1
Conservation and Management of Mangroves at
Nizampatnam and Palarevu
K.Sasidhar 1 ⃰ and P.Brahmaji Rao2
Department of Environmental Sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University,
Nagarjuna Nagar-522510, Guntur (Dist.) Andhra Pradesh, India.
Abstract:
The present study is aims at the Conservation and Management of Mangroves at Nizampatnam
and Palarevu. Mangrove forests are highly dynamic communities and productive ecosystems of
long standing values and are recognized recently as threatened habitats in the tropical regions of
the world. The mangrove habitats have become the prime targets of exploitation due to
increasing economical demands. Strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of
resources have become apparent. Some aspects which are considered based on the ecological
status and resource utilization in the study area. However there is less focus on Guntur region
with regard to the mangrove vegetation. In future perspective, the anthropogenic impacts lead to
the possible threats for mangrove vegetation in Guntur region. Therefore, the fragile mangrove
ecosystem needs conservation and appropriate management practices to restore and regenerate
the mangrove vegetation. Hence, the present research is taken up on the Conservation and
Management of Mangroves at Nizampatnam and Palarevu .
Keywords: Mangroves, Possible Threats, Krishna Delta region, Conservation and Management.
1.0 Introduction
Global climate change is one of the greatest challenges that humans will face in this century.
Although geological records show climatic changes throughout history, the present rate of global
warming threatens the survival of entire ecosystems. Among the most at-risk ecosystems are
mangroves, which are especially vulnerable to sea-level rise, but the good news is that not all
coastlines with mangrove forests are projected to experience a rise in relative sea level. At sites
that are projected to experience rising seas, mangrove ecosystems on low relief islands and those
Deprived of sediment are especially vulnerable. Mangrove forests and their long standing values
have been recognized from ancient times (since 6500 B.C) as cited in Walsh (1977) from
archaeological evidences and demonstrated by Sarma (1973). Valuable products obtained from
mangrove plants and their utilization from ancient times was evident from the writings of a
Moonsh Botanist Abdul Abb’s en-Nebaty (1230). They were used as food, fuel, and medicine
and tanning leather. Oviedo (1526) and stated that natives of the West Indies used the hypocotyls
of Rhizophora seedlings as food in times of famine. Crossland (1903) describe the use of
mangrove wood by Arab’s for houses and furniture construction. Macnae (1968) observed that
the sea going vessels from the shores of Gulf of Oman had keels of mangrove wood and that
poles of Rhizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, were used for construction of buildings
in Arabian cities. Chapman (1976) speculated that early man carried mangrove propagules from
2
South America to Southern Pacific Oceans to serve as seed material for trees that produce
tannins and wood.
The Indian subcontinent anecdotal studies are studied by Untawale (1984) and Dagar
(1988), Rao and Rao (1992).All these scientists recognized that the mangrove ecosystems had
been an important source of livelihood, subsistence economy and were the most exploitable for
the traditional use of aquaculture and agriculture practices.The values of mangrove habitats and
its wildlife importance were evident from the studies of Mukherjee (1975); Prasad (1992) and
Mittal (1993). A detailed account of review for different regions on the plant species
composition and utilization pattern was evident from the studies of Dagar et al. (1988).
Utilization of mangrove habitats and its resource values were recognized and classified from
many parts of the mangrove regions Uthoff (1996).
Mangrove Forests are the unique ecosystems that harbour obligate halophytes to
stenohaline facultative halophytes. Besides providing greenery of the Coastal regions, the
mangroves also render many ecological and economic services. The mangrove ecosystems are
described as “the diplomats of Neptune’s court” by Swaminathan, M.S., (1998). There have been
studies on different aspects of mangroves worldwide. The uses of mangroves are vividly
described general list of the ecological benefits run as follows 1. The mangrove is a good natural
shelterbelt, and can decrease the disaster caused by a windstorm on the coasts. 2. The mangrove
plant can absorb CO2 and release O2 and purify the atmosphere and decrease the air pollution. 3.
The mangrove can promote the sedimentation of the matters and decrease the transgression of
the rising Sea level caused by the Green House Effect. 4. Some of the mangrove plants can
concentrate the radio elements in seawater, such as Hg90 Sr etc. and can purify the seawater
