Attachment to fulfil Section 6
Supporting Researchers
This project will be completed in fulfilment of a PhD candidature, participating researchers and their respective institutions
are listed below.
Mr Robert French, PhD Candidate, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) – University of Tasmania
Dr ___________, Primary Supervisor, Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) – University of Tasmania
Dr ___________, Co Supervisor (social sciences), Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies (IMAS) – University of
Tasmania
Dr ___________, Co Supervisor (Stress Physiology), Mt Allison University (Canada)
Dr ___________, Advising Researcher, CSIRO (Hobart)
Dr ___________, Advising Researcher, CSIRO (Hobart)
Dr ___________, Advising Researcher, South Australian Research and Development Institute (SARDI)
Project Proposal
GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
The short-fin mako shark (Isurus oxyrinchus) is a highly migratory pelagic species found in both tropical and temperate
regions throughout all of the world’s oceans. It is primarily caught as bycatch within longline and gill-net fisheries (Stevens,
2008) however it is also a revered target species by recreational and game fishing groups (Wells and Davie, 1985). The life
history of I. oxyrinchus conforms to that of a k-selected species first described by (Pianka, 1970): large, slow growing, late to
mature and low number of pups (Stevens, 2008). As such, the short-fin mako shark is particularly vulnerable to exploitation
(Baum and Myers, 2004, Wood et al., 2007).
In 2007 I. oxyrinchus was placed on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listing as ‘vulnerable’ due to
population declines in the Mediterranean. The species was later listed by the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) in
2009; providing impetus for the Australian government to nominate the species for protection under the Environment
Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act (EPBC, 1999). In December 2009 the Australian Government announced that
it was legally obligated to place I. oxyrinchus on the prohibited list; a decision made effective from late January 2010. In
response to the listing the government received heavy lobbying from the recreational fishing sector, in addition to opposition
from both the Game Fishing Association of Australia (GFAA) and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA).
The IUCN and CMS listings were largely based on data from Northern Hemisphere I. oxyrinchus fisheries, assuming
populations in the Southern Hemisphere were likely to face the same suite of potential threats. The main argument against
the Australian ban was the limited amount of reliable information available detailing the extent of linkages between
Australian I. oxyrinchus stocks and the heavily exploited stocks in the northern hemisphere.
As a result of extensive lobbying from stakeholders and lack of scientific information on Australian short-fin mako
populations the EPBC act was amended to allow recreational fishing of makos to continue. The Environment Minister stated
that “catch and release fishing of these species is not expected to have a significant impact on populations and therefore, is
unlikely to be subject to enforcement action”. He also highlighted the urgent requirement for better scientific data on mako
sharks to enable legislative amendments to be scientifically based.
Game fishing groups in Australia have a history of being pro-active in assisting research scientists to collect valuable data
on high profile species. Some Australian groups, such as the GFAA are actively encouraging the tag and release of the
short-fin mako, in preference to the common practice of killing and weighing the sharks. Although the practise of tag and
release is a much better alternative to killing sharks, the survivorship of these tagged and released sharks remains an
unknown factor when considering management of the fishery.
To monitor the level of post-release survival of I. oxyrinchus captured and released under typical game fishing conditions,
Wildlife Computers (Seattle, USA) have developed a satellite tag specifically designed for use in post-release survival
studies. The use of these tags sets the operational definition of survival as a tagged animal still swimming actively up to
thirty days after deployment of the tag. After thirty days the tag will release from the animal and transmit data reporting the
fate of the released animal to satellites where it can then be downloaded and viewed by the researcher.
Factors influencing survival of released animals are not expected to be restricted to physical trauma from being hooked,
although this will likely be an important factor. Stress resulting from certain catch conditions may incite delayed mortality
through physiological pathways. It is suggested that to properly examine mortality associated with capture, both physical
and physiological impacts must be considered (Skomal, 2007). This relationship between post-release mortality and
physiological stress has been previously investigated in other species to some extent by Moyes et al. ( 2006) and Heberer et
al. (2010). It was also suggested by Moyes et al. ( 2006) that although the combined effort of satellite tagging and
physiological analysis may benefit the study of other species, the magnitude of the physiological response to capture is
likely to be species specific.
The primary objective of the current study includes three broad aims:
1)
Determine the level of survival of released short-fin mako in the game fishery.
