97 2.61
96
91
140
26
295
437
102
4.8
2.4
medium
840
4.19 1.89
81
68
104
27
309
466
94
4.2
2.2
good
840
5.08 2.71
84
82
130
30
313
449
78
4.3
2.6
medium
875
4.53 2.21
75
66
110
24
341
445
80
4.5
2.9
Crested wheat grass 854
hay
5.16 2.79
91
77
118
28
321
481
52
Red canary grass hay 840
4.87 2.52
90
82
125
29
322
446
78
5.0
2.4
Hungarian
hay
Tall fescue hay
Meadow hay
Sodic or saline hay
Sudan grass hay
Fabaceae hays
Alfalfa hay
good
887
5.86 3.42
107
147
237
25
228
409
101
17.2
2.9
medium
875
5.06 2.69
93
122
200
25
272
404
99
16.5
2.7
poor
862
4.76 2.42
85
110
186
23
316
378
97
15.0
2.3
very poor
813
4.20 1.90
76
86
146
19
388
360
87
12.3
1.9
Trifolium
grasshay
and
80
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5. Dairy Management
medium
871
4.95 2.60
91
98
157
26
318
417
82
11.2
3.0
poor
886
3.94 1.66
75
73
118
26
371
410
75
9.8
2.5
Common wetch hay 840
4.47 2.15
81
88
146
26
303
437
88
8.9
2.9
GRAINS AND OTHER PRODUCTS
Grains
Barley
873
8.56 5.80
109
82
128
21
49
774
28
0.7
4.0
Wheat
909
9.06 6.22
119
94
144
20
29
786
21
0.8
3.6
CCM (grain+cob), 629
ensiled
8.43 5.68
93
58
92
40
59
788
21
0.6
2.5
grain+cob+leaf
cob, ensiled
of 559
7.70 5.06
82
57
93
48
108
726
25
0.5
2.7
grain+cob+leaf
cob, ensiled
of 659
7.84 5.18
84
55
90
47
102
739
22
0.2
2.4
Corn on the cob 820
(20% cob)
8.26 5.54
102
65
93
40
88
761
18
0.3
3.8
Corn, raw
705
9.45 6.55
110
66
94
41
26
825
14
0.3
3.1
Corn, ensiled
665
9.10 6.26
102
64
100
39
25
820
16
Corn, ensiled
725
9.28 6.41
103
62
97
42
24
822
15
Corn, ensiled
798
9.38 6.49
105
62
96
44
24
820
16
Corn, dried
912
9.15 6.30
122
72
103
42
23
817
15
0.3
3.2
Rye
872
8.90 6.08
103
68
110
16
23
831
20
0.9
3.2
Sorghum
880
8.59 5.82
102
71
122
35
39
779
25
0.2
3.7
Triticale
900
8.80 6.00
115
91
142
14
37
786
21
0.5
4.0
Oats
886
7.71 5.06
81
69
117
51
120
677
35
1.0
3.8
Barley straw, autumn 863
2.84 0.62
49
22
37
17
453
430
63
2.9
0.8
Barley straw, spring 860
3.48 1.22
53
22
38
19
409
474
60
3.1
0.8
Wheat straw, autumn 872
2.81 0.59
46
21
41
16
432
457
54
2.1
0.8
Corn
STRAW
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Wheat straw, treated 830
with ammonia
3.68 1.42
52
34
65
14
430
436
55
Corn stalk
October
427
4.92 2.57
67
34
61
22
315
557
55
6.8
2.6
November
532
3.99 1.70
63
31
50
14
345
525
63
6.4
2.0
December
570
3.43 1.18
56
30
49
15
348
529
59
5.0
1.9
January
713
2.94 0.72
51
23
39
16
360
526
59
4.5
1.5
Corn stalk, baled
787
3.79 1.59
60
30
49
11
373
505
62
6.0
1.9
Corn stalk, pellett
912
3.79 1.52
60
34
57
12
350
496
85
6.7
2.5
Rye straw
865
2.03
43
19
34
16
472
431
47
2.8
1.0
Oats straw
864
3.57 1.31
53
20
33
20
432
450
65
3.9
0.9
Pea straw
860
3.43 1.18
55
46
92
18
405
412
73
16.9
1.7
Alfalfa straw
860
3.06 0.82
59
56
100
17
430
371
82
12.1
2.0
Red clover straw
860
3.10 0.87
60
60
106
21
424
381
68
after 860
3.55 1.29
58
35
62
18
385
455
80
Grass straw,
seed-crop
SECONDARY PRODUCT-SILAGES
Pea stalk silage
265
5.07 2.71
65
58
151
31
312
421
85
15.7
1.8
Sugar-beet silage
217
5.76 3.34
67
67
115
31
134
517
203
9.8
2.0
good
391
4.67 2.33
53
28
47
25
330
522
76
6.3
2.4
medium
459
3.91 1.63
50
23
40
14
362
517
67
5.5
1.8
Corn
stalk+sugar- 319
beet silage
5.17 2.79
62
50
85
20
313
463
119
8.8
2.6
Sugar-beet
silage
4.43 2.12
50
61
108
46
135
512
199
10.2
2.0
Corn stalk silage
leaf 230
FORAGES FROM MILLING
Wheat bran
880
6.30 3.82
80
98
165
44
118
609
64
1.2
12.5
Wheat forage flour
875
8.40 5.66
119
121
185
53
68
647
47
1.3
7.2
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Corn forage flour
883
9.21 6.34
114
82
116
60
49
752
23
0.2
2.4
Corn bran
886
8.07 5.37
108
85
122
68
108
676
26
0.4
3.0
Refuse of wheat
870
6.51 4.01
89
91
146
69
167
574
44
Rye bran
877
6.36 3.88
82
96
162
34
123
625
56
1.1
13.1
Rye forage flour
875
8.34 5.60
104
95
155
28
37
749
31
0.9
6.3
Oats tegument
870
2.21 0.02
41
18
33
15
335
561
56
2.2
3.5
Oats bran
890
5.21 2.84
68
54
91
35
237
577
60
1.0
4.8
Oats forage flour
880
7.16 4.58
76
78
132
60
121
636
51
1.7
4.7
SECONDARY PRODUCTS OF PLANT OIL INDUSTRY
Extracted coarses
Sunflower coarse
good
892
7.61 4.97
169
313
489
16
120
285
90
3.2
7.8
medium
896
6.46 3.96
143
262
412
17
201
292
78
3.1
7.5
poor
889
5.40 3.01
113
192
304
19
308
303
66
1.6
4.6
Rape coarse
900
6.89 4.35
142
247
396
29
128
355
92
7.1
11.5
good
900
8.82 6.02
251
375
548
15
37
327
73
1.0
5.0
medium
900
8.75 5.96
242
357
523
19
55
331
72
1.1
5.1
poor
900
8.66 5.89
226
325
480
16
67
365
72
1.4
5.2
Corn germ
970
9.09 6.24
118
134
221
105
129
525
20
0.5
4.5
Sunflower
926
8.04 5.35
93
176
302
170
241
230
57
2.0
5.0
796
96
3.0
0.3
Soya bean coarse
Scones
SECONDARY PRODUCTS OF SUGAR INDUSTRY
Molasse
780
8.10 5.41
82
62
108
Sugar-beet
wet
piece, 159
8.00 5.32
115
73
112
13
222
610
43
3.6
0.9
Sugar-beet
silage
piece, 144
7.59 4.96
104
91
147
33
241
522
57
5.2
0.9
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Dry piece
905
7.81 5.15
110
63
98
6
200
651
45
5.4
1.0
BREWERY SECONDARY PRODUCTS
Refuse of barley
931
7.57 4.94
95
69
109
31
164
633
63
0.9
3.5
Beer marc (fresh)
240
6.77 4.24
109
135
228
70
182
468
52
2.9
6.0
Beer marc (dried)
901
6.39 3.90
112
139
238
84
172
462
44
2.9
6.0
900
5.39 2.99
70
34
67
52
220
638
23
1.4
1.3
Tomato marc (dried) 920
5.18 2.84
111
149
235
103
264
323
75
9.8
7.8
Grain swill (dried)
904
5.51 3.11
82
143
353
50
105
429
63
2.3
7.9
Corn swill (dried)
944
5.15
137
190
284
113
62
586
55
0.8
5.5
Corn marc (dried)
932
7.44 4.83
95
107
218
41
85
587
69
1.2
9.2
Sweet
corn 295
secondary product
6.44 3.94
92
63
98
42
274
530
56
3.0
2.0
OTHER FORAGES
Apple marc (dried)
Urea
980
1475 2880
(Várhegyi et al., 1989; Várhegyiné, 1997; cit Szabó F. 1998)
5. 5.5 Calf management
The minimalization of loss during calf rearing is very important for the successful operation of the dairy farm.
The healthy, well developed offspring is the basis for a healthy mature cattle for breeding purposes or fattening
as well.
There are two types of calf management system:
1. bucket milk feeding
2. suckling from mother
5.16. ábra - Figure 5.16 A newborn calf with its mother
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5. Dairy Management
Source: veepro.nl
Bucket milk feeding
The newborn calf is placed together with its mother for only some days and then separated from the cow, or
separated immediately after born (Figure 5.16). The feed is colostrum or milk replacer powder and the calves
drink it from a bucket. This system is used in dairy farm or in dual purpose farms (beef and milk
production).The reason for the separation of offsprings and mothers at the beginning is that the milk is produced
to be sold. The product of cows at dairy stock is to provide one calf per year and to produce high amount, high
quality milk.
The calf rearing and cow keeping systems are independent from each other.
Intensive dairy production requires an efficient in production and economic, good in the context of animalhealth management for calves. The bucket feeding has widespread in the last decades, because it fits to the
reasons mentioned above. In case of disease control, this system, where animals are kept as individuals (Figure
5.17), stops the spread of disease from calf to calf. Other housing system when some calves are grouped and
kept together (Figure 5.18).
Advantages of bucket feeding:
1. Milk yield is higher, approx. 6-9% more milk produced.
2. Possibility to control the milk consumption of calves. The farmer can adjust the quantity of daily milk so that
the best calf performance is achieved.
3. Bucked feeding increases income from milk production as less whole milk is feed by calves in bucket feeding
system than in suckling.
4. Milking machine does not damage udder or teats, suckling may cause scars or other harms.
It has to be mentioned that much more human attention and contribution for feeding is needed in bucket feeding.
The labour cost of calf rearing is higher than suckling system, as more worktime is spend for animal
management. The preparation, warming of milk and making solution from milk replacer powder are essential to
be done right. It means technological instructions, appropriate cleaning. Faults may have negative consequences
such as diarrhoea, disease or death of calves.
An other cost of bucket fedding is the building or room for preparation milk/milk powder.
5.17. ábra - Figure 5.17 Individual housing of calves are common in bucket feeding
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5. Dairy Management
Source: veepro.nl
5.18. ábra - Figure 5.18 Grouping calves into small groups during milk feeding period is
also a possible way for keeping
Source: veepro.nl
Holstein Friesian breed is the majority of dairy breeds in several countries. The growth rate of these calves is
influenced by the feeding system, quality of feed and daily nutrient content provided. The daily growth varies
between 300 to 800 grams (Table 5.6). Young calves show a very intensive growth, the daily gain of weight is
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5. Dairy Management
about 1 percent of body weight, later at the age of half year old the daily gain reaches its maximum values,
which one significantly decreases later. Holstein Friesian at the age of 1 year old has a daily growth intensity of
0.5 percent of live weight. The live weight of cattle is strongly correlated to the chest size, it could be a useful
tool for estimation (Table 5.7).