Sasidhar .K et,.al (2013). 5. The mangrove is not only a good habitat, but also a good feeding
ground. Therefore, the mangrove swamp is a good aquacultural field. 6. The mangrove can make
the coasts green.Mangroves play a very important role in peoples’ lives and economy. Sanit
Aksornkoae (2002) described that the value of mangroves was expressed in a common way as
‘home ‘for marine and terrestrial animals, as a ‘kitchen’ producing food for people and animals,
as a ‘water treatment plant’ in purifying water, as a ‘hospital’ in providing medicines, as ‘lung’
in purifying air in coastal area, as ‘carbon bank’ to reduce global warming, as a ‘coastal wall’ in
protecting soil erosion and wind stress, as a ‘natural laboratory’ for eco-biologists, and finally as
a ‘bridge’ in connecting the land and sea, Nabi A. and brahmaji Rao P. (2012).
Regeneration of mangrove forest could be divided into natural and artificial modes (Kathiresan
& Qasim, 2005). Natural regeneration involves natural process of establishment of seeds of
mangrove. Artificial regeneration could be carried out by nursery development and transplanting
seedling or mangroves in degraded or new areas. Mangrove wood is well known for being
waterproof, resistant to borers, tough and effectively indestructible. This makes it highly prized
and adds enormously to human pressure on the swamps throughout its range. In Malaysia, the
wood is chipped for the manufacture of the pulp and rayon, and fragments of wood are made into
charcoal in many places. The bark is high in tannins, and so has been used for tanning. It also
yields black dye (Clark J. R 1996) stated that the mangrove reforestation have enhanced litter
degradation and concomitant nutrient demineralization, suggesting that other than species litter
quality, tidal inundation and seasonal factors, specific stand management regimes play an
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important role in determining the efficiency of these ecological processes in mangrove
ecosystems.
So the present study on the ecological and socio-economic aspects of mangrove
vegetation in the above field stations has been taken up to achieve the following specific
objectives. 1. To identify the possible threats to mangrove vegetation in the two regions. 2. To
develop management and conservation plants for the threatened species in the respective field
stations
2.0 Methodology
2.1 Study Area
The present study has been conducted in the Guntur mangrove forest area along the (West) east
coast of Andhra Pradesh for a period of three years i.e. from June 2011 to June 2014. Several
field trips are made to select the field stations, to study the distribution of mangrove vegetation,
geographic nature of riverine system, environmental quality and human interference. While
selecting the study area, high tidal impact villages Nizampatnam and Dindi are considered. The
distributaries, along with other criteria like vegetation structure, inundation frequency and the
extent of human interference are taken into account while selecting a main field station. The
above criteria have been selected (according to Smith, 1992) to observe the factors responsible
for the degradation of mangrove belts. Consequently the region-I is divided into two main field
stations, each main field station having its ecological significance for the quantification of
Mangrove vegetation.
FIGURE - 1: A SATELLITE MAP SHOWING THE KRISHNA RIVERINE
SYSTEM
Study areas are selected in the coastal and delta regions of Krishna riverine system merging into
the sea, where the mangrove forests are divided into two areas by the riverine system (map:
Figure - 1). Krishna River divides into two main branches after leaving Prakasam Barrage at
Vijayawada. One branch goes to north and enters Bay of Bengal near Diviseema in Krishna
District. Another branch runs towards south and enters into Bay of Bengal at Nizampatnam in
Guntur District. Both Nizampatnam and Diviseema form two important hubs of mangrove
forests in the Krishna Estuary. The present study has been conducted at the Southern Fringes of
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the Krishna Estuary at main region namely Nizampatnam, Dindi (Region – 1) Study areas are
selected on the northward and eastward regions of riverine systems to identify the mangrove
diversity at which the river joins the sea. The Studies are included vast expanse of submerged
lands, elevated inner fringes of backwaters and landward marshy lands, which form typical
mangrove habitats. The utility of species, the distribution and diversity of mangrove flora and
fauna, the identification of the ecological status of the mangrove diversity in the this region
during the period of 2011-2014. Station I : Nizampatnam RF Nizampatnam Reserve Forest
(RF) is the largest reserve forest stretch in the east coast of Andhra Pradesh of which the present