2)
Determine what factors contribute to a higher likelihood of survival, and the effects of these on animal stress
3)
Determine what practises and attitudes game fishers have towards catch and release fishing in Australia.
The project will utilise the newly developed survivorship Pop-up Archival Transmitting (sPAT) tag to ascertain survival rates
among short-fin mako sharks. While the physiological stress associated with the capture of individuals will be investigated
through the quantification of stress related blood variables. The dynamics of the Australian short-fin mako game fishery will
be investigated through means of a structured mail survey.
Project Proposal - Detail
PART 1 – SURVIVAL OF MAKO SHARK CAUGHT UNDER GAME FISHING CONDITIONS
Over the last decade satellite tags have become a common research tool for both ecological and fisheries studies of large
pelagic fishes. The tags are manufactured by a number of companies and in various styles and sizes to suit a range of
applications. Within the marine environment, satellite tags have predominantly been used to observe the movement and
depth behaviour of both elasmobranchs (Dewar et al., 2004, Weng and Block, 2004, Bonfil et al., 2005, Loefer et al., 2005,
Pade et al., 2009, Stevens et al., 2010) and teleosts (Wilson et al., 2005, Horodysky et al., 2007, Patterson et al., 2008).
However, there is a growing trend for the use of satellite tags in post-release survivorship studies (Graves et al., 2002,
Kerstetter et al., 2003, Campana et al., 2009). For many species, post-release mortality is a cryptic factor that has the
potential to significantly impact fishery management. The use of satellite tags enables the researcher to monitor the
behaviour of the tagged animal after release, allowing the fate of the animal to be accurately determined.
This component of the project aims to use a specifically designed Survivorship Pop-up Archival Transmitting Tag (sPAT) tag
to monitor the level of survival of the short-fin mako shark as targeted under game fishing conditions. The tags are a new
technology released by wildlife computers (Seattle, USA) specifically designed for use in post-release survival studies. The
tags have a scheduled release thirty days after deployment. This sets the operational definition of ‘survival’ as the tag still
being attached to an actively swimming animal up to thirty days after capture, tag and release.
The fate of the animal will be compared to certain catch conditions in order to answer the following questions:
•
How does fight time affect survival?
•
How does gear type affect survival?
•
Is survival rate higher in larger or smaller animals?
Using this type of tag will closely reflect what is happening in the current game fishery, as the tagging process closely
reflects the process of tagging sharks with current game fishing tags. All sharks will be caught by volunteer game anglers
using their own gear and methods or using IMAS vessels and gear that replicate game fishing conditions. These terminal
gears are designed to reflect what is commonly used throughout the Australian game fishery while trying to account for what
is perceived to be ‘better’ practise in terms of the target animal’s wellbeing.
This component is expected to identify the overall survival rate of tagged and released mako sharks as well as fishing
practices that increase the likelihood of survival.
PART 2 – HAEMODYNAMICS TO QUANTIFY STRESS ASSOCIATED WITH CAPTURE
Various blood based parameters have previously been used to evaluate physiological stress in fish. Most notably, these
parameters are lactate, glucose, hematocrit, electrolytes, heat shock proteins and blood pH (Wells et al., 1984, Hoffmayer
and Parsons, 2001, Moyes et al., 2006, Frick et al., 2010, Heberer et al., 2010, Marshall et al., 2012).
Methods for assessing stress related mortality in fish typically involve confinement and routine blood sampling under
controlled conditions. It goes without saying that these methods are not applicable to the examination of large pelagic
species (Skomal, 2007). A recently developed methodology geared toward discerning stress related survivorship in large
migratory species involves the use of blood physiology in combination with satellite tagging (Moyes et al., 2006, Heberer et
al., 2010).
As each animal is unable to be kept in captivity there is only one opportunity for blood sampling to occur, which is directly
after the capture event. Moyes et al. (2006) found that Heat Shock Protein 70 (HSP70) was able to discern moribund from
surviving blue sharks (Prionace glauca). Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs) are released into the blood stream of animals to
mediate cellular stress and as such can be used as a measure of capture stress (Currie, 2011). Additionally, Heberer et al.
(2010) noticed a significant increase in both plasma lactate and hematocrit reflective of fight time.
Moyes et al. (2006) developed a model incorporating multiple blood variables; this dramatically increased the accuracy of
predicting mortality, only misidentifying a single shark. This component will expand on this idea, comparing multiple bloodbased parameters to gain the best possible understanding of post release mortality in mako sharks.