5.19. ábra - Table 5.6 Expected growth of Holstein-Friesian calves during bucket milk
feeding and later
Source: veepro.nl
5.20. ábra - Table 5.7 Chest size of animal is in strong correlation to live weight for
Holstein-Friesian
Source: veepro.nl
Another option to feed calves with rubber teats. Bucket or a larger bottle can be used to insert rubber teats and it
serves as a milk feeder. Drinking from teats is natural, calves easily get this habit but later the change to water
drinking can be complicated.
The cleaning and disinfection both buckets and rubber teats are important to prevent contamination. The use of
rubber teats make the feeding time shorter, a two weeks old calf ingest 0.6 litre of milk from rubber teats and 0.2
litre from bucket, a 5 weeks old calf drink 1.8 litre and 0.6 litre of milk from rubber teats and bucket
respectively. The differences originated from the fact that young ruminants have to study how to drink, as
drinking water, but this learning period in not needed for suckling. If the feed is milk replacer the concentration
of it changes to volume per time consumed feed, higher nutrient (powder) concentration decreases the speed of
drinking.
Independently from the feeding system of milk the interval between two occasions should be the same and the
temperature of milk or milk replacer must be body temperature for effective digestion. The other factor not to be
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changed is the content of feed. Any changes in the substitues, concentration of nutrients alter the efficiency of
digestion, it will be worse, less efficient.
This period of milk feeding last for the age of 50-90 days of calves. The first 10 days belongs to the colostrum
feeding and the rest is for milk or milk replacer feeding.
Before weaning, solid feedstuffs are used for feeding calves not only milk. The beginning of introduction
concentrates and hay is when calves are 10 days old. As the amount of ingested feedstuffs increases, the amount
of milk lower and lower. Early roughage introduction stimulates rumen development and makes the feeding
more cost efficient.
The time for elimination the milk from the diet is when calves are able to consume and digest the amount of
feed that ensures all the nutrient required for maintenance and growth. A rough estimation for the age of calves
is when the daily consumed concentratates and roughage is minimum 1 and 1 kg respectively.
Calves drink more and more water as drink less and less milk. Water should not be contaminated. Cool and
clean water, available ad libitum is the best practice. If the water withdrawn from the calves one hour before
milk feeding the milk intake will increase.
Suckling from mother
This system is used at beef cattle farms. This is much more simple, not requires additional human labour. Calves
are suckling from their mother from birth till weaning. This is used in beef cattle production, cows are not
milked, the amount of produced milk is about 1500 liters per lactation period and it is exclusively used for calf
feeding.
Characteristics of calves’ digestive system
Calves already have rumen and all the parts of gaster, but their function differ from the adult animals. The
rumen has no function at the beginning of life, thus its size is small in young calves. It does not contain
microorganisms, there is no microbial activity to support digestion. Enzymes working in young calves are
rennin for proteins, lactase for lactose and lipase for fat digestion. In mature cattle lipase activity is still high, but
lactase and rennin have no function any more, and these enzymes are not sythetized. Enzymes of adult cattle are
pepsin and trypsin to disrupt protein molecules, amylase and maltase for carbohydrates.
The activity of rumen, after microbial infection, makes it to be the major part digestion at the age of 50-60 days.
The higher and higher daily amount of concentrates and roughage consumption provide nutrients for microbes
in rumen.
There are some ways for microbial infection of rumen in young calves. Source of bacteria are saliva of mother,
feedstuffs or soil. The saliva of cow is the best way to get all the microbes needed for further ruminal activity.
Colostrum
Colostrum feeding begins from birth and last for 9-10 days. It means that the technology of this type of feeding
lasts for 9-10 days, but physiologically the colostrum feeding period is the first two days. There are two
different ways for colosrum feeding: 1, suckling and the calves are kept together with their mothers 2, bucket
feeding or suckling from rubber teats. If the calves not suckling colostrum from its mother the colostrum in the
bucket has to be at body temperature, it is about 37-38 Celsius degree. If the milk is not warm enough drinking
is probably followed by diarrhoea. Suckling is better for the calves and in this case they make the decision about
the frequency of suckling, the amount and the temperature is always the optimal. In some cases human help is
needed for new born calves for the first suckling.
The amount of colostrum in beef cattle is the one as usually needed but for dairy cows it is much more. Man has
to handle the surplus amount of colostrum, it has high value, important contents, thus for dairy cows bucket
feeding gives the possibility to distribute colostrum to more young calves.
The additional amount of colostrum of cows are transferred to calves, but those ones maybe out of colostrum
feeding period In this case colostrum still a good source of feed and supports the growth of calves, but not is the
original function of colostrum acts, that is immunity. This colostrum could replace about 20-30 percent of daily
amount of milk replacer. The higher ratio in daily feed could cause problems, as colostrum contains factors
which inhibits trypsine, so it blocks the activity of the protein digestion trypsine enzyme.
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There are some additives to preserve colostrum and use it for further calf feeding. most of these additives are
organic acids, which ensureits effectiveness and preserve as it is, meaning source of immunity.
Most of the nutrients and immunglobulins are preserved in frozen colostrum for months, up to one year. During
thawing the slow melting and warming are key factors to avoid any detrimental effects on immunglobulins.
Colostrum cooling is a possibility for short term storage up to one week. Quick cooling for storage is essential
as colostrum, such as other milk, contains bacteria. The number of bacteria cells in a milliliter colostrum is
20,000-30,000 or even more.
The aim of colostrum feeding is to make the calf drink as soon as possible after birth and as much as possible.
The optimal situation if the calf ingests colostrum not later than two hours after calving. During the first half day
of its life, the calf should feed colostrum as frequently as possible, because the gaster is small, it has the capacity
of 1.5 to 2.0 litres. Sucking the cow mean more ingestion compared to bucket feeding, not the quantity but the
number of action. For farmers it is suggested to drink the calf four or five times during the age of 0-2 days and
later it can be decreased to three times per day. Suckling is happening usually two times more in a day.
The ideal immunglobulin level in the blood of calves is 15 mg/ml to obtain the adequate immunity from
colostrum. This immunglobulin concentration decreases quickly after calving nad it is the reason that after two
days milk is not colostrum if we reflect to its special function, despite the calf-feeding technology is called
colostrum feeding period. The level of total immunglobulins is 100-150 grams per litre of colostrum
immediately after birth, less than one forth after 24 hours, only approximately 10 grams per litre after 48 hours
and as low as two to four grams per litre one week after calving.
Colostrum is not pure white but contains some yellow, it is yellow-white and a little bit of red. It contains
relatively high concentration of salt, most if it is magnesium. It increases the incidence of diarrhoeae, but this
effect disappears as the salt content decreases to the normal level.
The components of colostrum differs from the cow milk produced later int he lactation period. The differences
are large, especially on the first day after calving. Some days, usually three or four days, after calving the
components are very similar of colostrum and normal milk.
The dry matter content of colostrum just after calving is more than 25 percent, one day later 14% and some days
later about 13%. The total protein content at the beginning of lactation is 17.5 percent, one day later 5.5 percent,
which decreases to 3.5 percent, which concentration is not changing during lactation. The ash content of
colostrum aslo decreases but the changes are so much high. Ash content reflects to the mineral content of milk.
On the day of calving, ash concentration is 1.2 percent, at the end of first day it is 0.9 percent and two days after
calving it is 0.8 percent, during the whole lactation period it is not less than 0.75 percent in average. The milk fat
and lactose content of colostrum slightly increasing from the beginning of lactation, milk fat is about 3.2
percent, milk lactose is 3.4 percent just after calving and these increase to 3.7 and 4.8 percent respectively.
Immunglobulin of colostrum is originated from plasma and not secreted in udder as most compartments of milk.
Immunglobulins mean five classes as IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM. Immunglobulin G and M have function in
systemic infections, immunglobulin A works in the intestine. These immunglobulins provide a passive
immunity to neonatals, these mean antibodies for agents prevously infected the cow. The concentration of
immunglobulins varies depending on the type, immunglobulin G1,G2, M and A are in the colostrum as 7.5%,
0.2%, 0.5% and 0.4% respectively.
These immnuglobulins acts again Eserichia coli, that are important for the health of newborn calves.
Absorption of immunglobulins is the uptake through the intestinal epithelium. The ingestion of colostrum
stimulates pinocytosis which stops the internalization. This action prevents the unexpected absorption of
pathogens. The most important factor affecting efficiency of absorption in young animals is the age, lifetime
from birth. Absorption of immunglobulins decreases as the maturation of epithel cells continues. The amount of
immunglobulin absorbed depends on the amount of colostrum ingested, the age of calf, the days after claving
(when colostrum was produced). The larger quantity of colostrum drunk and the calf is younger the serum
immunglobulin concentration is higher.
Beside these basic factors others also influences immunglobulin absorption. Environment, such as disease, stress
may decreases blood immunglobulin level.
Permeability of intestine depends on the biology of animal and the time of first colostrum consumption. In
general, we can assume that the first day of life is critical. The permeability is very efficient till 12hours and it is
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poor at about the end of first day. If the calf were fed with colostrum early, the absorption will end earlier, if the
calves drink colostrum for first at the end of first day, the closure is delayed to 31-33. hours of their life. The
amount of ingested colostrum has no effect of this trait.
The passive immunity obtained by colostrum feeding is not the only reason to consume colostrum. It contains
components for calf nutrition. Nutritive values have milk fat, protein, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and
other bioactive molecules. The energy level of colostrum is higher than the whole milk later; it is required to
maintain body temperature of the calf. The body energy reserves could be depleted in a short time, it is
estimated that these energy sources last for less than one day.
There differences between cattle breeds in the quality and characteristics of colostrum. Some breeds produce
colostrum with higher immunglobulin content, Jersey belongs to this group of breed, other breed, such as
Holstein Friesian, which has colostrum of about 40 percent lower immunglobulin content.
Beside breed, the lactation number is the key factor for immunglobulin level. Heifers, after calving the first calf,
have colostrum with lower Ig concentration than older cows. The background of this fact is that the number of
infection occurence is lower for heifers than older cows. Based no scientific data the difference between breeds
in smaller than the effect of parity. In the third or fourth parity the percentage of Ig of colostrum could reach the
value of three times higher compared to the first lactation.
The quantity of expressed immunglobulins seems to be a constant trait, as the concentration of imunnglobulins
in the colostrum siginificantly associated to the daily milk yield. Cows of excellent genetics in the context of
milk yield have colostrum with lower immunglobulin concentration.
6. 5.6 Artificial insemination
Artificial insemination of cattle is a common breeding method. Artificial insemination is more dominant and
frequent in dairy stocks than in beef cattle. The developed method how to store and use sperm after deep-frozen
provides the possibility to use sperm of bulls out of the farm. The breeding and development of a breed or a
certain stock is so much easier and faster than before applying artificial insemination intead of nutral mating.
Advantages of artificial insemination:
• Access to superior proven sires. These bulls can be kept in any part of the world. All the information about its
performance, production of daughters, data of genetic markers are available.
• Not necessary to keep any bulls on the farm. Presumedly, the genetics of our bull is nota s excellent as other
commerciually available sires, those were selected from a huge population and thier mothers were also
excellent in production, performance and all the valuable traits.
• Save the cost of keeping bulls.