study covered approximately 12 on the eastern fringe (800 38‟ to 800 40‟ E and 150 52‟ to 150
54‟ N). The whole area is reticulated with backwater channels as well as influent canal of the
Krishna River where it empties into the Bay of Bengal. This station is thickly populated. The
demographic details were also collected. Except this reserve forest block the remaining part is
urbanized with fishing harbor, landing sites, colonies with pakka houses, BT roads etc. The
population is engaged in diverse occupation. Station II: Dindi Next to Nizampatnam R.F, Dindi
is considered to be rich in diversity. It falls under Amudalaplli Reserve Forest. Dindi is located
between 800 42‟ to 800 44‟ E and 150 54‟ to 150 56‟ N. The population density is less than
Nizampatnam. The station mainly supports mangroves through network of backwater channels.
Salt pans are not found in this station. Though it is having good diversity of mangrove species, it
is occupied by people engaged into different occupations. The extent of dependency of people on
the mangroves and mangrove resources is delineated in the subsequent parts. This station
covered about four Sq km.
3.0 Results and discussion
Mangrove forests are highly dynamic communities and productive ecosystems of long standing
values and are recognized recently as threatened habitats in the tropical regions of the world. The
mangrove habitats have become the prime targets of exploitation due to increasing economical
demands. Strategies for conservation and sustainable utilization of resources have become
apparent. Some aspects which are considered based on the ecological status and resource
utilization in the study area were observed as follows.
3.1 Dependency of the people in the study area:
Mangrove forests are playing a vital role for the socio economic development of the people of
this area. Mangrove forests play an important role in maintaining healthy coastal environment.
Mangroves also provide environmental support for the people community. serves as a protection
for a myriad of juvenile aquatic species, a habitat for a variety of terrestrial fauna and a source of
nutrients, which help in sustaining many complex food chains. a) Domestic Utilization: The
major interference subsequent to commercial development is for subsistence economy and
livelihood, direct dependence for domestic firewood and fodder. The traditional dwellings are
mainly constructed with the material collected from selective plant species. The species mainly
used for specific purposes in the region was given in the tables.(Table – 1 &2 ) The mangroves
are used as firewood as they have high calorific value. A ton of mangrove firewood is
approximately equivalent to 2 to 5 tons of Indian coal and it burns with high heat without
producing much smoke (Banerjee et al., l998).Apart from human interferences, domestic cattle,
sheep and goats often found in the mangrove forests for browsing and grazing of selected tender
shoots. b)
Commercial Utilization: Vast tracts of mangrove forest lands of the Krishna Delta
region are either cleared off or in the process of reclamation for the purpose of housing,
aquaculture or agriculture and proposed land acquisition for industries.
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TABLE –1: IMPORTANCE OF MANGROVE SPECIES UTILIZATION FOR
DIFFERENT SPECIES IN THE STUDY AREA
S.No
Scientific Name
General uses and Medicinal
Importance
Aphrodisiac, asthma, diabetes,
rheumatism,
Traditional
Subsistence
Medicinal
Snakebite
1
Acanthus ilicifolius
2
Aericeras corniculatum
Furniture making, asthma,
diabetes,
snakebiteleaves are used as fish
poison, wood for fishing boats
fish poisoning
Fishing boats
3
Avicennia alba Bl.
Antifertility, skin diseases, ulcers,
contraceptive, fodder and fuel
wood
Washing
Fuel wood &
Fodder
4
Avicennia marina (Forsk)
Timber
Fire wood
5
Avicennia Officinalis L.
Fuel & Fodder
6
Roof & Wall
making
Tannin
8
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.)
Bl.
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza
(L.
Ceriops decandra
Astringent, small pox, fodder, fuel
wood, timber, honey collection
Diuretic, leprosy, relieving ulsers,
aphrodisiac
Timber, fuel wood, hepatitis, tannin
9
Clerodendrum inerme (L.
7
Timber
10
Derris trifoliata Lour.
Hypocotyls eaten as vegetable,
fodder, wood for fishing boat,
firewood
Timber, malaria, fruit paste are
used against ulcers, fuel wood,
honey
collection
Fiber from
stem are used against
stomach pains and also as antiseptic
Stimulant, anti-spasmodic
Fishing stakes
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Excoecaria agallocha L.
Milk latex is used against paralysis
Fish poisoning
12
Asthma, antifertility, snakebite
Snake bite
13
Lumnitzera recemosa
Willd.
Rhizophora apiculata Bl.
14
Rhizophora mucronata
Fishing stakes,
piles, pit forks,
tool
handles
Diabetes
15
Salvadora persica
Medicinal
food additive
16
