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INDEX
1
2
3
4
5
Communication ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1.
Speech ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.2.
Writing .................................................................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.
Language ................................................................................................................................................................ 3
1.4.
Redundancy............................................................................................................................................................. 3
1.5.
Phonetics and Linguistics ........................................................................................................................................ 3
The Production of Speech: The Physiological Aspect........................................................................................................ 4
2.1.
The speech chain ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.
The speech mechanism ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.1.
Sources of energy: The lungs ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2.2.
The larynx and vocal folds ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.3.
The resonating cavities (dutiny) .................................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3.1.
The pharynx (hltan).............................................................................................................................. 5
2.2.3.2.
The mouth............................................................................................................................................ 6
2.2.3.3.
The lips (adj. labial) .............................................................................................................................. 6
2.2.3.4.
The tongue ........................................................................................................................................... 7
2.3.
Articulatory description ........................................................................................................................................... 8
The sounds of speech: The acoustic and auditory aspects ............................................................................................... 8
3.1.
Sound quality .......................................................................................................................................................... 8
3.2.
The acoustic spectrum ............................................................................................................................................ 9
3.2.1.
Fundamental frequency: Pitch ....................................................................................................................... 9
3.2.2.
Intensity: Loudness ...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.3.
Duration: Length ......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.2.4.
'Stress' ......................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3.
Hearing ................................................................................................................................................................. 10
The Description and classification of speech sounds...................................................................................................... 10
4.1.
Phonetic description .............................................................................................................................................. 10
4.2.
Vowel and consonant ............................................................................................................................................ 10
4.3.
Consonants............................................................................................................................................................ 11
4.3.1.
Egressive pulmonic consonants ................................................................................................................... 11
4.3.2.
Voicing ......................................................................................................................................................... 11
4.3.3.
Place of articulation..................................................................................................................................... 12
4.3.4.
Manner of articulation ................................................................................................................................ 12
4.3.5.
Obstruents and sonorants ........................................................................................................................... 14
4.3.6.
Fortis and lenis ............................................................................................................................................ 14
4.3.7.
Classification of consonants ........................................................................................................................ 14
4.3.8.
Ingressive pulmonic consonants .................................................................................................................. 15
4.3.9.
Egressive pulmonic consonants ................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.10.
Ingressive glottalic consonants.................................................................................................................... 15
4.3.11.
Ingressive velaric consonants ...................................................................................................................... 15
4.4.
Vowels ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
4.4.1.
Difficulties of description ............................................................................................................................. 16
4.4.2.
Cardinal vowels ........................................................................................................................................... 16
4.4.3.
Nasality ....................................................................................................................................................... 17
4.4.4.
Relatively pure vowels v. gliding vowels ...................................................................................................... 17
4.4.5.
Articulatory classification of vowels ............................................................................................................ 17
Sounds in language ........................................................................................................................................................ 17
5.1.
Speech sounds and linguistic units ........................................................................................................................ 17
5.2.
The linguistic hierarchy ......................................................................................................................................... 18
5.3.
Phonemes.............................................................................................................................................................. 18
5.3.1.
Distinctive features ...................................................................................................................................... 18
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5.3.2.
Allophones ................................................................................................................................................... 18
5.3.3.
Neutralization .............................................................................................................................................. 18
5.3.4.
Phonemic systems ....................................................................................................................................... 18
5.4.
Transcription ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
5.5.
Syllables ................................................................................................................................................................ 19
5.5.1.
The sonority hierarchy ................................................................................................................................. 19
5.5.1.1.
Sonority scale ..................................................................................................................................... 19
5.6.
Prosodic features .................................................................................................................................................. 19
5.7.
Paralinguistic and extralinguistic features ............................................................................................................ 19
6
The historical background .............................................................................................................................................. 20
6.1.
Phonetic studies in Britain ..................................................................................................................................... 20
6.1.1.
Palsgrave and Salesbury .............................................................................................................................. 20
6.1.2.
Spelling reformers: Smith, Hart, Gil ............................................................................................................. 20
6.1.3.
Phoneticians: Wallis, Wilkins, Cooper .......................................................................................................... 20
6.1.4.
The eighteenth century: Johnson, Sheridan, Walker and Steele .................................................................. 20
6.1.5.
The nineteenth century: Pitman, Ellis, Bell, Sweet ....................................................................................... 21
6.2.
Sound change ........................................................................................................................................................ 21
6.2.1.
Types of change ........................................................................................................................................... 21
6.2.2.
Rate and route of vowel change .................................................................................................................. 22
6.2.3.
Sources of evidence for reconstruction ........................................................................................................ 22
6.2.4.
The classical old English sound system - 6.2.9 Modifications in the English sound system........................ 22
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PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY - GIMSON
1 COMMUNICATION
1.1. SPEECH


Main ways of information exchange: AUDITORY and VISUAL SENSOR STIMULATION
In children: need to communicate → imitating sound patterns, i.e. using speech
1.2. WRITING


= usual visual representation of speech
In English : written form has existed for more than 1,000 years, though the pronunciation has
been constantly changing; only a few major changes since the 15th cent.
1.3. LANGUAGE