• Bulls used in insemination programmes are regularly checked for diseases, genetically inherited factors.
• The rate of conception, efficiency of breeding is increased.
• The reproduction characteristics of sires are checked: sperm motility, fertility and other factors.
• The semen can be used despite the sire is not available (death of bull) or natural mating is not possible with
the candidate sire (eg. he is too old, heavy, physically not able to cover the cow).
• Fewer problems with managing herd books, records.
• It can be used in the case, when the difference in size/weight is too large between bull and the cow. In natural
mating it may cause injury for the cow.
• Artificial insemination is an appropriate method for breeding cows, those are not standing for the selected
bull.
• Less injury for the animal keepers, as bulls can be agressive and may hurt human.
Disadvantages of artificial insemination:
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• More human labour is needed compared to natural mating.
• Number is sires decreasing worldwide. It may have the risk of negative consequences of inbreeding or
widespread any genetic problem which is not recognised till now.
• Trained personnel is a must to achive good resutls in reproduction.
Semen is usually collected into artificial vagina. It simulates the vagina of cow during mating. It is required that
artificial vagina should be clean, sterila and body temperatue.
The collected semen is stored in liquid nitrogen. During freezing of water, ice crystalls are formed, which are
dangerous for the sperm cell, those act like a stick or sharp knife. This effect can be avoided if glicerol is added
to the semen sample before deep freezing.
The fertility and viability of semen stored in liquid nitrogen is not decreasing by duration of storage. For short
period solid carbon-dioxide (dry ice) also a way to preserve sperm cells, but is case of longer storage
deterioration is observed.
Before insemination a trained person thaws the frozen straw containing the semen, put it in warm water for a
short time to make sperm to start its motility. During insemination the inseminator lubricates his glovesn,
penetrates his hand into the rectum of the cow and hold the cervix. This will support for the other hand to insert
the insemination gun through the vagina and deposit the semen.
The most crucial factor of insemination is the timing. The oocyte and sperm cell has to meet when both of them
are fertile. Ovulation is the process when the mature egg is released from the ovaries to the oviduct and this egg
is able to be fertilized by the sperm cell. The exact determination of ovulation time significantly affects the
efficiency of insemination as measured by concenption rate.
The biological processes in the female body guides the reproduction system and the behave of animals. The
changes of concentration of some major hormone drives the cycle, which is 21 days. Three days before the
estrus the progesterone level declines, one and half days followed by this decrease, the estrogen level starts to
increase as it is produced by the dominant follicle while its size is increasing. Estrogen is the hormone
predominantly responsible changes in animal behaviour. Luteinizing hormone also plays a role in beginning of
ovulation; this hormone is released in the pituitary galnd of the brain. The release is driven by estrogen, at the
beginning of heat. After ovulation estrogen level quickly declines and progesterone concentration increases.
Ovulation starts about 24-30 hours after the beginning of standing heat. When cows are in heat, the special
behaviour can be recognized by the farmer. Signs of heat are described in the chapter of cattle behaviour.
The best time for insemination is from the second part of heat. It means that minimum 12 hours should be
waited and insemination is done not later than six hours before ovulation. The background of this time
determination that, sperm cells are able to wait, meaning still viable for 20-26 hours but before the fertilization
the egg a special process should be completed, called capacitation, which needs about six hours. The basic
dogma is that sperm is able to wait but not the oocyte. The fertile period of egg is usually 8-10 hours in contrast
to sperm cell which has a maximum viability of 48 hours.
Insemination in practice is follows a simple rule: cows in heat are observed in the evening will be inseminated
next morning, cows in standing heat in the morning should be inseminated in the evening. It has to be
mentioned that human factor is very important, we have to base our activity on the biology of female animal, but
the proper timing of insemination works only if farmers continously look for signs of heat.
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6. fejezet - 6. Beef Management
1. 6.1 Calves
Beef calves are not separated from their mother, cows and offsprings are kept together untill weaning. In
continental climate calves are born at the beginning of vegetation period and during spring and summer, they are
mainly of pasture with the stock.
The place for calving is the stable or outside on rangeland. If pregnant cows are kept in stable for calving,
appropriate, clean bedding is a must. Straw should be dry and in thick layer. The best way to group the pregnant
cows in small groups, about 15-20 individuals form a group. The „in house calving” is more expensive
compared to calving on pasture, but safer and the calf loss is minimal if the weather conditions are poor.
Weaning of calves is usually after half a year from calving, it is at the end of grazing season in continental
climate. Calving on pasture is the way if the breed or our cows have calving ease. Human assistance in some
cases required, in such a situation mobile or fixed cattle pens are help to assist calving. This human contribution
is mostly needed for pregnant heifers.
Cow milk is the best feed for calves, young animals produce enzyme to digest milk components, such as lactose,
fat and protein. The goal to be achieved for calf feeding is to make calves to graze, feed high quality roughage
as soon as possible.
The use of pens to separate calves from mature animals gives a place for high quality roughages with low fiber
content and concentrates. Calves freely enter and leave this pen and consumpt the easely digestible feed.
The age (weight) of calves determine to quantity of feed consumed. Calves at the age of 6-8 weeks feed 0.3-0.4
kg hay and 0.6-0.7 kg concentrates.
Weaning the calves
Weaning is a stress for the calves, man has to take of the animals and make it as close as natural as possible. The
saeson is autumn for weaning, the calf should be weaned before the yield of grassland siginificantly decreases to
a certain limit. When the calf is separeted from its mother, the milk production of cow is terminated, no more
milk synthetized, less energy needed from feedstuffs. Cows have the possibility to build the body energy
reserves before winter, feeding is based on the yield of pasture that one ensures adequate amount in autumn. The
roughage could be fresh or preserved as well, the cheapest way if weaning time is not as late that the grazing
season just already finished.
We have to consider that our cow is still pregnant at weaning. The nutrient requirement during lactation is about
fifty percent more compared to cows in dry period, but pregnant. If the weaning is done too late and the grass
production is falling additional feed should be applied to compensate the loss, usually concentrates are fed in a
relatively low daily amount in the diet.
Earlier weaning generally does not make any harmful effect to the beef production, early weaning means
weaning not at the end of season but before. The calves at the age of 4-6 months are able to digest fibre, the
efficieny of utilization is similar to the efficiency as the mature animals have. Calves born during early to
middle spring are more than four months old before autumn.
The calves got a passive immunity during colostrum feeding and the immune system of calf is developing as the
immunglobulins in plasma derived from the cow decreasing, as occurs naturally, because all the proteins have a
life cycle. Weaning, if done not properly, may cause stress, which makes the calves susceptible to diseases. It is
a stress to the cow, especially when the first calf is weaned in cow’s life.
The most common weaning when calves are taken and farmers put them to into pens, not each calf alone, but
put them into a group. This method causes the largest stress, which should be minimized. The first days are the
most problematic, calves are interested in all the cows, call them, want to join to their mothers again. A better
weaning way for the calves if they are not separeted and taken into a pen, but still remain on the grassland. If we
want to let them on the pasture, green good quality grass provides the required nutrients, thus the feed remain
the same as before weaning. Usually, calves do not loss weight and have no extra health problems, if weaned on
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pasture. Some cows or heifers may be joined to the group of calves, but not the mothers. An other possibility to
wean the calves and put them to the pasture next to the cow’s one. This last for some days, the calves see their
mothers, they have some contact with them, but not physical contact, and no more milk consumption. This some
days is enough time for cows to go dry and no more problems for their udder. The stress is significantly
decreased on this way.
The weaning happens without any human contribution in a natural way as well. It is a behave in the nature, but
it is not the best solution in the context of beef production. The cows do not let the calves to suck milk any more
just before calving. It means that the dry period is shorter, which results a better body condition and more milk
in the following lactation for the cows. The daily gain of calves is not better if natural weaning is the applied
method. If calves are weaned on pasture or put to a pen the gaining of body weight is going on. These animals
are able to utilize fiber and good quality fresh green roughage or hay is used as feed with concentrates. It should
be mentioned that there is no stress if weaning is made by the cow and not by human.
In conclusion the important issue on weaning is to minimize stress and weight loss of calves, support the fast
growth of animals as calves are a significant part of the beef production system. An other aspect is the
occurence of diseases as an possible aftermath of weaning. These health problems could be more severe and
frequent if other factors exist at the same time. Poor weather conditions, such as rain, low temperature, wet
bedding should be avoid if possible. If calves are in the stable, as it is the housing after weaning, respiratory
problems may also occur.
2. 6.2 Housing of beef cattle
Housing of cattle mean extra cost of production compared to a natural system, when animals are on the pasture.
The climatic conditions of the region determine the possible ways to be chosen. The housing of beef cattle can
be limited to use only in cold season, out of vegetation period and/or when the grassland vegetation is growing
but the animals are kept on pasture from morning untill evening. An other method is to implement a cattle farm,
where animals are in the stable all the time.
The farm has to achive profit in the beef production; it depends on the balance of cost of input and output. The
decrease of housing cost is usually essential for an economically sustainable beef production farm. Without
housing, a free-range system can be implemented in warm climate zone or in „four season” countries as well,
where the winter is cold, buti n this case the selection between breeds is limited. Primitive, autochtonous, low
production breeds can be used in such a case, but farmers have to consider that housing cost is lower, but the
nutritional requirements, energy intake is increased. Requirements to maintain body temperature depends on
some characteristics of the cattle breed, such as metabolism, length and dense of hair, body weight, relative
body surface area etc.
Housing cows and their calves
In winter, not necessary to keep cows in stable, but suggested for calves and heifers. In general, roofs provide
dry bedding and shade against rian and snow. The walls at each side are protective factors in case of cold winds
and hosuing is basicly required to separate animals from each other, particulraly important for weak, ill
individuals and at birth and later for newborn calves.
Housing for pregnant cows just before calving, cows with their offspring are needed more and more frequently
in recent times, because most of the beef cows have calving in late winter or spring, the size of stock increased
and modern breeds were introduced.
CIGR made recommendations for several types of housing systems in beef cattle production. The advantages
and possibilities, concluded by the programme, is discussed at farm models for age and utilization of beef cattle.
Loose Housing
Loose housing without cubicles is a stable with resting place involved in the system that is not diveded into
subparts, all the individuals have one certain lying area. One or more than one group can be created and separate
groups from each other, but the group is the smallest unit to plan stable design, in cubicles it is the individual.
There are possibilities to use or not use bedding material, which is usually straw. Deep bedding mean that new
bedding material is put on the surface of the previous bedding. If no bedding is used, it is called slatted floor and
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in this case the floor is perforated, or an other option for no bedding system, when the floor is sloped and the
faeces and urine is collected to the dung removal place in the stable.
- Bedded house and calves are accomodated between cow pens with concrete court
It is suggested to calculate a minimum area of 6.5 m2 per cow for resting place. In the farmers and animal
handling point of view sixteen cows is expected to make a group in a section. Calves have free access to the
through, but not for their mothers. The creeps for the calves should be about the size of 1.0 to 1.6 m2 per calf.
The larger fits to larger breeds, but all the animals have well being in large ones, but the cost of housing is
increased. Large creeps also good decision, if most of the calving is in winter, thus large calves are housed
before the end of housing season. If straw, as the most common bedding material, is used five to eight kilograms
per day is the requirement for mother and offspring. Feeder in the calf creep available for only calves and ad
libitum good quality hay feeding is suggested.
The stable has open side at the court and the orientation of the house is planned to consider the wind direction.
