Ch. 11 Motivation and Emotion (Bernstein)
AP Outline
VIII. Motivation and Emotion (7–9%)
 Biological Bases
 Theories of Motivation
 Hunger, Thirst, Sex, and Pain
 Social Motives
 Theories of Emotion
 Stress
Pg. 403
Organization of the Chapter:
Motivation defined
Sources of Motivation:
 Biological Factors
 Emotional Factors
 Cognitive Factors
 Social Factors
Instinct Theory:
 Automatic
 Involuntary
 Unlearned
 Evolutionary
o Aggression
o Mate Selection
Drive Reduction Theory
 Biological
 Homeostasis
 Need arises (physiological)
 Drive reduces the need
 The drive satisfies the need to restore balance
Optimal Arousal Theory
 People are motivated to behave in ways that maintain a level of arousal that is optimal
 Yerkes Dodson Study- there is an curve that identifies the task to be completed and optimal
arousal that matches the task.
Incentive Theory
 Behaviors that are motivated by:
1. Attaining desired stimuli (positive incentives)
2. Avoiding undesirable ones (negative incentive)
Hunger and Eating:
 Mix of learning, culture and biology
 Biological signals for hunger and satiety
 Blood-Glucose, Insulin, Leptin
Hunger and the Brain
 Ventro-hypothalamus = satiety
 Lateral-Hypothalamus= Hunger
 Set Point Body Weight may control appetite also
 Really neurotransmitter
Flavor-Food Selection
 Biological need for certain nutrients
 Social context
 Cultural traditions
Eating Disorders
 Obesity=over consumption
 Anorexia=starvation
 Bulimia=binge/purge
Sexual Behavior
 Motivation + Behavior due to Biology and Culture
 Biology of Sexual Response Cycle
 Sex Hormones (varied amounts)
o Androgens
o Estrogen
o Progestins
 Physical differences in brain of different sexes
 Social Cultural Factors
 Gender roles learned
 Sexual Orientation
o Hetero, Homo, Bisexual (Both nature and nurture)
 Sexual Dysfunctions
o Erectile disorder
o Premature Ejaculation
o Female arousal disorder
Achievement Motivation
 Gain Esteem from achievement
 Need for Achievement
 Motive to succeed
 Increase achievement Motives
 Strive, persist, challenge but realistic goals
 Goals Influence motivation
o Effort
o Perseverance
o Attention
o Planning
 Achievement in Workplace
o Workers satisfied when working toward own goals
o Jobs that offer
o Specific Goals
o Variety of Tasks
o Individual Responsibility
o Intrinsic Rewards are most motivating
Maslow
Opponent Processes
Emotions:
Biology of Emotion
Theories
 William James
 Cannon Central Theory
 Cognition Theory
 Stanley Shacter
 Richard Lazarus
Communicating Emotion
 Innate Facial Expressions
 Learned Social Cultural influence on emotion
 Communication
Pg. 403 Definition of Motivation:
The factors that influence initiation, direction, intensity + persistence of behavior
Questions to be answered:
Why do we do what we do?
Behavior is based partly on the desire to feel certain emotions.
Motivation  effects emotion
What are the general theories of Emotion?
How is motivation exemplified by Hunger, sexual desire and Need for Achievement?
What is the nature of emotion?
What are the main theories of emotion?
How do people communicate their emotions?
A motive: A reason or purpose that provides a single explanation for diverse behaviors.
Some psychologists think of motivation as an “intervening variable”- something that is used to explain
the relationship between environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.
Sources of motivation: 4 basic categories
Biological
Emotional
Cognitive
Social Factors
4 Theories of Motivation (all use internal processes to prompt behavior)
Instinct
Drive Reduction (physiological)
Early 1900s
Basis is HomeostasisInstincts are:
 Tendency to keep physiological systems at a
 Automatic
steady level = equilibrium
 Involuntary behavior patterns
 Drive reduction says- imbalance in
homeostasis creates need
 Triggered by Particular Stimuli
Relates to Evolutionary Psychology
 Need is a biological requirement
 Adaptive behavior
 Brain responds to a need and creates a drive
 Pre-dispositions expressed +survived and
 Drive is a feeling of arousal that prompts an
reproduced
organism to action to restore balance or
reduce the drive
 Genetic
o Aggression
 Exampleo Helping
o Biological need for water
o Mating preferences
o Drive = thirst
 Women are selective for child
o Motivates you to find water
rearing purposes
 “Women tend to prefer athletic,
Incentive Theory
symmetrical faces, deep voices;
 Emphasizes the role of external stimuli that
preferences are stronger at the
can motivate behavior, by pulling toward or
point of menstrual cycle when
pushing us away from them.
fertility peaks.
 People behave in order to get positive
 “Females generally preferred
incentive and avoid negative incentives
males who were mature and
 Variables include:
wealthy which shows age
o Availability of incentives
preferences.
o Value someone places on the
incentive
Optimal Arousal
 Value is influenced by
(Curiosity is not a drive/behavior that does not reduce
physiological, cognitive, or
a drive)
social factors
 Some behaviors increase arousalo
“People
sometimes work hard for
 Arousal= a general level of activation with
some incentives only to find that they
physiological systems
don’t enjoy having them nearly as
 Example: Brain, heart, lungs and muscles
much as they thought they would.”
 Optimal arousal theory says we are motivated to
Wanting/Liking
behave in ways that maintain or restore an ideal
 Wanting: the process of being attracted to
or optimal level of arousal
incentives
o We increase arousal when too low