Sonneratia apetala
fuel wood
Timber
17
Suaeda maritima
Astringent for diarrhoea, skin
diseases, fodder, bark is used for
tanning,
fuelfirewood,
wood
Hepatitis,nausea,
diabetes,
tannin
Leaves are used in salads, leaf
decoction for asthma, cough,
rheumatism
Fruits are edible, fodder, timber,
fuel wood
Hepatitis, eaten as leafy vegetable
poor fire
wood
Fire wood,
Charcoal
Tannin
Medicinal
Leaves
Timber
Medicinal
Medicinal
Hypocotyls
as vegetable
Honey
collection
Fiber
week fish
poison
Match wood
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TABLE –2: PERCENTAGE EXPLOITATION OF EACH PLANT SPECIES
AND IT’S MAJOR USAGE IN THE STUDY AREA
Region - I
S.No
Scientific Name
Traditional
(T)
Subsistence (S)
% of Usage as
T
S
1
Acanthus ilicifolius L.
Medicinal
Snakebite
5
3
2
Aericeras corniculatum (L.)
fish poisoning
1
0
3
Avicennia alba Bl.
Washing
Fishing boats
Fuel wood &
Fodder
3
2
4
Avicennia marina (Forsk.).
Timber
7
7
5
Fuel & Fodder
8
7
6
Avicennia Officinalis L.
Bruguiera cylindrica (L.)
Bl.
Fire wood
Roof & Wall
making
4
9
7
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza (L.)
Fishing stakes
2
1
8
Ceriops decandra
Timber
Tannin
Hypocotyls as
vegetable
Honey
collection
2
1
9
Clerodendrum inerme (L.)
Medicinal
1
1
10
Derris trifoliata Lour.
Medicinal
Fiber
week fish
poison
1
1
11
Excoecaria agallocha L.
Lumnitzera recemosa
Willd.
Fish poisoning
Match wood
2
3
Snake bite
Fishing stakes,
piles, pit forks, tool
handles
poor fire wood
Fire wood,
Charcoal
1
2
1
2
Diabetes
Tannin
1
3
12
13
Timber
14
Rhizophora apiculata Bl.
Rhizophora mucronata
Lamk.
15
Salvadora persica L.
Medicinal
food additive
2
1
16
Sonneratia apetala
Fuel wood
Timber
1
1
17
Suaeda maritima
Medicinal
Leaves
1
1
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3.2. Anthropogenic activities and their impact:
The anthropogenic activities, which are responsible for the degradation of mangrove forests, are
listed below
 Using mangrove land for agriculture and prawn culture practices etc.
 House and boat constructions and fire wood which require wood of mangroves
 Establishment of industries in mangrove forest areas.
 Over-exploitation of fishery resources for tiger prawns.
 Exploitation of gastropods like Cerithidea cingulata and Telescopium and the bivalves
such as Anadara granosa and Meritrix species for lime preparation.
 Using mangroves as fodder for cattle.
 Grazing by buffaloes, goats and cows etc.
The above mentioned anthropogenic activities are responsible for the changes in the ecosystem
and they threaten the growth and survival of mangrove forests.
3.3. Conservation of mangrove species:
Mangrove ecosystem as a whole is in vulnerable condition. Hence, all the components of the
ecosystem need to be conserved intensely. It is necessary to give priority to the rare, endemic and
endangered species for immediate conservation measures.More widely distributed species such
as Aegiceras corniculatum, Acanthus ilicifolius, Avicennia marina, Avicennia officinalis and
Excoecaria agallocha, have great ecological significance and remarkable ability of vegetative
regeneration. Due to high productive values in fuel energy, timber, fodder, boat and house
building materials, tannin, paper pulp, and in other sustainable life supports, some common
mangrove species of Avicennia, Excoecaria, Bruguiera and Rhizophora may come under the
threatened category with the increasing human pressure. If regular regeneration programmes
through afforestation are not taken up immediately, they may decline in near future. The
Ministry of Environment and Forests of Indian Government has been taking up many efforts to
save the biodiversity components of the vulnerable ecosystem. Strategies for regeneration of
members of Rhizophoraceae, Euphorbiaceae and Sonneratiaceae on the degraded steep banks
need to be developed. Planting of Avicennia, Lumnitzera, Bruguiera on the mud flats in between
creeks and channels provide protection from high tidal influxes. In the Region – I the mangrove
forests are degraded by human and biotic interference, aquaculture practices and formation of
roads. These areas can function as Buffer Zones to fulfill the requirements of local inhabitants .
3.4. The Importance of Mangrove Vegetation:
While planning for conservation and utilization of mangrove ecosystems the following strengths
of vegetation analysis are also to be considered.
 Diversity of the coastal habitats
 Existing potential fishing grounds
 Existing potential mollusca
 Diversification of crab fishery
 Existing conservation of biodiversity
3.5. Possible Threats and their impact on mangrove ecosystem:
The first two anthropogenic activities mentioned above are mostly related to human
interference directly while the third one as a consequence of major developmental activities in
the region. The possible threats in future are listed below
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