- Bedding with straw for rest and feeding area, calves are accomodated between cow pens
The creeps for calves are not larger than 1.2 m2, that size is smaller than in the system of „Bedded house and
calves are accomodated between cow pens with concrete court”. Larger surface area is coverd by straw, thus the
requirement is more, in average eight to eleven kg straw per day for one cow and its calf. The area for feeding
and rest is connected to each other, these functions as one place. The calving box at calves creep is for any cow.
The surface of feeding stall has a slope of 3 percentages to operate the self cleaning process, faeces and urine
slides down by its own.
- Bedding with straw, calves are accomodated in the back of straw court
In the rest area approximately 5 m2 per cow is calculated. The requirement for straw is decreased, only four to
six kilograms per cow and its offspring. This low amount is due to the concrete exercise court. The calving
boksz is placed as it is a part of the creep of calves. The resting place has a slope of 6 percent, which is a little
bit above than the average. This type of housing is suggested for regions in dry climate area.
Cubicle Housing
Cubicles are used in loose housing, but loose housing is possible to be designed without cubilcles as well (see
before). Cubicles are places for the animals to be separated, lying alone, rumination. Cubicle systems are
immobile, that means the reorganization the equipments, the size of cubicles. Cubicles are more appropriate for
heifers and cows as female animals keep the place dry as the urination affects area only behind the animal. The
type of manure is determined by the bedding in the cubicles, more bedding material mixed with faeces resulted
in manure, or using less quantity of bedding material that is slurry with feaces and urine.
The suggested size of cubicles depends on the size (weight) of the animals. The optimal length for 500kg,
600kg, 700kg liveweight cattle is 2.01 m, 2.10 m and 2.17 m respectively. The optimal width varies as 1.13 m,
1.17 m and 1.21 m for animals of 500kg, 600kg, 700kg liveweight respectively.
The anatomy and basic movement of animals, as lying down, standing up are the major factor for designing the
cubicles. Head to head cubicles have advantages as the cow int he cubicle can use some place of the opposite
site, that may mean saving area, lowering cost.
Bedding materails are also used in cubicles, the straw is the most widely used, but for economic reasons others
also typical such as wood chips or bedding mat.
The most common housing system, when cubicles are installed in the way that those are oriented as the front of
the cubicle is at the front of the opposite cubicle. The calves creeps are either between cubicles rows or at the
extremities.
Usually the length of cubicles varies between 2.30 to 2.50 meters. Cubicles are dry, as urine and faeces are
produced out of them, so the required amount of straw is not less than half a kilogram for a cow in a day. The
calves creeps need 1 to 2 kg straw per day per calf. If the calves are between cubicles the contact to cows is
direct and frequent. When creeps are at the extremities, the cubicles are shorter, because there is a possibility to
meet cow heads. These stables are also built that one side is open, for practical reasons this side should be
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situated at the feeding side of stable and the orientation of this open side should not face to the typical direction
of wind.
Calves creeps at the extremities and cubicles are back to back is an option for stable design for cows and calves.
Creeps for calves and calving boxes are at the extremities and not between rows. These back to back cubicles
are long, because there is no possibility to reduce length, as cows have no position to use the place of each other
(as it was the situation, where they were facet o face). The amount of bedding materail is the same as for the
other systems, but the distribution of it is more complicated.
Housing calves after weaning
This system involves veal calves and all the calves those weaned from their mothers. This housing method does
not describe cattle rearing on pasture when calves are sucklers and grazing on pasture.
Weaned beef calves are accomodated individually or in groups. In general, individual housing is used in dairy
farms, where all the claves are weaned very early, immediately or 1-2 days of age. Individual keeping of beef
calves is the method if these animals are weaned early, this is also meets the regulation of the European Union,
which banned individual housing after the age of eight weeks of calves. Grouping of weaned calves and raise
them in a stable is a usual way of housing.
Individual keeping of weaned beef calves
Hutches and pens are commercial available for individual keeping the calves. The basic difference that hutches
are or can be used out of the stable; in contrast the pen is a housing, where it is inside a building. As a
consequence based on this differs, the overall housing cost for pens usually higher than the cost for individual
housing in calf hutches.
The size of individual pens is 1m width and 1.5 m in length. The pens should be placed above the floor level,
0.25-0.3 meter is appropriate for drainage of urine and makes easier to keep the pen dry. Pens in the building
placed side by side of each other, for disease spread prevention, the physical contact between calves should be
avoided. The material used for pen construction is wood and concrete.
Hutches are not concrete buildings, most of them made from plastic, synthetic materials. Wood is also a good
material. Out of the hutch the fence is made of metal. The ideal size for hutches are 2 meters length, 1.5 meters
width and the height is 1.5 m. Outside of hutch is an outdoor place that is about 2-3 m2. The basic role of
hutches to prevent the young animal from extreme climate, of course this role and its significance depend on the
weather condition, such as rain, temperature, wind and solar radiation. If the summer is hot, light colour is
preferred and the material should protect from overheating inside. The hutches have roof, three walls and one
side is open. The open side should not face to the dominant and ususal direction of wind, it also helps to keep
the hutch dry. Hutches can be placed on the ground, on cocnrete floor or above ground with a certain iwdth of
drainage material. The decision depends ont he rainfall, slope and soil water consitions. The hooves of the
calves must be on dry place. Manure has to be eliminated from hutches, place cleaned and disinfected before the
arrival of next calf.
Supports for milk buckets and water, support for concentrates and hay rack also parts of the system.
Grouping, and group of weaned beef calves housed together
Usually two to six weaned calves are kept together. The advantages of grouping is that calves study social
behaviour, playing and teaching each other and the farmers have to manage fewer operating calves blocks.
Groups are housed in hutches or pens. These are similar to those were prescribed above for individual keeping
technologies. These pens and hutches are larger, size increase is proportional or little bit less.
There are different floors for calves, these are straw, which is regularly cleaned, straw, which make a depth
bedding, concrete floor, partially slatted floor. Straw bedding is the most comfortable for the animals, non
slippery concrete floor is also suitable, slatted floor si acceptable, if not the total area is slatted and the spacing
have to be adjusted to the smaller hooves.
Housing for fattening, finishing cattle
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Housing for beef cattle in finishing is not needed in some special cases. Requirement for housing is influenced
by climate, season, availability of pasture and other factors. If the beef production system is based on pasture,
but the finishing is in winter, out of the vegetation period, accomodation in stable has to be the place of
production.
Finishing cattle can be tied or kept in a loose housing. Most of the beef farms use loos housing systems, tying
are not common and it does not meet the animal welfare issues. Tied production systems can be managed under
certain circumstances, typically used in samll farms with low number of animals.
There are several stable systems for fattening beef cattle. These can be diveded into three types: bedding stable,
sloped floor system and fully slatted house. The sloped floor and the slatted house are not using bedding
materials, thus the output is slurry. In a lot of countries beeded housing is the most common and widespread
technology for finishing cattle. The most important factors influencing the decision on housing system are the
price and availability of straw for bedding, handling and storage the manure or slurry that one has to meet the
more and more strict enviromental regulations, price of human labour and the number of animals to be fattened.
Bedding in the stable for finishing beef
Stable is bedded with straw was the housing system in the past for fattening beef cattle and it is widespread
today as well. The byproduct from arable land is used for the total surface of the stall, predominantly straw of
cereals. The depth of bedding may reach the level of 1 meter, or in some cases – if the winter is long, or animals
are not taken to the pasture – it is more. The manure, meaning faeces, urine and bedding straw is removed from
the stall one or two times in a year. When bedding housing is planned, man has to consider the changes of
ground level from zero to one meter to design fences, gates and all the elements of the stable.
The natural ventillation is provided by open side, fresh air is important to prevent respiratory diseases. The
building has roof in most cases, but for primitive breeds and in not rough climatic conditions, the beef
production system works without roof as well. It is called bedded yard.
The average daily quantity of straw for one finishing cattle is about 5-6 kg. This high amount of straw resulted
in clean animals, meaning less infection, animals are not contaminated by faeces thus the number of bacterial
cells are smaller. The number of cattle on the farm should be divided into small groups. The size of groups is
generally smaller than for dairy cows. It is suggested to be from 15 to 30. The major disadvantage of the soft
floor is the high occurence of hoof problems. The miss of solid surface can generate lameness and other disease
of the hooves, which contributes to higher veterinary cost and loss of production.
There are stalls where not the total surface is covered by straw, resting place is bedded but usually feeding place
is concrete or sometimes slatted. The scrapers clean the floor on the feeding place, these scrapers can be build in
the building and operates electronically or the scraper is mounted on the tractor. If there is a slope of the
concrete floor, the removal of manure is simpler, it requires less cost. The steepness of slope is approximately 48°, which is steep enough for the manure to be collected on a certain area, by its own with the contribution of
animal movement. The required amount of straw is decreased to the half compared to fully straw bedded
system. Using concrete floor produces less amount of manure and its storage is easier to be solved. If the places
out of the lying area is slatted the size of hooves should be takne into consideration. The presence of significant
quantity of straw on slatted surface may cause further porblems in slurry management. Fully slatted floor is not
suggested for young animals.
Slatted floor is used on the total area of stable in „slatted floor stall”. Under the stable huge tanks collect the
slurry. The depth of these tank is 2-2,5 meters. If slurry handling and storage is done in an environmentally
acceptable way, this system has some advantages compared to straw bedded house system. There is no cost for
bedding material, no removal cost for slurry as it falls down, the cost of bedding (both labour and operating
machines) is significantly decreased. Pens are situated at the feeding way, these pens provide the resitng place
for the animals. An adequate ventillation is needed for replacement of the ammonia by fresh air.
Cost of straw is also minimized, when the majority of the stable floor is sloping. The floor slopes toward a
channel where the sluury is collected and covered by slats. Mechanical scraper removes the slurry only on this
part of the stall.
3. 6.3 Beef cattle nutrition
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Roughage and concentrates are the components of feed in cattle nutrition. The ratio of concentrates basically
depends on the intensity of production. The maximum intensity of beef parameters are factor limited by the
genetics of breed or exactly the individual itself. The effects of genetic markers, single nucleotide
polymorphisms are described in the chapter of cattle genetics.
Feeding the beef cow
Beef cow housing and nutrition are the major cost in the production system. Housing cost could be minimized if
a long vegetation period with good weather conditions is available. Shorter and not too cold winter decreases the
time spent in stall and low cost buildings are appropriate. The majority of total cost is the nutrition, it can be
assumed that it is 50-70 percent of total production cost. The good quality and high yield of grass decreases
nutrition cost.
The biological status of the cow influences the nutritional requirements of the animal. The ingested feed is used
for maintenance, growth (especially for beef cows and not for dairy), milk synthesis and reproduction. Any lack
in nutrition resulted in problems in reproduction. Reproduction is the most important issue in a beef farm as the
calf is the only product of beef cows.
The reproduction status of the cow is pregnant, non pregnant, early lactation, mid lactation, late lactation, dry
period (meaning pre-calving period) of the animal.
In the early lactation the daily milk production is at the top, but this yield is not close to the daily maximum
milk produced by a dairy cow, which produces approximately 50-70 liters per day. Any problem is nutrition
may decrease milk yield, conception rate, lower calf weight at weaning. The requirement for energy and protein
of the daily ration is the greatest the period from calving until rebreeding. It is expected from a beef cow to
produce a calf in each year. As the pregnancy last for 285 days, calves may born 1-2 days before or after, the
cows is expected to be pregnant within 80 days from calving. If cows kept on pasture, nutritional value of green
roughage may not meet the requirements of cows in this period and the conception rate is not as high as
expected. Flushing, this special nutrition promotes a better reproduction. Flushing means a short feeding period
with high energy intake, 1-2 kg of concentrate is the daily amount.