Liking: immediate evaluation of how
o We decrease arousal when to high
pleasurable a stimulus is
 Yerkes-Dodson Law
Brain
Wanting
Systemo Says we match level of arousal with a task

Different
Brain Areas and Neurotransmitters
o Low Arousal  difficult or complex
 Dopamine- associated with pleasure, sex,
o High Arousal  easy tasks
drugs, gambling,

 Can compel behavior in greater capacity than
liking
Hunger and EatingSee Coon
Obesity:
Condition when a person’s body mass index
Weight (over)
25-29.9 = overweight
Square of a person’s height
32% of US population is obese
Diabetes, high blood pressure, heart-attack, and maybe Alzheimer’s disease
30k deaths a year and a shorter life expectancy
Psychological Explanation for Obesity
 Learned models from parents
 Evolutionary people eat more to build up for lean times (fat reserves)
o Starving does not necessarily= weight loss
o When we starve we reduce metabolism
Pg. 419 Sexual Behavior
Physiology + Learned behavior, physical + Social Environment factors
There is a diversity of Sexual Scripts= patterns of behavior that lead to sex
Researchers:
Kinsey 1940’s and 1950s used surveys to study sexual practices
Masters and Johnson 1966, in a laboratory, measured sexual arousal and behavior
Volunteers received natural and artificial stimulation problem conclusions, may not be representative
of larger population (limited population sample)
University of Chicago Sex Survey:
Surveys found:
 People generally have sex = 1 per week, with a partner in stable relationship.
 Some a few times or not at all in the past year
 Average male had only 6 partners entire life
 Average female = lifetime 2 partners
 People in committed one partner relationships had the most frequent and satisfying sex
 Majority of heterosexual couples engaged in traditional intercourse
Nearly one quarter of U.S. women prefer to achieve sexual satisfaction without partners of either sex
Consistent Gender Differences:
1. Men tend to have stronger interest in and desire for sex than women
2. Women more likely than men to associate sexual activity with a committed relationship
Findings did not address pornography or sexual deviations, and sample was only in USA
Biology of Sex:
Master’s and Johnson identified Sexual Response Cycle:
The Pattern of physiological arousal during + after sexual arousal
Both men and women
Men
Women
Orgasm
Plateau
Resolution
Excitement
Men have 1 pattern
Resolution=relaxation
Refractory= men unresponsive
(Women don’t have this they are capable of repeating cycle)
Sex Hormones:
 Estrogens
 Progestins-Progesterone
Androgens = Testosterone
Each Hormone flows in blood of each Male and Female
 Average man has more androgens
 Women have more Estrogen + Progesterone
Hormone Effect on Brain:
Organizational Effects:
 Permanent changes that alter brain’s response
 Occur at birth
 Create male and female patterns
o Sexually Dimorphic (sex differences)
o Area of Hypothalamus
o Rising level of sex hormone in puberty
o Women- Estrogen + Androgens (ovaries and testes- secrete)
Activational Effects:
 Effects behavior when hormone is in blood stream
 Stimulate sexual interest (androgens and estrogens in female) (androgens only in males)
Social and Cultural Factors in Sexuality:
Learned Gender Roles- Differences
Men and porno
 MRI Study shows activity of amygdala + hypothalamus in men
Pg. 424 Sexual Orientation:
Defined: A person’s enduring, emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to others
Hetero, Homo, Bi-sexual



