ELECTRONIC SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
ASSESSING AND MANAGING LIFE CYCLES OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
A cascaded life cycle: reuse of electric vehicle lithium-ion battery packs in energy storage systems
Leila Ahmadi • Steven B. Young • Michael Fowler • Roydon A. Fraser • Mohammad Ahmadi Achachlouei
Received: 29 April 2015 / Accepted: 18 August 2015
© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015
Responsible editor: Alexandra Pehlken
L. Ahmadi
Energy, Mining and Environment, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montréal Road, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada
S. B. Young ()
School of Environment, Enterprise and Development, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
M. Fowler
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada
R. A. Fraser
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West,
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
M. A. Achachlouei
KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Division of Environmental Strategies Research (fms) and Centre for
Sustainable Communications (CESC), Stockholm, Sweden
() Corresponding author:
Steven B. Young
Phone Number: 1-519-888-4567 ext. 3841
e-mail: sb.young@uwaterloo.ca
In order to do the comparison between first use and second use of the Li-ion battery with
conventional alternatives, we defined five major steps in two main scenarios; cascaded and
conventional (Figure 2).
First is EV and ICEV powertrain production, which includes production of EV motor/ICEV
engine, EV battery, EV /ICEV transmission, and other powertrains of ICEV. All data for this
step is grabbed from Hawkins et al., (2012) except EV battery production which is based on
Majeau-Bettez et al. (2011) and more details of EV battery production are in inventory tables.
Second is EV and ICEV use phases which includes gasoline fuel consumption by ICEV and ON
grid mix for the EV battery charging by EV. The needed data for ICEV use phase come from
Hawkins et al. (2012).
Third is related to remanufacturing of EV battery and needed data are provided from MajeauBettez et al. (2011) (their Table S3). Note the conventional scenario does not include this step.
Forth is second use of EV battery in stationary application, which is comparable with
conventional stationary applications powered by natural gas sources. The needed data for this
step is from this study’s assumptions and Ecoinvent data base.
The fifth is end of life of the battery, which this study went through the recycling of the batteries
and the main data sources for this step were Simon and Weil (2013) and Ecoinvent data base.
1. EV battery production-Inventory for the manufacturing of 1 kg of a LFP Li-ion battery
Inputs
Unit
Positive electrode paste
Total
weight
0.25
Negative electrode paste
0.08
kg
Positive electrode
substrate
Negative electrode
substrate
Electrolyte
0.036
kg
0.083
kg
0.12
kg
Separator
0.033
kg
Cell container
0.2
kg
Module and Battery
Packaging
Battery management
system (BMS)
Water, decarbonated
0.17
kg
0.02
kg
380
kg
kg
Notes
Ref.
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-Bettez-
Electricity
27
MJ
Heat
2.9
MJ
Heat
22
MJ
medium
voltage,
UCTE, at
grid
light fuel
oil, at
industrial
furnace
natural gas,
industrial
furnace
lowNOx >
100 kW
Table S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
Majeau-BettezTable S3
2. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of positive electrode paste for a
LFP Li-ion battery
Inputs
Lithium hydroxide
(LiOH)
Phosphoric acid
(H3PO4)
Iron Sulphate
(FeSO4)
Deionized water
Carbon black, GLO
Poly tetra
fluoroethylene
(PTFE)
N-methyl-2pyrrolidone (NMP)
Heat
Emissions
Lithium ion, to
water
Iron ion, to water
Phosphate ions, to
water
waste heat
Total
weight
0.4002
Unit
Notes
Ref.
kg
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
0.5655
kg
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
0.87
kg
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
40.02
0.05
0.08
kg
kg
kg
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
Majeau-Bettez- table S4
Majeau-Bettez- table S4
0.28
kg
Majeau-Bettez- table S4
13.05
MJ
0.087
kg
0.01653
kg
unspecified
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
0.027
kg
unspecified
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
1.305
MJ
unspecified
Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
unspecified, Majeau-Bettez- Table S7
in chemical
plant
3. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of positive or negative electrode
substrate for a LFP Li-ion battery
Inputs
Total
amount
Positive electrode:Sheet 1
rolling, Aluminium
Unit
Ref.
kg
Negative
electrode:Sheet rolling,
copper
Positive electrode:
Aluminium, production
mix
Negative electrode:
Copper, primary
1
kg
1
kg
1
kg
MajeauBettez- table
S9
MajeauBettez- table
S9
MajeauBettez- table
S9
MajeauBettez- table
S9
Notes
GLO*
4. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of anode for a LFP Li-ion battery
Inputs
Total
amount
0.95
Unit
Ref.
kg
Poly tetra fluoroethylene
(PTFE)
0.05
kg
Nmethyl2pyrrolidone
(NMP)
0.28
kg
Heat
5
MJ
MajeauBettezTable S5
MajeauBettezTable S5
MajeauBettezTable S5
MajeauBettezTable S5
Emissions
Heat waste
5
MJ
0.28
kg
Graphite
Nmethyl2pyrrolidone
(NMP)
MajeauBettezTable S5
MajeauBettezTable S5
Notes
Unspecified
Unspecified
5. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of electrolyte for a LFP Li-ion
battery
Inputs
Total amount
Unit
Ref.