Cutting trees for fuel and wood
Grazing by cattle
Urban development and human colonies formation
Industrialization, port and harbour development
Mining, siltation and sedimentation.
Over-exploitation of coastal resources by critical habitats
Conversion of wetland into agricultural land and residential land
Destructive fishing technique
Lack of awareness on the environment, economic importance of ornamental fishes,
mangrove forests and wetland
Resource use conflicts
Lack of awareness of coastal issues
Indiscriminate harvesting of fishes
Lack of top-down and bottom-up interaction
Wood smuggling.
Erosion of soil in mangrove areas
3.6. MANAGEMENT OF MANGROVE AREA:
The areas under current investigation in Region - I are under severe pressure of human
interference in terms of conversion of mangrove forests for aquaculture, agriculture and other
related activities. Mangrove forests in the region are to be protected with stringent management
plans. The management plans are initiated by forest department in region-I whereas at some
stations in Region – I management practices are closely observed. To compensate the losses and
protect the quality of the mangrove forests, the following management practices are suggested
for these two regions for sustainable livelihood of inhabitants.


Activities leading to biotic interference in two regions should be checked and stream
lined in relation to their degree of dependence.
Instead of giving vast mangrove lands for shrimp farming to private entrepreneurs and
public sectors, the areas are divided into small-sized units of 10-15 ha for promoting aqua
cultural practices. Local inhabitants might be allowed to undertake the activity in
confined areas such as altered and degraded areas only.