It's almost impossible to produce two sounds which are precisely identical but we are likely to
think that we are dealing with a variant of the same vowel
We are concerned with two kinds of reality (cannot be always easily separated):
o CONCRETE - measureable; → sounds in relation to speech
o ABSTRACT - in our minds we reduce the infinite number of different sounds to logical
categories; → sounds in relation to language
Language is a system of conventional (běžných) signals used for communication by a whole
community.
Phonemes are the smallest sound units.
Utterance is an act of speech - a single concrete manifestation of the language system in practice
1.4. REDUNDANCY

Though spoken language is the primary medium of communication, a speaker provides the
listener with more cues than he needs for easy comprehension
o Situation, context
o Grammatical probabilities (→ some sounds can be omitted)
o Probability of certain sound combinations (in English , after th we expect a vowel)
o Rhythmic shape

Many of these are later unnecessary - redundant - for the listener
1.5. PHONETICS AND LINGUISTICS
PHONETICS deals with concrete characteristics of the sounds used in a language (articulatory, acoustic,
auditory).
PHONOLOGY concerns how sounds work in a systemic way in a particular language.
1. LEXICON - the words of the language
2. MORPHOLOGY - study of words in their particular inflection
3. SYNTAX - description of categories (noun, verb…) and rules governing structure of clauses,
phrases…
4. PRAGMATICS - how situation influences the interpretation of the utterance
5. Aspects of linguistics - stylistics, psycholinguistics, dialectology, applied linguistics,
language acquisition
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
Points 1. - 4. are always undergoing change in time
o The state of language at any (synchronic) moment must be seen against its historical
(diachronic) evolution
2 THE PRODUCTION OF SPEECH: THE PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECT
2.1. THE SPEECH CHAIN

Any manifestation of language by means of speech is a result of a highly complicated series of
events
1. Psychological
 Formulation of concept at the linguistic level (in the brain)
2. Physiological / Articulatory
 The movement of organs of speech will create a disturbances in the air
3. Physical / Acoustic
 Varying air pressures which may be investigated

These stages are reversed by the listener at the listening end:
1. Physiological
 The reception of the sound waves by the hearing apparatus
2. Psychological
 Transmission of the information through the nervous system to the brain where it is
linguistically interpreted
2.2. THE SPEECH MECHANISM


People can organize the sounds they emit to highly efficient system of communication
Animals can usually use sounds only as reactions to basic stimuli - fear, hunger, sexual
excitement…
Note: When speaking, both people and animals use organs whose primary physiological function is
not connected with vocal communication;
2.2.1.SOURCES OF ENERGY: THE LUNGS

The most usual source of energy for our vocal activities is provided by the air
expelled from the lungs


Some languages are PULMONIC - they don't require lung air for articulation; in
English : extralinguistical sound tut-tut
Our utterances are largely shaped by the physiological limitations (capacity of lungs
and muscles that control their action)
2.2.2.THE LARYNX AND VOCAL FOLDS



The airstream from lungs is modified in the upper parts of respiratory tract before it
acquires the quality of a speech sound
In TRACHEA (průdušnice) it passes LARYNX (hrtan) containing VOCAL FOLDS (hlasivky)
LARYNX (hrtan) - a casing (pouzdro) formed of cartilage (chrupavka) and muscle in the
upper part of trachea; commonly called Adam's apple; it contains the vocal folds
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

VOCAL FOLDS (vocal cords) (hlasivky) - two folds of ligament (vaz) and elastic tissue
(tkáň); may be brought together or parted by the rotation of the arytenoid cartilages
(chrupavka hlasivková); the opening between the folds is glottis (= štěrbina mezi
hlasivkami)
To use vocal folds for speech, people further developed following ways of using
them:

The GLOTTIS (hlasivková štěrbina) may be held tightly closed - lung air pent below it; →
GLOTTAL STOP [ʔ] - frequently occurs in English : e. g. energetic articulation of apple
[ʔæpl] , reinforcing /p, t, k/ in clock [klɒʔk] or even replacing them in cotton
[kɒʔŋ]



The GLOTTIS may be held open - as for normal breathing; sounds like [s] in sip or [p]
in peak
Production of voice - PHONATION - the FOLDS are used as vibrator set in motion by lung
air; normal feature of all vowels and some consonant ([z] compared with voiceless
[s]); typically, opening/closing action occurs 100-150 times per second; we are able
to change the speed of vibration = change the pitch of our voice (faster vibration →
higher voice) and alter the amplitude of vibration → change of loudness
Very quiet whisper may result from holding the glottis in voiceless position
2.2.3.THE RESONATING CAVITIES (DUTINY)


Airstream from larynx is further modified in pharynx and mouth, nasal cavity may be
used
These cavities function as the main resonators of the voice from LARYNX
2.2.3.1. THE PHARYNX (HLTAN)