The period of middle lactation involves moderate milk production, compared to the period before, thus the
nutritional requirements are lower. The cow is pregnant, but at the beginning no additional feed should be
calculated for the fetus. Usually, the period is four months long, but depends on the climate, vegetation, beef
production system, and biological status of the animal.
In the next period, the cow does not produce milk, no calf to be nursed, as it is a post-weaning time. The fetus is
larger, but does not requrire extra feed, because its relatively small weight. Feeding is not a limiting factor
during pre-weaning and post-weaning periods, low cost nutrition promotes the profitable beef production. Byproducts of plant production, food intustry make the cost lower and their usage is a good management practice.
This period is about two, two and a half month.
The last period ends at calving, the role of it is to prepare the cow for milk production and feed the fetus. The
fetal growth is the most intensive in the third trimester of pregnancy. Good quality of roughage is essential,
mycotoxins inhibits the growth and development of calves in uterus. The risk of mycotoxins on fetus is more
crucial at the early period of preganancy, at conception and after when the cell differentiation and tissue
development is very active. Abortion is not rare if feed contaminated with mould is used in high doses in daily
ration.
The lack in nutrients before calving has negative effects on the calf. Daily ration with unadequte energy level
results in lighter calves, higher calf mortality and decreased growth rate of offsprings due the less amount of
cow milk.
The daily dry matter intake of cow is determinded by the capacity of digestive system. Larger cows ingest more
feed daily than lighter ones. A cow in mid-pregnancy has dry matter intake as 400 kg, 450 kg, 500 kg, 550 kg,
600 kg, 650 kg of liveweight mean 7.5 kg, 8.2 kg, 8.8 kg, 9.5 kg, 10.1 kg, 10.7 kg dry matter intake per day
respectively.
The required net energy for maintenance (NEm) for a 400 kg, 450 kg, 500 kg, 550 kg, 600 kg, 650 kg of
liveweight cow is 29.9, 32.7, 35.4, 38.0, 40.6, 43.1 MJ per day respectively.
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The metabolizable protein, calcium and phosphorous requirement of a cow in mid-pregnancy at the liveweight
of 400 kg, 450 kg, 500 kg, 550 kg, 600 kg, 650 kg are 305 g, 333 g, 361 g, 387 g, 413 g, 419 g metabolizable
protein, 17 g, 19 g, 22 g, 24 g, 26 g, 28 g calcium and 13 g, 15 g, 17 g, 18 g, 20 g, 21 g phosphorous
respectively.
All the requirements for calves, dairy and beef cattle are published in NRC of USA and in national nutrition
codexes.
Cow feeding in summer
The largest differences in cow nutrition are changing as the cold and the warm seasons follow each other. In
summer the nutrition should be based on grassland. The number of days when the stock is on pasture influenced
by the climate, the length of vegetation. It should be as long as possible, in moderate climate it can reach 200240 days per year. The fencing can be stabile or mobile, the mobile electric fencing can be used to divide
pasture into smaller parts.
The yield of a certain part of grassland is the most appropriate if the cow is able to graze the dialy amount of
grass on not more area than 50 square meters. It means an estimation of 1 kg grass on 1 m2. The daily intake of
grazed feed is between 30-50 kgs. In season with high precipitation produces fresh grass with low dry matter
content and low fiber content. The additional roughage with high dry matter and fiber content, such as hay or
good quality straw in the diet supports the prevention of diarrhoea. Diarrhoea means that feed utilization has
worsen, energy loss, as higher energy content of feaces, has increased.
Dry summer decreases the quality and yield of grass, additional feed sources, such as green forage from arable
land, is used in nutrition.
Cow feeding in winter
The feeding system is in connection to the housing of the animals. Animals placed in part time on pasture during
winter are a possible way to decrease cost. Grassland is appropriate if the grass was not cut in autumn, late
autumn and the yield remained on the pasture provides the quantity for cattle nutrition for 1-2 month. An other
option is using fields with byproducts of arable lands. Corn field after harvesting the grain is ideal for beef
cattle, if the area is large enough it can be the basic source of feed for 2 months.
Preserved roughage is fed for cattle in stable. These are hay of grass, alfalafa, silage of fabaceae species and
other plants from arable lands.
Feeding growing and finishing beef cattle
Periods of the beef cattle life are rearing, growing, finishing. During rearing the calf management is the key,
usually it ends around 200 kg bodyweight and it is the phase of milk consumption. Growing is the phase of
developing more the liveweight and not so much height, the increase of liveweight is intensive and continuous.
The last period, called finishing is a period of intensive growth before slaughtering. The carcass quality and fat
cover (subcutan fat) is developed during this short phase.
The components, nutritive value of diet differs between growing and finishing. Dry matter intake compared to
liveweight is higher during growing period. The protein content of feed is 2-4 percent higher also in growing
cattle, but the energy concentration of feed is slightly less.
Beef cattle fattening is either based on roughages or concentrates. Both feeding system use conserved or fresh
roughage but the amount of additional concentrates varies. The major difference is energy concentration in the
daily ration, it can be concluded that a rough estimation can be used as the net energy content of concentrates is
two and a half, three times higher than energy of roughage in average.
The dry matter intake of growing cattle increases with liveweight. Cattle of 150 kg, 200 kg, 250 kg, 300 kg, 350
kg, 400 kg, 450 kg, 500 kg, 550 kg, 600 kg liveweight ingest 4.3 kg, 5.2 kg, 6.3 kg, 7.2 kg, 8.1 kg, 8.5 kg, 9.0
lg, 9.5 kg, 10.2 kg, 10.5 kg dry matter in a day.
In most feeding systems the roughages are fed ad libitum, which means animal eat as much as it wishes. The
amount of protein and concentrates changes.
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Planning the total mix ration for beef cattle the breed, as medium or large framed, the liveweight and the weight
for slaughter is taken into consideration. The measurement of actual liveweight is essential for the exact
determination of components of daily ration. Frequent liveweight measurement may cause some stress for the
animals, but it is suggested to be determined three times during fattening. It gives information about not only the
weight of cattle but the average daily gain that reflects to the efficiency of beef production system. Some
examples below show the differences in metabolizable protein requirements during growing in function of
liveweight and daily gain.
• A growing bull of 1.0 kg average daily gain requires 540 g and 557 g metabolizable protein at the liveweight
of 250 kg and 300 kg respectively.
• A growing bull of 1.5 kg average daily gain requires 719 g and 732 g metabolizable protein at the liveweight
of 250 kg and 300 kg respectively.
• A growing bull of 1.5 kg average daily gain requires 743 g and 762 g metabolizable protein at the liveweight
of 350 kg and 450 kg respectively.
• A growing bull of 400 kg liveweight and 1.0 kg or 1.2 kg daily gain requires 586 g, 637 g metabolizable
protein, respectively.
• A growing bull of 500 kg liveweight and 0.8 kg or 1.0 kg daily gain requires 567 g, 611 g metabolizable
protein, respectively.
The requirements of bulls and heifers are different and because of the sex, the finishing weight is not the same.
Generally, heifers slaughtered at a less weight, bulls slaughtered at heavier weight. Despite these facts, the
feeding in growing and finishing period of both heifers and bulls are carried out in the same way. The daily gain
of heifers is less and they are slaughtered earlier.
In roughage based nutrition the advantage is the well developed rumen capacity of the growing cattle. Dry
matter intake should be maximized at any type of feeding system, it cuts cost of production indirectly. This type
of feeding provides the possibility for an increased daily intake in the fattening period, when the animals are
heavier. If the climatic conditions are suboptimal or/and the quality of roughage is poor additional concentrates
feeding is also needed for growing, young beef cattle. The amount is about one to three kgs per day, these can
be cereal grains in major quantity and legumes. Protein source is required in an amount of 0.5-1 kg. In the
second part of fattening period more concentrates are mixed in the feed.
Silage or hay can be the fiber source in the diet. Silage is the preferred feed as the energy concentration is silage
is higher than in hay and the digestibility is usually better.
The number of feeding in a day should be limited to one or two. Animals eat more times in a day, but in case of
frequent distribution of feed, cattle are disturbed, moved out of their natural behaviour, daily rythm. An other
issue is the decreased cost as less labour and fuel is used.
An other system of fattening when it is based on concentrate feeding. In this case, growing heifers and bulls
ingest daily 0.5-1-1.5 kg silage or hay and the daily ration is completed with high amount of concentrates. The
feed conversion ratio is is better feeding high portion of concentrates and low portion of roughages. This feeding
method has great importance if the price of cereal and legume grains is relatively low.
Usually growing is based on silage/hay feeding and the finishing is based on this high energy content feeding.
It results a very intensive growth rate, less time needed till slaughter. Production cycel is shorter, that means less
labour needed and the housing cost is decreased.
One of the most important factors in this feeding that a minimum of 0.7-1 kg high fiber content feed is needed
for the digestive system.
4. 6.4 Environmental factors
Climatic factors significantly changes the requirements of cattle. Tables below (Table 6.1-6.4) give a view of
consequences of enviromnetal conditions, which finally results in more or less efficient production.
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The water intake of cow is double or more in hot summer, compared to winter. It is important, especially in
summer, that animals find water any time during the day, and the drinking water is cold, clear and fresh. An
other significant issue is the change in energy requirement in function of temperature. Cold weather increases
need for energy, but it has no influence on protein, fibre, vitamins, minerals requirements. In winter, the critical
temperature is below zero, the exact temperature depends on the coat of animal, which one also characteristic of
breed. Low production, autochtonous breeds usually much more resistant to cold climate, than modern, high
production breeds. The energy requirement for maintenance may increase to 20-50 percent above the normal
need. In nutrition, this extra need mean 1-2 kg grains or 2-4 kg roughage.
6.1. táblázat - Table 6.1 Daily water consumption of cattle
Temperature
Cows,
Dry cows
Bulls
in the 1st period of lactation
Celsius degree
Liter
liter
liter
2 (winter)
42
23
27
10 (spring)
47
25
33
23 (spring)
65
34
45
32 (summer)
63
55
72
26 (summer)
66
38
49
11 (autumn)
49
25
34
Source: Marston et al., 1998
6.2. táblázat - Table 6.2 Lower critical temperature for beef cattle
Coat characteristics
Critical
degree)
Wet or summer coat
15
Dry autumn coat
7
Dry winter coat
0
Dry heavy winter coat
-8
temperature
(Celsius
Source: Marston et al., 1998
6.3. táblázat - Table 6.3 Temperature and energy requirement of cattle
Temperature
Celsius
Increase in energy
Extra hay needed
%
OR
Extra
concentrates
needed
kg/cow/day
kg/cow/day
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10
0
0
0
-1
0
0
0
-12
20
1.7-1.8
0.9-1.1
-23
40
3.2-3.6
1.8-2.2
Source: Marston et al., 1998
6.4. táblázat - Table 6.4 Increase of maintenance energy per Celsius degree (below the
critical temperature)
Liveweight of cow (kg)
450
500
550
600
Summer or wet coat
3.6%
3.6%
3.4%
3.4%
Autumn coat
2.5%
2.3%
2.3%
2.3%
Winter coat
2%
1.8%
1.8%
1.8%
Heavy winter coat
1.3%
1.3%
1.1%
1.1%
Coat of cattle
Source: Marston et al., 1998
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7. fejezet - 7. Etology of Cattle
The book of Gere (2003) was adapted for the chapter of „Etology of Cattle”, consequently most of the pictures
and text is originated from that source.