Chemicals, inorganic [proxy for LiPF6]
0.12
kg
Chemicals, organic [proxy for solvent]
0.88
kg
Majeau-Betteztable S6
Majeau-Betteztable S6
6. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of separator for a LFP Li-ion
battery
Inputs
Unit
Notes
Ref.
Polyethylene, LDPE granulate
Total
amount
0.5
kg
at plant
Polypropylene, granulate
0.5
kg
at plant
MajeauBetteztable S17
MajeauBetteztable S17
7. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of cell container for a LFP Li-ion
battery
Inputs
Total
amount
Unit
Aluminium, production mix
1
kg
Sheet rolling, aluminum
1
kg
Ref.
Majeau-Bettez-table
16, S3
Majeau-Bettez-table
16, S3
8. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of battery management system for
a LFP Li-ion battery
Inputs
Total
amount
0.1
Unit
Notes
Ref.
kg
at plant
0.5
kg
at refinery
Chromium steel 18/8
0.4
kg
Wire drawing, copper
0.5
kg
Majeau-Betteztable S10
Majeau-Betteztable S10
Majeau-Betteztable S10
Majeau-Bettez-
Integrated circuit, logic
type
Copper, primary
Half of BMS mass
(assumed)
Sheet rolling, steel
0.4
table S10
Majeau-Betteztable S10
kg
9. EV battery production-Inventory for the production of 1 kg of module and packaging of a LFP
Li-ion battery
Inputs
Total
amount
Unit
Polyethylene terephthalate
1
kg
Injection moulding
1
kg
Ref.
Majeau-Bettez- table
S18, S3
Majeau-Bettez- table
S18, S3
10. EV use phase-Inventory of Li-ion battery first use phase in the EV per battery pack
Input
Power delivered by a battery pack
for an EV
Total
amount
35040
Unit
Assumptions Ref.
kWh
Battery
capacity:16
kWh
Use time: 8
years (2920
cycles)
DOD:75 %
Electricity
from Ontario
grid mix
Total
amount=
(16 kWh/
cycle)*
0.75(DOD)*
2920 (cycle)
IESO 2012
11. EV battery remanufacturing-Inventory for the re-manufacturing of 1 kg of a LFP Li-ion
battery
Input
Polyethylene
terephthalate
Total
amount
1
Unit
Notes
Ref.
kg
Module and battery
packaging
Majeau-Bettez et
al. (2011)- table
S18, S3
Injection moulding
1
kg
Module and battery
packaging
Majeau-Bettez et
al. (2011)- table
S18, S3
Notter et al.
(2010)- table S17
Notter et al.
(2010)- table S17
data cable
0.001243333 M
electronics category
3 phase cable (cable,
three-conductor
cable, at plant)
testing/ activating
8.33333E-05 M
electronics category
0.00036
kWh
Electricity
8.1
MJ
Heat
0.87
MJ
Heat
6.6
MJ
electricity-for a battery
pack
Ontario grid mix/30 %
of electricity of
manufacturing
(assumed)
light fuel oil, at
industrial furnace/
assumed as 30 % of
amount of original
manufacturing
natural gas, industrial
furnace lowNOx > 100
kW/30 % of amount of
manufacturing
(assumed)
Notter et al.
(2010)- table S17
Majeau-Bettez et
al. (2011)-table
S3
Majeau-Bettez et
al. (2011)-table
S3
Majeau-Bettez et
al. (2011)-table
S3
12. EV battery reuse-Inventory of Li-ion battery second use in the ESS per battery pack
Input
Power
delivered
by a
battery
pack for an
ESS
Total
Unit
amount
29004.37908 kWh
Notes
Ref.
daily peaking power delivery by a
IESO 2012, [52]
repurposed battery: 6.079 kWh
Use time: 10 years (3650 cycles)
Roundtrip eff.: 85 %
Transmission eff: 90 %
Electricity from Ontario grid mix
Total
amount=(6.079)*3650*1/(0.85*0.9)
13. Inventory of Li-ion battery recycling per battery pack
Input
EV battery
pack
Total
amount
300
Unit
kg
Notes
Ref.
Simon and Weil 2013
Ecoinvent
Based on EPA:
1 gallon of gasoline = 33.7 KWh
1 gallon of gasoline = 3.8 liter
So,
1 litre of gasoline provide 8.9 kWh.
Based on Daimler, 2010:
An A-class Mercedes in 2004 used 6.8 liter per 100 km.
So,
This ICE vehicle uses 0.068 litre per km.
So,
0.068 litre (1km) provides (0.068* 8.9 kWh) = 0.6 kWh
In this study we applied this rate to convert Hawkins’s results to compare with the present
study’s outcomes.