The PHARYNGEAL CAVITY (hltanová dutina) extends from the top of the TRACHEA and
OESOPHAGUS (jícen), past the EPIGLOTTIS (hrtanová příklopka) and the ROOT OF THE TONGUE to
the rear of SOFT PALATE (měkké patro)
These sections are LARYNGOPHARYNX, OROPHARYNX and NASOPHARYNX
Shape and volume of this chamber may be
modified by the muscles enclosing the
PHARYNX, the movement of the back of the
TONGUE, position of SOFT PALATE and of the
LARYNX itself
e. g. the [æ] vowel in sad is pronounced
with a strong PHARYNGEAL CONTRACTION
A constriction (zůžení) between the lower part
of the tongue and the wall of the pharynx
may produce fricative sounds
The air from PHARYNX may be effected in these ways:
1. The SOFT PALATE lowered as in normal breathing
 → air may escape through the nose and the mouth
 Articulation of the French nasalized vowels
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2. The SOFT PALATE lowered, air escapes through the nose but is blocked from
escaping from the mouth at some point
 → air enters the oral cavity but cannot escape
 Nasal consonants [m, n, ŋ] in the English ram, ran, rang
3. The soft palate held in its raised position
 → eliminating the action of the NASOPHARYNX
 Air escapes only through the mouth
 All normal English sounds have ORAL ESCAPE
 If the SOFT PALATE cannot be lowered (typically caused by a cold), it is
difficult to articulate nasal vowels or nasal consonants → nasal
consonants in the word morning are replaced by [b, g, d]
 EXCESSIVE NASALIZATION (HYPERNASALITY; inability to articulate consonants
as [b, g, d]) is typical for e. g. cleft palate (rozštěp patra)
2.2.3.2. THE MOUTH




The shape of the mouth determines finally the quality of the majority of speech
sounds
The only relatively fixed parts are the TEETH, the HARD PALATE and the PHARYNGEAL WALL
Remaining parts are movable - the LIPS, the TONGUE, the SOFT PALATE with its PENDANT
UVULA (čípek) and the lower jaw (controls the gap between the upper and lower teeth
and the disposition of lips)
The mouth can be divided into tree parts:



The TEETH RIDGE (dásně) - adj. ALVEOLAR (can be felt behind the teeth)
The HARD PALATE - adj. PALATAL
The SOFT PALATE - adj. VELAR (at its end is the UVULA - adj. UVULAR)
2.2.3.3. THE LIPS (ADJ. LABIAL)




Of the movable parts, the lips are the FINAL ORIFICE (otvor) of the MOUTH CAVITY when the
NASAL PASSAGE is shut off
They considerably affect the shape of the MOUTH CAVITY
When held tightly up, they prevent air from escaping; air is blocked MOMENTARILY (in
the words pat and bat) or directed through the nose by lowering the soft palate
(word mat)
When held apart, their position may be summarized under five headings:
a. Held sufficiently closed over all their length → friction between them
 FRICATIVE SOUNDS with or without voice
 In many languages; VOICED VARIETY [β̞] sometimes wrongly used as the first
sound in English vet or wet
b. Held sufficiently far apart → no friction to be heard
 Yet remaining close together and energetically spread
 = SPREAD POSITION; vowel in see
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c. Held relaxed, lowering the lower jaw
 = NEUTRAL POSITION; vowel in get
d. Tightly pursed → the aperture is small and rounded
 = cLOSE ROUNDED POSITION; vowel in do
e. Held wide apart, slight projection and rounding
 = OPEN ROUNDED POSITION; vowel in got




Variations of these may appear, e. g. vowel in saw
Position of the lips is very important for VOWEL QUALITY
English consonants (beside [p, b, m, w]) tend to share the lip position of the
adjacent vowel
The lower lip is active in the pronunciation of [f, v] - light contract between the lower
lip and the upper teeth
2.2.3.4. THE TONGUE




The most flexible of all movable organs within the mouth
It has no obvious sections; when it is with its tip lying behind the lower teeth, it can
be divided into three areas sometimes collectively called the body of the tongue:
a. The front - opposite the hard palate
b. The back - opposite the soft palate
c. The centre - region between them
The tapering section facing the teeth ridge = the blade (adj. laminal), its extremity
the tip (adj. apical), the edges of the tongue = the rims
In the articulation of vowels, the tongue-tip generally remains low behind the lower
teeth; the body of the tongue may, though, be 'bunched up' (vytvarovat) in several ways,
e. g.:




These changes modify the size of the mouth cavity and divide it into two parts:



The front may be the highest - the word he
The back may be the highest - the word who
Whole surface relatively low - the word ah
Forward part - the cavity behind the lips
The rear part - the region of the pharynx
Contact with the roof of the mouth



The TIP, BLADE and RIMS may articulate with the teeth (th in English ), with the
upper alveolar ridge (t, d, s, z, n)
CONTACT may be only PARTIAL (consonant l - the tip makes firm contact, the rims
none) or THRILLED and INTERMITTENT (přerušovaný) (r)
In some languages the tip contact may be RETRACTED to the very back of the TEETH
RIDGE or even behind it - the same retroflexion without the tip contact is typical
for r in the American English and south-west British English
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
Articulation against or near the HARD PALATE


The contact with the SOFT PALATE



Raising of the front of the tongue towards the palate (PALATALIZATION) (ʃ, ʒ in she
and measure), the main feature of the [j] in yield
Creating TOTAL OBSTRUCTION
Raised (g, k), lowered (ŋ), a narrowing between the soft palate and the tongue (in
Scottish loch), UVULA may vibrate against the back of the tongue, a narrowing in
this region causing UVULAR FRICTION (the beginning of the French rouge)
General conclusion:



For vowels, the tongue is generally in CONVEX (vypuklý) POSITION to the roof of the
mouth
CONCAVE (vydutý) POSITION to the roof of the mouth for some consonants (southern
British r in red and l in table)
The surface of the tongue viewed from the front: NARROW GROOVE (žlábek) running
from back to front (s in see), WIDER GROOVE (ʃ in ship) or the whole tongue may be
LATERALLY (postranně) CONTRACTED with or without a depression in the centre
(SULCALIZATION) (various kinds of r sounds)

PALATOGRAPHY = recording of the palate movement during the speech; more modern
method is ELECTROPALATOGRAPHY
2.3. ARTICULATORY DESCRIPTION


The description of any sound need following basic information:
1. The nature (podstata) of the stream - air usually comes from the lungs but in some cases it is
not so
2. The action of the vocal folds - closed, wide apart, vibrating…
3. The position of the SOFT PALATE - with or without nasal resonances
4. Disposition of various movable organs in the mouth - e. g. shape of the lips and tongue
In addition, other information may be necessary (secondary narrowing, tenses accompanying
the primary articulation…)
3 THE SOUNDS OF SPEECH: THE ACOUSTIC AND AUDITORY ASPECTS
3.1. SOUND QUALITY

When listening a continuous utterance, we receive an dynamic pattern of sound
o We tend to consciously receive and interpret only features relevant for understanding

Though we are aware of certain variations in the speech
 SOUND QUALITY - variety of vowels and consonants
 PITCH - melody or intonation
 LOUDNESS - some sounds tend to be louder
 LENGTH
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
The listener's impression of SOUND QUALITY is determined by the way in which the speaker's
vibrator (the VOCAL FOLDS) and RESONATORS (PHARYNX, MOUTH and the NASAL CAVITY) function
together
The basis of all normal vowels is the GLOTTAL TONE but we are able to distinguish many VOWEL
QUALITIES (despite the fact that the GLOTTAL VIBRATIONS for [a:] are not very different from those
for [i:])
Vibrations of the vocal folds produce OVERTONES (přídech) or HARMONICS whose frequencies are
simple multiples of the fundamental or first HARMONIC (souzvučný)
o If the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY of vibration is 100 Hz (cycles per second), the upper HARMONICS will
be 200, 300 Hz, etc.


o
But we still perceive PITCH appropriate to a fundamental frequency 100 Hz → fundamental
frequency is the highest common factor of all frequencies present (whether or not present
itself)

Variation of quality of the GLOTTAL TONE (we are able to distinguish key and car) is achieved by
the shape we give to the RESONATORS above LARYNX (i. e. pharynx, mouth and nasal cavity)
No matter the PITCH in which we say [a:], the shaping of the RESONATORS and their RESONANCES
will be very much the same

3.2. THE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM
o
o

= A range of frequencies of varying intensity which go up to make up the quality of a
sound
FORMANTS are groups of energy which are characteristic of a particular sound (e. g.
formants of [a:] for male speaker is in the region 700 - 1,100 Hz)
SPECTROGRAM is a device used for analysing and displaying formants (complex waveforms);
nowadays generally done by PC
3.2.1.FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY: PITCH

Perception of the PITCH of speech depends directly on the FREQUENCY OF THE VOCAL
FOLDS VIBRATION




We usually feel the PITCH of VOICED SOUNDS (esp. vowels); observing the PITCH by
voiceless/whispered sounds or sounds without the GLOTTAL TONE is limited

Higher FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY → higher our impression of the PITCH

The PITCH level of voices is individual and varies a great deal
The total range of one speaker is usually 80 - 350 Hz
Ears perceive the frequency ca 16 - 20,000 Hz (falls considerably with the age - at the age of
50 to ca 10,000 Hz)
Many of acoustic cues for speech recognition are within 0 - 4,000 Hz
 LARYNGOGRAPH


Provides fundamental frequency extraction
Varying electrical impedance monitored and displayed
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3.2.2.INTENSITY: LOUDNESS


LOUDNESS (or more accurately PROMINENCE) is usually relative and may depend of
several factors, e. g. the neighbours of the sound
LOUDNESS at the listening end is connected with INTENSITY at the production stage
(related to size or AMPLITUDE of the vibration - higher AMPLITUDE → impression of
greater loudness)
3.2.3.DURATION: LENGTH



When considering LENGTH, we cannot refer to absolute valued (they differs according
to the speech speed, accents etc.)
In English we know only two degrees of LENGTH which are linguistically significant
ABSOLUTE LENGTH depends on the speed of the utterance
3.2.4.'STRESS'


May refer to LOUDNESS, LENGTH and other
In this book: PROMINENCE - refers to segments or syllables; ACCENT - syllables which
stand above other; SONORITY (zvučnost)- the power carried by a sound
3.3. HEARING

Hearing mechanism has two parts
o Physiological - reacts to the acoustic stimuli
o Psychological - selects relevant information