1. 7.1 Movement of cattle
Farmers have to know the elements and characteristics of movement, walking of their animals.
Tied stall cows rest not only with their arse upwards, but also on foot in the shed. Rumination time on foot is
only 4-6 percent of a day; therefore standing position also takes a greater part out of relaxing.
Before lying down cattle do some steps forward, even if they are connected (Figure 7.1). There is no significant
movement backwards. Firstly, the animal bends its head, and then it bends its front legs and kneels down.
Finally, it moves one of its hind legs carefully under its body and lies down, and lets its tail down. Sometimes it
stretches its front legs and lies on its side.
7.1. ábra - Figure 7.1 Moments of lying-down
Source: Gere, 2003
When the animal wants to get up in a natural way firstly it cranes forward, then rises to its tail and knees, finally
the hind part of its body is swung up via its knees, which functions as a rocking point (Figure 7.2). Standing and
lying behaviour is show on Figure 7.3-7.5.
7.2. ábra - Figure 7.2 Moments of standing up
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7.3. ábra - Figure 7.3 Unnatural standing up of cattle
Source: Gere, 2003
7.4. ábra - Figure 7.4 Standing up and lying down moments of cows a) optimal b) poorly
designed stall
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7.5. ábra - Figure 7.5 Basic requirements for design to ensure basic free movements of
cows
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The movement of animals consists of various, different-speed limb-phase combinations. It is based on the
following natural way of walking: stepping, trotting, amble, gallop and jump. The step has the slowest speed
that is approximately 4-5 km per hour. The characteristics of this pace are the following (Figure 7.6): while the
animal is stepping forwards with frontal limbs, its head and neck come down, but during the weight phase these
parts of the body go up. In contrast, if the back limbs lunge forwards, the croup lifts off as long as it comes
down again during the weight phase.
7.6. ábra - Figure 7.6 Moments of step during cattle walking
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2. 7.2 Behaviour of cattle
Feeding abundance significantly determines the daily intake of cows and distribution of eating periods. The
presence of feedingmachine starts the conditioned reflex in the animal; furthermore its appetizing effect is also
important. In this case even gorged cow starts to eat. This extra forage intake does not cause parallel increase in
productivity. This extra feed distribution has some disadvantages such as additional works, breaking of
rumination and rest periods. Efficiency of the method becomes uncertain.
High milk yield Holstein cattle are able to intake high amount of high-fiber forage. The bacterial rumen
digestion process of these animals is more balanced. Ammonia forming in rumen reaches the same level as in
case of normal feeding. As a result, forage efficiency will be better through rumino-hepatic cycle. Moreover, the
amount of volatile fatty acids forming in rumen and also the pH-level will be more balanced. Conditions of
butterfat and casein synthesis will be more favorable due to the stable pH-level. The probability of developing
acidosis will be smaller that affects fairly the regestation of cows. That is why, farms use daily extra forage.
Methods of both feed distribution and preparing influence the feeding behavior of cows. The cows eat quicker
and with more pleasure the chopped and well-mixed forage than the separated ingredients. However the picking
pursuit of cows is significant. This habit is regular on the pasture, but is also observable in the barn. During the
pursuit the cattle is digging up most of the forage causing additional works for animal keepers.
During the first 20-30 minutes of feeding all of the animals eat calmly. After that, cows having a higher position
in the social hierarchy often change their places next to the trough. This behavior is motivated by an internal
instinct. Animals prefer freshly dosed and even intact forage; therefore too high amount of fodder mixing is not
justified. Portioned forage raises the attention of animals and boosts their appetite.
The eating speed is influenced by several factors such as species, weight, age, gestation, climate, daily forage
dose, fiber content, quality and type, etc. Knowing the average values of eating speed is essential for the
development of technological systems. Among average circumstances the forage intake is 3.6 kg per hour. The
cows needs at the least 3.5-4 hours to eat its daily forage dose of 12-14kg dry matter.
Shaping of suitable feeder influences the behavior of animals. Feeding in the barn is different from natural
eating habits. These artificial conditions elicit irritability from the cattle. The feeder should be 1.3 times wider
than the shoulder of the animal and as long as the trunk of it. This size guarantees the calm forage intake.
Aggressive behavior is reduced with partition walls between each cattle.
Eating speed is also influenced by the time of day. The cattle eat slower in the evening than in the morning. In
the beginning of feeding speed is higher and then it gradually reduces. In the beginning lactation of forage
intake is quicker and becomes slower in the progress of gestation. The raw fiber content and the age of plants
reduce the eating speed, too. The optimal rate of raw fiber content is 18-20 percent, as if it is higher, the
digestibility of forage worsens. Furthermore, the size of concentrate granule is also influence the feeding speed.
The hygiene behavior is the following (Figure 7.7): cattle clean the integument and reachable parts of their body
with their head and back limbs. Partners clean those parts of the body (such as head, back, pubes or lower
abdominal area), which the animal itself is not able to touch. Cattle also use tools such as tree trunk, bush, corral
fence, stall equipments and scraper for hygiene. The free stall cattle can use soil, natural waters, puddle and
morass. Domestic bulls often lie in the latter in order to relieve itch of their chappy skin, which is poor in
sebaceous gland. (wallowing)
7.7. ábra - Figure 7.7 Mutual and own personal hygiene of cattle
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Social elements containing hygiene consist of mutual cleaning with tongue (Figure 7.8). This mutual aid appears
not at the same time, but is an one-sided licking among the cattle. Cows care their calves regularly that little
ones welcome. This activity is a very important part of the relationship between the mother and its calves. The
intensity of the contact is distinct among cows. The prevalence of licking action occurs 4-5 times and takes 5-10
minutes.
7.8. ábra - Figure 7.8 Social hygiene of cattle
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Social hierarchy does not coincide with the utility order (Figure 7.9). This means that animals with higher milk
yield are in the second part of the hierarchy. If forage eating is entrusted to the animals, the ranking individual
eat up the most delicious fodder from weakly ones, therefore a programmable, automata forage machine is
framed. As a result, the production elevates, the feeding charge declines and luxurious consumption does not
appear more.
7.9. ábra - Figure 7.9 Typical behaviour schemes of cows
Source: Gere, 2003
The group size
Threatening and aggressive behavior also appear in group keeping (Figure 7.10). However, their rate, character
and prevalence are not always the same. The number of threatening behavior does not increase in direct ratio
with the number of animals that live together. As a result, keeping together big groups on the pasture is not
justified.
On large milk farms the animal groups shall consist of 80 or 100 individuals. During milking the number of
milker groups shall be an integer plural of the capacity of loaning.
The group combination
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The manifestation of sub- and superordinacy relations in groups having lived together for a long time is
categorical and moderate. Forming groups in a new environment is not so difficult. The hierarchy occurs
quickly among the members of the group, if all of the animals are in a new setting at the same time.
The classification of a new member in the group
The input of new animals into the group is inevitable due to operating conditions. The new member can
overbalance the earlier hierarchy, therefore the discomfort among the group members influence their production.
7.10. ábra - Figure 7.10 Occurence of aggressive behavior in different groups of heifers
Source: Gere, 2003
Distance-behavior among animals is a significant part of their feeling of safeness. Cattle hold in groups keep
personal distance among themselves. At first, the life of each animal starts to contact period. Distance-behavior
begins after social hierarchy develops. If the area of an animal is reduced, the number of toughness-behavior and
impingement is elevated in the feeding area and the pen. The hierarchy difference between two animals
determines the distance between them (Figure 7.11). If they reach this (critical clearance) toughness movement
will be occurred. Critical distance among the equal cattle is 2.5-3 meters that declines among further ones.
7.11. ábra - Figure 7.11 Social ranking of cows and its relationship to distance between
individuals
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3. 7.3 Activity of cattle
Cows ruminate almost 30 percent of the day. Daily rumination time shows a great variety even if they get the
same amount of forage (4-12 hours). Animals in ruminate 5-8 hours or more in general. A greater part of
rumination occurs in recumbent position. In this position rumination is more regular in the evening and at night
than in the rest of the day. However, rumination also occurs in standing position, but it counts for only 5-6
percent of the whole rumination. Rumination undergoes 5-10 stadiums during the day (Figure 7.12). Animals in
tied stalls ruminate more times and in shorter periods than those kept in yards. Feed intake periods are divided
into 2 main parts among these animals. Such peak periods in the distribution of rumination time are
unobservable. Rumination disperses more, and it occurs from 7 p.m. to 2 a.m. 35-40 percent of total rumination
is observed in this interval. Rumination usually begins 0.5-1 hour after feeding.
Duration of rumination periods takes from several minutes to one hour. When rumination is starting, the head,
the forehead and the nose line of lying cow make a 45-degree angle with its yoke. Rumination process consists
of mouthful regurgitation, swallowing and necessary chewing movements. The three parts of chewing
movement are the following: removal of jaw, moving of diagonal molar and getting of mouthful among the
teeth. During rumination the number of eructated bit varies between 25 and 35. The needed number of jaw
removal is 44-48 per one eructated mouthful.
7.12. ábra - Figure 7.12 Daily distribution of ruminantion of Holstein-Friesian cows
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Daily water requirement of cattle is depended on environmental temperature and nutrition components. The high
protein and mineral content of nutrition elevate water absorption, because secretion of salts and nitrogenous
terminal products require a higher amount of water. Hydration of cow follows determined daily cycles, too. This
phenomenon is the most intensive after feeding and milking. After milking and calving, thirst can appear due to
water loss.
The drinking-troughs have to be well-approachable and central in such a way that the dominant male does not
make it inaccessible for secondary individuals. They find it after grazing. If animals are not allowed to drink at
the same time, social hierarchy is enured, thus secondary individuals give up their place for dominants. Drinking
takes 3 minutes on average. The amount of absorbed water is between 4 and 6 liters per minute depending on
the way of drinking.
Drinking-water requirement is influenced by water content of forage, environmental temperature, body mass
and milk-production (Table 7.1).
7.1. táblázat - Table 7.1 Daily water consumption of cows
Denomination
daily water consumption per 100 kg
live mass (liter)
Milking cow
10-15kg daily milk yield
10-11
15-20kg daily milk yield
10-13
20-25kg daily milk yield
12-14
over 25kg daily milk yield
14-16
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dry cows
6-8
Source: Gere, 2003
During feeding, cows are drinking in 4-6 periods. If valve-troughs are used, cows drink 60-80 times a day
(Figure 7.13). Cows do not usually drink from 8-9 at night to 4-5 in the day-break.
7.13. ábra - Figure 7.13 The frequency of drinking during the day
Source: Gere, 2003
Daily frequency of defecation of 2-6-year-old cows is 6-12 during controlled keeping. Grazing animals defecate
8-10 times. This process is more frequent next to drinking-troughs than during grazing. Milking cows urinate
more frequent than dry ones. But each cow usually urinates after waking up, therefore the extent of defecation is
depended on the length of lying periods. Defecation is more frequent during the day than at night. The longer
time cows lay the less they dung. Daily amount of urine depends on the quantity of intake fluid and outside air
temperature. Its amount declines in case of rising temperature, dry forage feeding, thirst and starvation. Cows
urinate about 10-25 liters during 3-12 daily occasions (Figure 7.14, 7.15).