Keeping in view of present and future needs of local inhabitants for housing, timber,
firewood and fodder, intensified afforestation programmes in the altered and degraded
areas of these regions are to be taken up.

Sustainable agro forestry systems with fish, shrimp and crab farming to improve the
quality of environment and ecological resilience are to be promoted.

For the traditional use and raw material requirement, selective alternative strap clearing
techniques may be adopted to promote natural regeneration of the species diversity
instead of deforestation.
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
Suitable planning and strict legislation are necessary for the use of mangrove forest apart
from the present Coastal Regulatory Zone (CRZ) Act.


Setting up of regional laboratory in the vicinity of these mangroves to transfer the
technical know-how to the local inhabitants for implementation of scientific methods to
achieve faster growth rates of selective species of local interest.
Creating awareness in local inhabitants regarding the values of vegetation and importance
of mangrove ecosystem through publicity and involving them in management plans for
conservation of natural resources.

Establishment of field stations for dissemination of research data

Rising nurseries of high yield varieties of agricultural crops

Propagation of horticulture in the region.

Understanding the status of mangroves and reasons for degradation areas

Better monitoring of tropical cyclone crossing the Krishna region by GIS and Remote
sensing
There is a need to develop community interest programs like international and national
designations within the region, Eco-tourism potential in mangrove forest and wetland areas and
recent communication facilities.
3.7. Selection of species and planting:
Based on the salinity levels of soil, mangrove species namely A. marina, A. Officinalis and
Excoecaria agallocha are selected for planting in the degraded areas, the reason being that these
species could tolerate wide range of salinity. Normally the soil salinity of the degraded area is
about 140 ppt during summer. To reduce the high salinity, tidal flushing is facilitated by
constructing canalsas described above. Due to this, the soil salts are slowly leached out and the
soil salinity is reduced gradually. The reduction in salinity improves the survival percentage and
also reduces the saline stress to the young seedlings. The planting is done during October and
November, after the southwest monsoon. During that period the rainwater reduces the salinity
further. The salinity of the creek water is also low (about 10-15 ppt.). Mangrove species namely
Aegiras Corniculatum, Bruguiera Gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora mucronata and Xylocarpus
granatum are also planted to ensure genetic diversity. Eight–month old mangrove saplings raised
in the nursery are used for planting. The mangrove saplings are planted along the slopes (20-25
cm from the top) of the canals with a gap of 2 m.
3.8 .De-silting of canals and casualty replacement:
The bunds formed by the deposition of the excavated soil during canal digging will silt the canals
during the monsoon seasons. The silted canals have to be de-silted before the onset of summer,
because during summer the tidal amplitude is generally low. Tidal flushing is very important
during summer because the salinity will shoot up due to high temperature and cause damage to
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the roots of the seedling. Such seedling will be replanted in the following monsoon season. The
survival percentage is measured in the initial period for better monitoring. It is observed that the
initial growth rate was slow and after 2 to 3 years the growth rate is faster. The natural
regeneration of the seedlings also occurs simultaneously. After four years, the planted saplings
start bearing fruits, which will regenerate and the mangrove density of the area will increase
Brahmaji Rao, P. (1998).
3.9 Mangrove Land Restoration:
A total area of 12629 ha of degraded mangroves is yet to be restored in the Krishna mangroves.
Restoration is carried out in the Mangrove Management Units (MMU) of Deenadayalapuram,
Zinkapalem and Nali. The area is restored by the management of Village-Level Institutions
(VLI). The area is allotted to the demonstration village for mangrove protection and
management.
4.0 Conclusion
Protection, conservation and management practices to uplift the mangrove vegetation in the
study region, for future generations in a sustainable manner. Anthropogenic activities and their
impact on the degradation of mangrove forests are observed due to the land conversions for
different industrialization processes. Due to the vulnerable conditions of mangrove ecosystems,
conservation and sustainable management practices are needed. Predicted possible threats for
mangrove ecosystems need “pre environmental impact assessment” to suggest the proper
management practices. Planning for conservation and utilization of mangrove ecosystems to
improve the vegetation for future generations and commercial utilization of plant species needs
some regulations. Management of Mangrove Areas needs Restoration & Regeneration of
Mangrove Vegetation in the study region by the process i.e. digging “fish bone” type of canals,
De-silting of canals and casualty replacement.
Acknowledgement
The authors also gratefully acknowledge the co-faculty members of the Department of
Environmental sciences, Acharya Nagarjuna University. I also thank thank Prof z. Vishnu
vardhanDepartment od botany, Acharya Nagarjuna University and Dr. R. Hema Krishna
Department of chemistry , University of Toronto, for his valuable help in proof reading the text.
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