SPEECH SYNTHESIS - discovering of relevant acoustic cues by listener's judgement
Hearing mechanism is important for monitoring our own speech
4 THE DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF SPEECH SOUNDS
4.1. PHONETIC DESCRIPTION



There are at least three stages available for investigation of a speech sound
PRODUCTION, TRANSMISSION and RECEPTION stage
The most convenient description technique relies on articulatory criteria or auditory
judgement, or both
o CONSONANT (souhláska)- described mainly in the way of articulation
o VOWELS (samohláska)- described mainly by auditory impressions
4.2. VOWEL AND CONSONANT
PHONOLOGICAL DEFINITION
PHONETIC DEFINITION
Vowels
Vowels
Segments in the centre of SYLLABLES (beat, bit, MEDIAN (středový) (air escapes over the middle of the
bet, but, bought…)
tongue → excluding nasals like [n])
CONTINUANT (→ excluding plosives like [p])
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Consonants
Consonants
Segments at the edges of syllables (red, wed, All sounds excluded from the definition of vowels.
dead, lead, said…)

Problems in English with this definition
o
Semi-vowels → English [j, w, r] are CONSONANTS phonologically (are at the ends of
syllables) but VOWELS phonetically
o
Syllabic consonants → [n] and [l] form syllable on their own in sudden and little though
more frequently occur at the ends of syllables (net, let…)
4.3. CONSONANTS

Description of consonantal articulation must provide these pieces of information:
TYPE OF ARTICULATION
QUESTION
PULMONIC × NON-PULMONIC
Is the airstream set in motion by the lungs or by some other means?
EGRESSIVE × INGRESSIVE
Is the airstream forced outwards or sucked inwards?
VOICED × VOICELESS
Do the vocal folds vibrate?
ORAL × NASAL × NASALIZED
Is the soft palate raised, directing the airstream through the mouth, or
lowered, allowing the passage of air through the nose?
PLACE OF ARTICULATION
At what point(s) and between what organs does the closure or
narrowing (zůžení) take place?
MANNER OF ARTICULATION
What is the type of closure of narrowing at the point of articulation?

Example: The sound [z] in easy is:
 PULMONIC
 EGRESSIVE
 VOICED
 ORAL
 TONGUE TIP-ALVEOLAR RIDGE
 FRICATIVE
4.3.1.EGRESSIVE PULMONIC CONSONANTS


Most sounds (in English virtually all) are made with EGRESSIVE lung air
Exception: [p, t, k] in some dialects EJECTIVE
4.3.2.VOICING

At any PLACE OF ARTICULATION, a CONSONANTAL sound may be VOICED or VOICELESS
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4.3.3.PLACE OF ARTICULATION

Main points of articulation:
NAME
ARTICULATORS
EXAMPLE
WORD
BILABIAL
The lips are the primary articulators
[p, b, m]
LABIO-DENTAL
The LOWER LIP + the UPPER TEETH
[f, v]
DENTAL
The TONGUE TIP and RIMS
+ the UPPER TEETH
[θ, ð]
ALVEOLAR
The tip/blade of the tongue
+ the ALVEOLAR RIDGE (dásňový hřeben)
[t, d, l, n, s, z]
POST-ALVEOLAR
The TIP OF THE TONGUE (and RIMS)
+ the rear part ALVEOLAR RIDGE
[ɹ]
red
RETROFLEX
The TIP OF THE TONGUE curled back
+ the part of the HARD PALATE immediately behind the
[ɹ]
SW BrE and
AmE pronunc.
think, then
ALVEOLAR RIDGE
PALATO-ALVEOLAR
The BLADE/TIP and BLADE OF THE TONGUE
[ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ]
+ the ALVEOLAR RIDGE + raising of the front of the tongue
towards the hard palate
ship, measure,
beach, edge
PALATAL
The FRONT OF THE TONGUE
+ the HARD PALATE
[j]
queue
VELAR
The BACK OF THE TONGUE
+ the SOFT PALATE
[k, g, ŋ]
sing
UVULAR
The BACK OF THE TONGUE + the UVULA
[ʁ]
French rouge
GLOTTAL
The friction but not vibration between the VOCAL FOLDS
[ʔ, h]

Some consonantal sounds may have SECONDARY PLACE OF ARTICULATION (e. g. [ł] in pull)
o
Two equally important structures → DOUBLE ARTICULATION
4.3.4.MANNER OF ARTICULATION