7.14. ábra - Figure 7.14 Daily distribution of defecation and urination of cows
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7.15. ábra - Figure 7.15 Defecation and urination in the stable
Source: Gere, 2003
Knowledge of grazing behavior is very important to exploit expediently and rationally the grass yield of pasture,
furthermore to develop optimal grazing technology. Interactions between animal and meadow are important
factors of reasonable lawn using for example animal reaction for grass vegetation and botanical compound, and
stand quality. Presence of grazing cattle and the selection among plant species influence the rate of different
plant and grass associations.
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Bite depth depends on how far are the incisors from lips. Cattle are not able to leave shorter stubble than 10-12
mm. The weight of stand stayed behind on the lawn after grazing is 9.8 percent of that after perfect mowing.
Cows not only walk a lot and stand about 14 hours long on the meadow, but they chew and chop 50-70 kg
ingested fresh grass that requires significant mechanic work. Cows are able to change rumination rhythm among
some limits. Starveling individuals chew quicker than not hungry ones. Cattle only are able to graze among
some limits, because they are not able to lengthen chewing time due to the fatigue of masticatory muscles. Highquality, young grass vegetation require less chewing work.
The grazing activity and grass intake of animals show a great variety in certain time of day. Grazing activity is
the most intensive in the morning period, especially after milking, because in this case, animals graze without
longer breaks and internal grazing is the longest one. In contrast, grazing activity is getting stop toward evening.
The grazing time is 2-3 hours in the morning, 1.5 hours in the noon and 3-4 hours at night.
Animals start grazing in the sunrise and finish it in the sunset (Figure 7.16, 7.17). Effects of the sunrise and the
sunset are significant. The grazing rhythm is especially depends on external (exogenous) factors. The day-night
changes those are supervened by Earth rotation denotes stimuli in periodicity related with daytime. Dark and
light periods determine the rhythm of wakefulness and sleeping for most of the animal species. Moreover, the
air temperature and humidity changes also influence the daily rhythm. Among the internal factors, the biology
clock of animals controls daily cycles.
7.16. ábra - Figure 7.16 Daily start of grazing depends on the changing of sunrise
Source: Gere, 2003
7.17. ábra - Figure 7.17 Daily start of grazing depends on the changing of sunset
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Cattle influence the compound and yield of lawn vegetation by means of plants selective intake. Knowledge of
plant preference is necessary to form the optimal plant construction and the ideal rate of plants.
Grazing cattle select in the following cases:
• after some intake
• perfect quality and quantity of plant vegetation
• during grazing on the unsatisfied botanic compounds of plant vegetation
• during grazing in the middle size grass
Nutrition intake is controlled by the hunger and the appetite. Hunger incites animals to intake food. Appetite
guides determined forage intake direction. Inside impulsion drive animals to obtain lacking food and to increase
eating; in this case sorting capability and tendency of selection decline. Starveling animals find food greedily
and eat all of the plants (even toxic species) without sorting. However, poisoning appears only in such a case if
they eat them persistent. Selection tendency of animals presents after driving them onto the rich pasture. Such
pastures, which have redundant plant vegetation, reduce stimuli of intention for gorging. Not only rich
vegetations tempt the animal to sort. The higher the difference is among developing levels of plant species the
more carefully animals look for delicious pieces.
The following organs and organ systems take part in secretion: smelling, touching, tasting and endocrine glands.
The smell of plants is very significant to decide whether animal start to graze that part of pasture or not.
Namely, animals never graze around newly fertilized or manure area. However, they eat immediately mowing
plants that come from such an area. Therefore it is believed that the smell of terra mixed with composture or
fecal and the risk of intestinal parasites infection trigger the distaste of animal. Cattle instinctively avoid faeces
only of their own species, but they eat grass close to faeces of sheep.
Grazing cows ruminate an average of 7-8 hours a day. The methods of grazing usually do not influence the
rumination interval. The quantity of pasture grass can influence the rumination time. Rumination takes less time
on the high-quality meadow than on the average one, namely temporal difference may be 1-2 hours. If cows stay
constantly on the meadow, they walk and stand in 20-25 percent of a day.
Calves
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The calf sucks at cow’s udder bud either on the left or the right side, but the process is determined sequentially.
Calves rotate the udder quarter 60-80 times during sucking period. They have a suck at each bud from 3 to 5
seconds. The whole sucking period takes 8 or 12 minutes. The number of sucking periods is usually 6-8 a day.
Calves kept in a hutch lay longer time than those ones, who are at the same age and similarly fed, but are kept in
groups. However, the number of lying periods is not different between two keeping methods. Calves being kept
in groups (4-20 weeks old) spend most the time with lying. The time of eating increases rapidly because the
changing of forage is a function of age. The time of rumination does not show as rapid increases as that of
eating.
The daily rhythm of the vital processes is influenced by the time of forage dosage as well as the age of animals.
The young calves eat the solid feeds all day long. Intake of hay is more continuous than that of other feeds even
if concentrate is present persistently. At this age the feed intake peaks are not so significant and that get
narrower later (Figure 7.18).
The daily rhythm and periodicity of rumination is influenced by the feeding time (Figure 7.19). Rumination is
usually balanced except main feeding times; moreover it occurs typically in the rest period at night. The daily
rhythm changes barely with the calf age.
The feeding way is one of the environmental conditions which forms mostly the behavior rhythm. In case of
development of calf rearing technology and working routine we have to consider the feed intake and resting
peaks.
The water consumption of calves in the milk feeding period depends on the amount of milk and the way of
drinking. It is difficult for calves to learn how to use the drinking-trough.
7.18. ábra - Figure 7.18 Setting of circadian (daily) rhythm of concentrates and hay
ingestion
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7.19. ábra - Figure 7.19 Setting of circadian (daily) rhythm of rumination
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60-70% of calves stay outdoors during the sunny, summer days. 50% of them stay in the barn if the weather is
cloudy or cloudy and windy or sunny and windy at the same time. When it is raining each calf is in the barn
(Figure 7.20).
In summer almost 35-40% of calves lay in the runner, while 10-20% of them are also here during winter and
autumn. It also depends on the weather how calves lay in groups or rather dispersedly. In summer they are
located rather grouped in the runner, while in the barn there is no preferred way. In winter grouped location is
preferred in both places.
7.20. ábra - Figure 7.20 Preferred sites of calves depends on weather conditions during
summer
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The initial rumination movements during lying periods are already noticeable one week after the calf was born.
The time of rumination increases quickly until the calf becomes 50 days old, and then it reaches its steady-state
value, that is 6 hours a day. Expended time on the movement associated with feeding increases constantly to 80day-old age, and it will be stabilized at about a level of 40% a day after the calves reach the 3-month-old age.
Calves’ movement is characteristically inflexible and intermittent until they become 3-5 weeks old. Standing is
more usual than motion in this period; the intensive play is frequent after that.
The development of forage intake
The quantity of supplementary milk replacer from birth to 50-day-old age fluctuates between 0.98 and 1.38 liter
per minute. After the calves become 8 days old the expended time on solid forage intake increases continuously
through 20 days. After that it is persistent for a short time, and then it elevates again dynamically to 50-day-old
age. The maximum of rumination time is also observable in this period. On the 55th day after birth calves are
weaned from milk. After that they compensate missing alimentary substances with quickly-increasing feeding.
Figure 21 shows activity and intake of calves in function of age.
7.21. ábra - Figure 7.21 The time spent for standing, movement and feed consumption
and the changes in the ratio of these activities
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Bulls
If bulls have the opportunity, they stay in the yard in daytime and they are in the barn at night (Figure 7.22). 6070% of grouped bulls are out of the barn while 30-40% of them are in the barn during the daily rest time. If the
sun is shining, 30-50 percent of them stay in the barn in the midday. If it is raining, 30-50% of them have a rest
in the stable in the daytime, whereas 80-100% of them are here at night. In strong wind 30-50 percent of animals
are here during the day, but all of them are inside at night. If the temperature is approximately 0°C, the rate of
population in the barn is 20-40% in the daytime and 80-100% at night. Above +20°C, 15-20% of animals stay
inside. If the external humidity is high (above 80%), 60-80% of animals have a rest constantly in the barn.
7.22. ábra - Figure 7.22 Preferred place of stay of fattening bulls in loose housing with
outdoor exercise place (from spring to autumm)
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4. 7.4 Reproduction behaviour
Before and during ovulation the behaviour of mature cows apparently changes. The most dominant sign is the
standing while cow is mounted. When a cow is in standing heat it stands for several mountings, which typically
last for a short time, usually some seconds. If the cow goes out of mounting quickly, it is not in the sexually
active heat, but if it goes slowly, bringing the other animal on the back, it is still sign of standing heat. Mount
detectors are commercially available to assist in the artificial insemination programme, but this is not efficient
tool alone to achieve high conception rates. The best way to use visual observation combined with mount
detectors.
There are other signs for heat detection. It is important for efficient detection of cows in heat, which cows
should not be kept separately, most of the signs reveals during interaction each other (Figure 7.23-7.26).
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The mounting is a short process; frequent checking provides the adequate findings. After mounting sign of it
remains on the body. The flanks of cow are dirty and smeared, it can be found on the legs as well. The tail and
the rump is also exposed.
Just before mounting cows following other ones in heat, put their chin on the back of others, and rub it, these
make a slight pressure on the rump and back of cow. Thus trailing, following, chin resting are presigns of
mounting.
Animals in heat show more movement, activity and seem to be restless. These cows are alert and standing a lot
instead of lying and resting. Pedometer (Figure 7.27) attached to the leg of the cow regularly send the signal to
the computer and informs about the frequancy of steps. The increased activity is prevalent before and during
heat. This is not the sign to inseminate the cow, but man should focus on these animals.
One of the consequences of increased walking that cows spend less time with feeding, the daily intake is
decreased, less ingested nutrients results decreased milk yield. This is not the most apparent sign of heat, rather
a consequence of behaviour.
Standing is the most important signal of standing heat, but the other cow also informs us. If a cow mounts on an
other one, usually it means that she is close to the end of cycle, just before heat. Probably, she will be mounted
soon.
The colour of the vulva becomes red, instead of its midcycle pale colour, and swells and clear mocus produced.
Easy to observe that long, clear mucus is hanging down from the vulva. These symptoms can be seen during
heat. These are reliable signs, but the duration is too long to exactly indicate the exact time for insemination.
The head of cows in heat also inform us, curling of the lips and raising of the head are typical signs. Sniffing
and licking the vulva of other cows happens around ovulation.
7.23. ábra - Figure 7.23 Signs of heating: mounting other cows
7.24. ábra - Figure 7.24 Signs of heating: sniffing other cows
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7.25. ábra - Figure 7.25 Signs of heating: bending backbone
Source of heat photos: veepro.nl
7.26. ábra - Figure 7.26T he most frequently affected body parts by the groupmates
when the cow is in heat
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7.27. ábra - Figure 7.27 Pedometer is an effective tool for heat detection
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Source: veepro.nl
5. 7.5 Behaviour of cattle and some aspects of
housing
Microclimate of the barn is one of the most important factor during summer. Breathing frequency rapidly
increases as an effect of hot weather, especially after feeding periods. Blood supply of surface vessels elevates
in order to compensate the caloricity associated with active metabolism. The body system of the cow fights
against the heat. Cows are restless at about 30°C; therefore they walk a lot, especially in calm weather, in order
to assist the perspiration. This type of behavior is contrary to the general phenomenon that if the temperature
rises, animals reduce their caloricity. In such case their appetite declines, so the expended time on eating
reduces; as a result the milk production falls, too. Cows’ conditions are more unfavourable in the barn during
the especially hot weather. Although they are not liable to direct sun-ray, the microclimate of the barn can make
the perspiration much more difficult. As they have no opportunity to move, they rather lay and blow. The
rumination time relative to feeding elongates because of the reduction of rumen movement intensity. This only
influences the rumination time per unit fodder.