Understanding how the capture event affects the stress of the target animal, and how capture stress affects survival, are
integral parts of indentifying preventative methods to limit post-release mortality. This component of the study investigating
the post-release survival of I. oxyrinchus will utilise a range of blood based physiological analyses. Whole blood lactate and
glucose, hematocrit, HSP70, TMAO, urea and beta-hydroxybutyrate will all be quantified in an attempt to discern the
physiological processes associated with the stress of capture.
This component is designed to investigate the following questions:
•
Are there trends between catch techniques, fight times and levels of blood based stress parameters?
•
Are there significant differences of blood based parameters between survivors and non-survivors?
•
Is a model predicting survival able to be based on the blood variables investigated?
Approximately 3ml of blood will be extracted with a 16G needle via caudal venepuncture. Whole blood lactate will be
analysed immediately using methods and materials (Lactate-Pro meter, Arkray) adapted from (Awruch et al., 2011). Glucose
will be similarly quantified using a portable glucose meter (Accu-Chec Active blood glucose meter, Roche). To identify
hematocrit blood is centrifuged for five minutes at 11,000rpm (RCF 4,400g) in duplicate 75mm mylar-coated capillary tubes
plugged with Critoseal clay.
Remaining blood is centrifuged for five minutes at 7,000 rpm (RCF 2,800g) to separate plasma and erythrocytes; these are
stored in separate cryovials immersed in liquid nitrogen until they are able to be transferred to a -80°C freezer for later
analysis. HSP70, TMAO, urea and beta-hydroxybutyrate will be analysed at Mt Allison University in Canada with the aid of
Dr ___________.
PART 3 – DYNAMICS OF THE AUSTRALIAN SHORT-FIN MAKO GAME FISHERY
The potential for recreational fisheries to impact fish stocks has previously been documented throughout the literature,
although the complexities associated with quantifying effort are generally difficult to overcome (McPhee et al., 2002, Post et
al., 2002, Coleman et al., 2004, Cooke and Cowx, 2004, Hartill et al., 2012). Recreational fishing lobbyists have typically
avoided the public and political spotlight due to focus being placed on commercial fisheries (McPhee et al., 2002). This is
not to say that the impacts of recreational fishing are not substantial. Cooke and Cowx (2004) estimate that recreational
fisheries account for approximately twelve percent of the global fish harvest. Additionally, large top-order predators are not
only particularly vulnerable to exploitation, but decreases in abundance have the potential to cause trophic cascade effects
(McPhee et al., 2002, Myers and Worm, 2003).
The most common method used to account for the spatiotemporal variability associated with recreational fisheries is surveys
and interviews (McCluskey and Lewison, 2008). Surveys may include boat or trailer counts, dockside interviews, aerial or
vessel based surveys, and mail or phone questionnaires (Hoenig et al., 1997, Sharp et al., 2005, McCluskey and Lewison,
2008, Hartill et al., 2012). Returns from mail and phone based surveys offer the widest spatial and temporal distribution of
data and typically include information such as time spent fishing, number of anglers and actual catch (McCluskey and
Lewison, 2008).
Understanding the dynamics of the recreational fishery for short-fin mako in Australia is particularly important following a
controversial government decision to overturn a ban on the fishing of the species. Conditionally, more scientific information
on the Australian stocks of the population was requested by the government. An understanding of the motivations behind
angler’s behaviours, the techniques they use and the effort and return imposed on the stock is an initial, yet important step,
required to begin managing the fishery.
This component will use a specialised mail based survey to compare the effort concentrated towards the short-fin mako
shark between fishers from different states (Vic, Tas and NSW), as practices appear to differ from state to state.
The survey aims provide information on the following topic areas:
•
Effort: What is the length of their fishing season? How many days are fished per season? Are specific sizes are
targeted?
•
Methods: What type of gear is used? This includes hook shape and material (stainless vs carbon steel), as well as
line weight.
•
Outcomes: How many sharks are normally caught? Are they retained or released?
•
Awareness level: What are angler opinions of current stock state? Would damaged stock affect how they fished?
How effective do they think catch and release is?
•
Attitudes: What are attitudes towards different management strategies? Do they believe the mako fishery needs to
be protected?
This information will be compiled and made available to the public and fisheries managers so that better informed policies
may be created when needed in the future, and the interests of stakeholders may be better considered.
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