Main types of articulation (sorted by decreasing degree of closure):
COMPLETE CLOSURE
PLOSIVE
EXAMPLE
A complete closure at some point in the vocal tract
The air pressure rises and can be released explosively
[p, b, t, d, k, g, ʔ]
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AFFRICATE
A complete closure at some point in the mouth
Air pressure rises
Friction is a characteristic second element
[tʃ, dʒ]
NASAL
A complete closure in the mouth
The soft palate lowered
Air escapes through the nose
[m, n, ŋ]
TRILL (or ROLL)
A series of rapid intermittent (přerušovaný) closures
Made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface
[r] in Sp. perro;
[ʀ] in Fr. rouge
TAP
A single tap
Made by a flexible organ on a firmer surface
[ɾ] in some ScE
words
A partial firm closure made in the mouth at some point
Air escapes on one or both sides of the contract
May be
CONTINUANT and FRICTIONLESS
[ł] in Southern BrE
little [lɪtł]
[ ɭ] in fling
[ł] in please
INTERMITTENT CLOSURE
PARTIAL CLOSURE
LATERAL
→ vowel-like (1.)
Accompanied by a little FRICTION (2.)
Accompanied by CONSIDERABLE FRICTION (3.)
NARROWING
FRICATIVE
Two organs approximate to each other
Airstream passes between them with friction (1.)
Distinction between
 PURELY BILABIAL - friction between spread lips (2.)
 LABIAL-VELAR - friction between rounded lips,
characteristic modification of the mouth cavity (3.)
1. [f, v, θ, ð, s, z,
ʃ, ʒ, ç, x, h]
2. [ɸ, β]
3. [m]
NARROWING WITHOUT FRICTION
APPROXIMANT
(or FRICTIONLESS
CONTINUANT)
Narrowing in the mouth
FRICTIONLESS and continuant; vowel-like
Phonologically CONSONANTS (at the edge of syllables)
Phonetical difference in articulation
Without using the tongue e. g. POST-ALVEOLAR (1.) and LABIODENTAL (2.)
Using tongue - (3.)
1. [ɹ]
2. [ʋ]
3. [j] in yet
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4.3.5.OBSTRUENTS AND SONORANTS

Classification of sounds according to their NOISE COMPONENT
OBSTRUENTS
SONORANTS
No air escapes through the nose
Plosives, fricatives, affricates
No noise component
Voiced nasals, approximants, vowels
4.3.6.FORTIS AND LENIS

VOICED/VOICELESS PAIRS in English (e. g. [s, z]) are also distinguished by the degree of
breath and muscular effort involved in the articulation
Lenis
Voiced usually tend to be weak
[z]
Fortis
Voiceless are usually strong
[s]
4.3.7.CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS

The IPA chart shows



THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION on the VERTICAL AXIS
The place of articulation on the HORIZONTAL AXIS
Pairing in each box: VOICELESS CONSONANTS on the left and VOICED on the right
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4.3.8.INGRESSIVE PULMONIC CONSONANTS





Made when breathing in
In some languages as variants of their EGRESSIVE PULMONIC equivalents
Used e. g. when no time to pause or when preventing sb. from speech
EXTRALINGUISTICAL SOUNDS like expressing pain or surprise by quick strong breath in
Not typical in English
4.3.9.EGRESSIVE PULMONIC CONSONANTS



Production of EJECTIVE SOUNDS
GLOTTIS closed, air concentrates beneath it
PLOSIVES [p']; in some languages also AFFRICATES and FRICATIVES, e. g. [ts', tl', s', x']
4.3.10. INGRESSIVE GLOTTALIC CONSONANTS




Complete closure in the mouth
Almost completely closed LARYNX is lowered → the air pressure in the mouth and
PHARYNGEAL CAVITIES is weakened
Once the mouth closure is released, the outside air is sucked in; at the same time
lung air escapes through the GLOTTIS → production of voice
These INGRESSIVE STOPS known as IMPLOSIVES occur with BILABIAL, DENTAL or ALVEOLAR, or
VELAR MOUTH CLOSURES

Not in typical in English
4.3.11. INGRESSIVE VELARIC CONSONANTS




Produced entirely by the closure in the MOUTH CAVITY; the release of the closure
causes outer air to be sucked in
Breathing through the nose may continue independently
Sound made to indicate irritation or sympathy (often written as tut-tut), sound made
to encourage horses…
Sounds known as CLICKS; typical in some African languages, paralinguistically in most
languages
4.4. VOWELS



Normally made with voiced EGRESSIVE airstream
GLOTTAL TONE modified by the action of the UPPER RESONATORS (SOFT PALATE, LIPS, TONGUE)
Description of these sounds must note:
The position of the soft palate
Raised for oral vowels
Lowered for nasalized vowels
The kind of aperture formed by the lips
Degree of spreading and rounding
The part of the tongue which is raised and
the degree of raising
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4.4.1.DIFFICULTIES OF DESCRIPTION

Some vowels require the raising of the front of the tongue, while others are
articulated with typical elevation at the back
4.4.2.CARDINAL VOWELS


Also known as CARDINAL VOWEL SYSTEM created by D. Jones
The two basic parts of the system are physiological

The front of the tongue raised as close as possible without producing FRICTION →

the CARDINAL VOWEL [i]
The whole tongue lowered as much as possible with slight raising at the very back
→ the CARDINAL VOWEL [ɑ]

There are three positions of the tongue between [i] and [ɑ] - [e, ɛ, a]

A scale of eight primary cardinal vowels
[i]
[e]
[ɛ]
[a]
[ɑ]
[ɔ]
[o]
[u]

The front series [i, e, ɛ, a] and [ɑ] are pronounced with spread/open lips, while the

others with LIP-ROUNDING
Secondary series can be obtained by reversing the lip position (close lip-rounding
applied to the [i] tongue position, or lip spreading applied to the [u] position):
[y]
[ø]
[œ]
[ɶ]
[ɒ]
[ʌ]
[ɤ]
[ɯ]