The frequency of rumination increases, but the duration of periods reduces in hot weather compared to the
values measured in cold and indifferent weather. The explanation of this phenomenon is that rumen’s movement
accompanies caloricity that helps to get rid of excess heat.
The animal protects itself against the cold with increasing caloricity and reducing perspiration. Not only its vital
processes, but also its ways of behavior change in cold weather. In this case the animal moves little, eats a lot,
its reflexes are more inactive and makes no progress.
In indifferent-temperature zone milk cows usually relax during almost 45-50% of the day. If they spend more
time to relax, they would like to lose the unnecessary amount of heat. The rest time is longer if they feel bad. If
the rest time is shorter, they try to elevate the caloricity by changing their vital processes just like the muscle
fremitus.
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Cattle have a good heat regulator skill thanks to their gentilic capabilities. They can use thermal energy
disengaged during the digestive process to support their body temperature. For this reason, adult cattle
especially milking cows suffer more from extremely hot weather (above 25°C) than from the cold. During very
hot summer days the high-yield cows are sprinkled and refrigerated in order to transmit their extra energy. After
birth the craw of young calves does not function yet, so their comfort zone is in a warmer temperature interval
(15-20°C).
There are many differences among species in temperature needs of breeds and their heat adaptation skill. For
example Jersey cows, which have a significantly smaller body size than Holsteins, tolerate more hot weather.
Cattle have excellent adaptability to the cold because the function of their circulation system is similar to the
arctic animals. There is a puffer air in the cattle’s hair which also improves the isolation ability of body. Adipose
tissue is located beneath the skin and plays an insulate role. The Indifferent-temperature zone of adult cattle is
the 8-15°Cinterval. The air temperature occurs rarely in this zone, therefore they have to adapt to the changeable
temperature conditions. There are several factors which play a significant role in the constant temperature
saving such as the increase or moderation of heat transmitting, the changing density and length of hair, the
deposing of adipose tissue, the hair’s location and the variety of peripheral circulation. Nutrition intake,
production rising and movement raise caloricity and body temperature.
Young and sick animals are sensitive to draft (air movement is is over 0.2 m/s) and significant heat oscillation.
If the air temperature is excessively low (below 5°C), animals are given a lot of dry bedding materials. In case
of animal-friendly housing form each animal has its own lying and resting area.
As cattle live in a social community, they require continuous relationships, especially with calves. The inside
area of barn has to be developed so that the farmer can work easily. The animal’s motion is regulated by
controlling equipments and rails in the barn.
The quantity of stall desk is less significant than the high amount of bedding material. If there is no bedding in
the barn, the lying area is covered with a specific gum carpet. They prefer soft and flexible lying place.
However, if they stand up, they need a compact supporter. The optimal height of the feeder lower part is very
important. During feeding animals stand as many as 50cm from the feeder and their head make a 45-degree
angle with the horizon. In optimal case the feeder’s lower part has to be found 10 cm above the stall. The inner
width of feeder shall be 60cm. If the position of the feeder stand is higher, one part of the feeding can be spilled;
the animal will eat less and can be injured. The inside walls of animal-friendly feeder are made of elastic band.
Such feeder is unadapted for fluid fodder feeding.
The self-drinking-trough, which is located between two cows, is easy to reach for both of them. It is widemouthed and is put over the feeder.
The passage width is 180-200 cm in order to ease the obstetric intervention and the service. The ordered climate
values must be severely kept (an average temperature of 8-15°C, 60-70% relative humidity, an air motion below
0.2 m/s). The inadequate climate can cause several damages for the health condition.
In housing with free stalls animals’ movements are not limited. Their vital processes can be fulfilled; as a result
their life-style is similar to the free ones. Their horn shall be removed as long as they are young so that they will
be less aggressive and require smaller place. Animals housing with free stall are much cleaner than the tie stall
ones. In the barn there are some facilities such as the scraper, the rubbing-strake and the proof which can help to
clean the contaminated and dungy hair. The estrus’ observation is more efficient in the housing with free stall
than in case of tie stall, because this keeping way meets animal requirements and needs less work. After all, the
farmer has to pay more attention and be aware.
Passage ways connect feeding, running, resting and milking zones. Their quality, size and tracing influence the
behavior and the comfort feeling of animals. Each corner and curve slows down the animal’s motion, causes
obstruction and continuance of milking.
In the resting area each member of stock can choose and resort any of the free stalls. Therefore it is very
important that the resting stalls shall have uniform settings and the same comfort for small and high body sized
animals.
Figure 7.28-7.30 shows the proper in house planning to ensure optimal conditions for production.
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7.28. ábra - Figure 7.28 a. long b. medium length c. short stall of cow. Less bedding
material needed in the short system and more in the long one
Source: Gere, 2003
7.29. ábra - Figure 7.29 Some equipments to fix the animals
a. Grabner system silonrope solution
b. articulated neck welt
c. neck welt combinated with silonrope
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d. Silonrope combination with automatic animal release
Source: Gere, 2003
7.30. ábra - Figure 7.30 Properly designed feeding for cows
Source: Gere, 2003
6. 7.6 Handling cattle
The calm, patient way of treatment as well as the usual, mild-tempered relationship between farmer and animals
is the key factors of successful servicing. The treatment of animals being kept tied is easier than that of animals
in free stalls.
As animals are member of a social community, the suddenly separated animal stands against intervention. The
rhythm of routine behavior upsets, that is the appetite and water consumption decrease. The deprivation of
animals accompanies with permanent consequences.
Before coming close to the cattle we have to accost them so that they will be not scared. The animal reacts to
unexpected interventions with kicking or panicky runaway. As a result, animals or the farmer can be injured.
The cow, which has recently given birth to its first calf, sometimes kicks over the milker’s hands during the first
milking and a short interval after that. This behavior occurs if the cow is not accustomed to udder touching
before calving. In this case, the cow’s body is compassed round with a rope in front of its udder. The rope is
hold to its horn in an aslant position. Accordingly, during milking its head is pulled down with this rope. This
method protects the milker against kicking.
Bulk treatments are the following: infixed eartab procedure, other individual marking, horn removal, hoof
trimming, weight scaling, cure against ectoparasites, classification, carrying, etc. In case of individually
treatment animals are treated, fed and inseminated in different stalls of treatment (Figure 7.31). Cows are driven
to these stalls with a rope or a chain.
Rope can be used against injuries in different ways (Figure 7.32).
7.31. ábra - Figure 7.31 Place for insemination or covering for cows
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7.32. ábra - Figure 7.32 Some possibilities to prevent injury and make the animal
handling procedure safer
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The regular hoof trimming has to be made at least twice a year. Erratically ragged and overgrown hooves can
cause lameness; as a result, valuable animals become culler ones (Figure 7.33).
7.33. ábra - Figure 7.33 Conformation of hooves
1. normal 2. capricorn 3. slippers 4. double hinged
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Cattle usually kick with their back legs forward and toward a side (Figure 7.34). They rarely kick backward as
horses do. The hot-tempered bulls usually kick toward strange people coming to them. The irritability is reduced
by the mild, tolerant and kind handling. On the other hand, the insensible, unkind and avenger treatment elevates
that. Some cows during milking kick toward the milker and the milking-machine due to tickling or pain. If the
injured udder are treated and managed carefully, this bad behavior can be abolished.
7.34. ábra - Figure 7.34 Abdominal protector to prevent kicking
Source: Gere, 2003
The mutual sucking of adult cows causes a significant economic damage because:
• The cow searching a partner for sucking can disturb other cows.
• The sucked amount of milk can be significant.
• The sucked animal can not lactate up to several days, especially in case of machine- milking.
• Cows become dry earlier.
• The hazard of contact dug infection is intensified by sucking.
Figure 7.35 and Figure 7.36 give some tips to prevent stealing milk from cows udder.
7.35. ábra - Figure 7.35 Tie down of cow’s head prevent sucking
Source: Gere, 2003
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7.36. ábra - Figure 7.36 Sucking inhibitor for calf and cow (this flexible structure is
placed in the calf’s nostril)
Source: Gere, 2003
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Livestock Production. 25. 274-277.
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8. Sources
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9. fejezet - 9. Questions
1. What is the importance of dairy production in the world?
2. What is the difference between dairy production per inhabitant in developed and developing countries?
3. Which countries are the larger beef producers?
4. Where can we find the largest cattle population?
5. What are the regions of the world where domestication has started?
6. When human started to domesticate cattle?
7. What are the high milk producer dairy cattle breeds?
8. What are the beef breeds with high growth rates?
9. Describe the phenotype of Ayrshire breed!
10.
Describe the phenotype of Jersey breed!
11.
Describe the phenotype of Brown Swiss breed.
12.
Why is Holstein Friesian such a popular breed?
13.
What are the characteristics of Milking Shorthorn?
14.
Which beef cattle breed has muscle hypertrophy?
15.
Which are the breeds of early fat deposition?
16.
Which are the breeds of high quality carcass?
17.
What is the difference between Charolais and Hereford breed?
18.
What are the most important characteristics, farmers/breeders should consider (used for selection as
well), of dairy breeds?
19.
What are the most important characteristics, farmers/breeders should consider (used for selection as
well), of beef cattle breeds?
20.
What is the special value of Wagyu beef?
21.
What is the genetic background of beef quality traits?
22.
Are there QTLs/genes responsible for marbling?
23.
Which genes are proved to be significant factor for growth of cattle?
24.
What is myostatin responsible for?
25.
What is the heritability of carcass and beef quality traits?
26.
Which genes are involved in milk production traits?
27.
What are milk protein genes?
28.
What is the heritability of reproduction traits?
29.
What is the genetic background of mastitis?
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9. Questions
30.
Is there a possibility to make selection to decrease the occurence of Brucellosis?
31.
What is the disease trypanosomiasis?
32.
What are the tools for Marker Assisted Selection?
33.
How should we start to design a dairy barn?
34.
What is the optimal temperature of dairy cattle?
35.
How is it influenced by air humidity?
36.
What is tie stall barn?
37.
What is the advantage of free stall barn?
38.
Where corral housing system is is preferred?
39.
What are the main aspects of manure handling and storage?
40.
What are the main steps of milk synthesis and secretion?
41.
What types of milking parlours are used?
42.
What is the disadvantage of tandem parlour?
43.
How milking robot does operate?
44.
What are the basic rules of dairy cow nutrition during lactation?
45.
How should one feed the dairy cow during dry period?
46.
What are the two types of calf management systems?
47.
What is the principle of bucket milk feeding?
48.
What is the „value” of colostrum?
49.
What is artificial insemination and its biological background?
50.
What are the main housing systems for beef cattle?
51.
What are cubicles? What is its function?
52.
Which factors should be considered for bedding selection?
53.
What are the main aspects of beef cow nutrition?
54.
What is the daily activity of cattle?
55.
How environment does influences the behaviour, activity, preferred sites of cattle?
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9. Questions
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