This complete series of 16 cardinal
vowels can be divided into two
categories according to the tongue
position:
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UNROUNDED
[i, e, ɛ, a, ɑ, ʌ, ɤ, ɯ]
ROUNDED
[y, ø, œ, ɶ, ɒ, ɔ, ̦, u]
Advantages: a) Vowel qualities unrelated to particular language; b) reference may be
made to a standard scale;
 In the IPA, diacritics can be used to show modification in the cardinal values
4.4.3.NASALITY


All 16 cardinal vowels can be transformed to their NASALIZED COUNTERPARTS by
lowering the soft palate
Unusual though not unknown
4.4.4.RELATIVELY PURE VOWELS V. GLIDING VOWELS


We may distinguish vowels that are pure - MONOPHTHONGS (e. g. that in learn) and
gliding - DIPHTHONGS (e. g. that in line)
Example: vowel written as [ɔ̦̈] or [ö̦̈ ] can be described as
A vowel between cardinal vowels nos. 6 and 7, but having somewhat centralized
value; the lips are fairly closely rounded; and the soft palate is raised;
4.4.5.ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION OF VOWELS

A rough scheme of articulatory classification is represented by the VOWEL DIAGRAM on
the IPA
5 SOUNDS IN LANGUAGE
Content
5.1. SPEECH SOUNDS AND LINGUISTIC UNITS


Difficulties of phonetic approach to language:
1. Identification and delimitation of sound unit/segment to be described
2. The way in which different sounds are treated in linguistic analysis as if they were equal
For one linguistic unit there can be more different articulations resulting in different sound
PHONEME -The smallest contrastive unit in sound system
ALLOPHONES -different phonetic realizations of a phoneme
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Note: / / enclose letters, [ ] enclose phonemes
5.2. THE LINGUISTIC HIERARCHY
WORD - replaceable sound sequence able to stand by itself
MORPHEME - smallest contrastive unit of grammar (un)able to stand by itself
5.3. PHONEMES
MINIMAL PAIR - words that differ in only one sound segment (thin - pin)
5.3.1.DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

BINARY DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

A set of BINARY FEATURES
(ca 13) will account for all
languages
p, b
CORONAL
ANTERIOR

+
t, d
k, g
+
-
+
-
CORONAL - made with the blade of the tongue raised above the neutral position
ANTERIOR - made in front of the hard palate
5.3.2.ALLOPHONES
COMPLEMENTARY DISTRIBUTION - possibility to predict which ALLOPHONES of a PHONEME will occur in certain
context or situation
FREE VARIATION - noticeably different pronunciation of same VOWELS by one speaker
5.3.3. NEUTRALIZATION


In English sound may be assigned to either of two PHONEMES with equal validity
(contrast between pin - bin, team - deem)
No such contrast after /s/ - words beginning /sp, st, sk/ are not contrasted with /sb,
sd, sg/ → the contrast between VOICED and VOICELESS is neutralized → spin, steam and

scar can be transcribed with both /b, d, g/ and /p, t, k/
Similar situation with /m, n/ before /f, v/
5.3.4.PHONEMIC SYSTEMS

umber of phonemes may differ in varieties of the same language → different
phonemic systems
5.4. TRANSCRIPTION
1.
Allophonic (or narrow) transcription
 Transcription of detailed sound values
 The IPA provides DIACRITICS for these purposes
2.
Phonemic (or broad) transcription
 Transcription of significant function elements
 One symbol per PHONEME (44 symbols all in all)
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5.5. SYLLABLES
5.5.1.THE SONORITY HIERARCHY
The most sonorous
Open vowels
Close vowels
Laterals
Nasals
Approximants
Trills
Fricatives


Affricates
The least sonorous
Plosives and flaps
= theory to define SYLLABLES
Some sounds are more prominent
than others - are felt by listeners to
stand out from their neighbours
5.5.1.1. SONORITY SCALE


Example: word Manchester; the number of SYLLABLES is equal to the number of
SONORITY PEAKS 1 (in this case three)
Not reliable in some cases, e. g. word stop
5.6. PROSODIC FEATURES




Or SUPRASEGMENTAL FEATURES
PITCH (difference in tone and intonation), LENGTH, LOUDNESS
Combination of all three above produces ACCENT
Other prosodic features: RHYTHM, TEMPO, VOICE QUALITY
5.7. PARALINGUISTIC AND EXTRALINGUISTIC FEATURES

Paralinguistic features
o e.g. pause, many other paralinguistic effects are called VOCALIZATIONS ([pst], tut-tut…)
o Do convey meaning

Extralinguistic features
o Features over which the speaker doesn't have the immediate control (sex, age, larynx
size…)
o Do not necessary convey meaning
1
the center of a syllable, namely the SYLLABLE NUCLEUS, often a VOWEL, constitutes a SONORITY PEAK that is
preceded and/or followed by a sequence of segments--CONSONANTS--with progressively decreasing SONORITY
VALUES (i.e., the sonority has to fall toward both edges of the syllable).
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6 THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
6.1. PHONETIC STUDIES IN BRITAIN

First phonological studies are more than 2000 years old (Greek, Latin, Sanskrit - in India)
6.1.1.PALSGRAVE AND SALESBURY

JOHN PALSGRAVE


16th century, book on French grammar; dealing with French pronunciation in
quite modern way
WILLIAM SALESBURY

Dictionary of English and Scottish; description of English sounds
6.1.2.SPELLING REFORMERS: SMITH, HART, GIL

16 - 17th century dealt with increasing inconsistency in relation English - Latin
sounds
 Changes in pronunciation previous 6 centuries → new sounds that had no

representation in letters
JOHN HART



16th century, work ORTHOGRAPHIC
Description of the organs of speech, notes VOICELESS PLOSIVES and the ASPIRATION
ALEXANDER GIL

17th century; work LOGONOMIA ANGLICA
6.1.3.PHONETICIANS: WALLIS, WILKINS, COOPER

JOHN WALLIS


JOHN WILKINS



17th cent, GRAMMATICA LINGUAE ANGLICANAE (history of English , description of the
organs of speech, classification of vowels and consonants
ESSAY TOWARDS A REAL CHARACTER AND A PHILOSOPHICAL LANGUAGE
Creates system of marks for expressing sounds
CHRISTOPHER COOPER

GRAMMATICA LINGUAE ANGLICANAE (work on English pronunciation; for ordinary
people, deals with contemporal English , doesn't create any reforms)
6.1.4.THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY: JOHNSON, SHERIDAN, WALKER AND STEELE


Attempt to fix spelling and pronunciation of the language
JOHN WALKER

DICTIONARY OF NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY - influential ORTHOEPIC WORK, analyses of
INTONATION
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
JOSHUA STEELE

PROSODIA RATIONALIS (system of notation capable of expressing PITCH CHANGES, STRESS
and RATE OF DELIVERY)
6.1.5.THE NINETEENTH CENTURY: PITMAN, ELLIS, BELL, SWEET


Simplification of English continues
ISAAC PITMAN


ALEXANDER ELLIS




Deals with difficulties in English spelling that children and foreigners came across
Created an alphabet - PHONOTYPE (based on phonetic analysis, based upon Latin
characters)
Developed other alphabets as well: GLOSSIC, PALAEOTYPE
HENRY SWEET


Created system of shorthands which is still used
Transcriptions Broad and Narrow romic (Related Words)
ALEXANDER M. BELL

Visible speech (classification of all sounds that can be produced by human organs
of speech; later helped learning English to the deaf)
6.2. SOUND CHANGE

Abbreviations:
o OE - Old English
o ME - Middle English
o EMODE - Early modern English
o PRESE - Present day English
o AN - Anglo-Norman
o OF - Old French


Pronunciation seems to be subject of constant changes
Nowadays we may expect the speed of changes to slow down
6.2.1.TYPES OF CHANGE
1. Internal isolative changes

Changes which tend to influence a PHONEME in all its occurrences → an

independent changes
Changes in VOWEL pronunciaton apply mainly to the English vowel system; known
as GREAT VOWEL SHIFT (during centuries preceding the modern period)

Example: house - [u:] (ME) → [au] (ModE)
2. Internal combinative changes

A phoneme in particular context → a dependant change
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
EXAMPLE: mice - [i:] → [ai] (process called vowel harmony or i-mutation)
3. External changes
 Neither DEPENDANT nor INDEPENDENT
 External to the main line of evolution
 'Fashionable' changes (termination -ing pronounced as [iŋ] and other)
 Do not influence phonemic system of language
4. Changes in length and accentual pattern

Example: path, half, pass… → today long; book, good, breath… → relatively short

Changes of accent particularly significant in words from French (village - [vi'la:dʒe]
→ ['vilidʒ]
6.2.2. RATE AND ROUTE OF VOWEL CHANGE


Changes in VOWELS have been more significant than in CONSONANTS
Changes in CONSONANTAL SYSTEM are relatively rare
6.2.3.SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR RECONSTRUCTION
1. Theoretical paths of development
 If we are reasonably sure of at least two sound values of a PHONEME, we can guess
the stages of development from our knowledge of phonetical possibilities and
probabilities
2. Old English (7OO - 1000)
 If we know the OE PRONUNCIATION, we have the starting point to PRESE PRONUNC.
 Invasion of Saxons, Angles and Jutes in 5-6th cent. introduced 4 new separate
varieties of English


MERCIAN, NORTHUMBRIAN (= Anglican) (Angles - the Midlands, N-E England,
S Scotland)
 WEST SAXON DIALECT (Saxons - S and SW)
 KENTISH (Jutes - region of Kent)
Latin alphabet came in use; accent usually on the 1st syllable; quantity expressed
by doubling the letter
3. Middle English (1100 - 1450)
 Letters still had their Latin values (written = sounded)
 Spelling modified by French influences
 Rhymes (very popular) help to guess stresses in words
4. Early modern English (1450 - 1600)

Introduction of printing → standardization of spelling

Individuals often used (especially in personal correspondence) the phonetic
spelling
6.2.4.THE CLASSICAL OLD ENGLISH SOUND SYSTEM - 6.2.9 MODIFICATIONS IN THE ENGLISH SOUND SYSTEM

See Gimson pg. 72 - 76
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