1973 Homosexuality was dropped from the DSM Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (used for
making diagnosis for abnormal behavior)
Dropped in china as a mental disorder 2001
Estimated 2-21 % of population is gay
What shapes sexual orientation?
 Genes may influence sexual orientation.
 Identical twin studies show, 52% correlation one gay other one is too.
 Also, twins were raised apart.
 One reason too much hormone in utero
 May also be associated with increase in androgens and altered structure
Achievement Motivation (the need to achieve)
Why do people take their work seriously and try to do the best they can?
Need Achievement:
Henry Murry (researcher)
 Found some people have need for mastery = motivation to be have competently.
 People with high need for achievement seek to master tasks & feel satisfaction
Extrinsic Motivation
 Desire for external rewards =$
Intrinsic Motivation
 A desire to attain internal satisfaction
 Desire for approval, admiration, achievement =esteem all are strong motives
People with High Need Achievement Characteristics:
 Want a challenge but not too much to prevent success
 Challenging but realistic goals
 Take risks when necessary
 Satisfied when they succeed
 If they tried their best they are not too upset by failure
 Have Self-efficacy “According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief in one’s capabilities
to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage prospective situations”
(1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in
a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think,
behave, and feel (1994)”

People with low N achievement success brings relief at having avoided failure
Development of Need Achievement:
 Tends to be learned in early childhood from parents



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Correlation between parent behavior + achievement motivation
o Kids with low Achievement
 Parents interfered with child difficulty
 Parents became annoyed by lack of success of kid
o Kids with High Achievement Motivation
 Parents Encourage child to try difficult tasks and new tasks
 Gave praise and reinforcement for success
 Encouraged children to find new ways to succeed
 Didn’t complain when kids experienced failure
 Prompt children to get on with the next challenge
 Children were energized by parents
Goals increase motivation if they are realistic
Set goals that are specific and clear
Personally meaningful goals increase motivation
Achievement Success in the Work Place
 Low motivation
o Felling little or no control over work environment
 Create satisfaction + self-efficacy “According to Albert Bandura, self-efficacy is “the belief in




one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to manage
prospective situations” (1995, p. 2). In other words, self-efficacy is a person’s belief in his or
her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as
determinants of how people think, behave, and feel (1994)”
Allow workers to solve problems on their own
Individual responsibility builds motivation
Public Recognition
Allowing goal setting increases performance and satisfaction
Maslow and Motivation:


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Human behavior reflects hierarchy of needs and motives
Needs at lowest level must be partially satisfied before higher level can be addressed
“motivated by higher level goals”
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Biological- needs food – water
Safety- secure income, family
Belongingness and love- being part of groups, can be sexual and non-sexual
Esteem- need to be respected as useful individual
Self-Actualization
a. Reaching one’s fullest potential
b. Explore and enhance relationships with others
c. Follow interests with intrinsic pleasure rather than for money, status, or esteem
d. Concerned with issues affecting all people not just themselves.
Critics of Maslow:
Too simplistic
We can seek several needs at once
May not apply cross culturally
Alternate view: Alderfer
3 categories of needs
1. Existence
2. Relatedness- social interaction and attachments
3. Growth- Developing one’s capabilities
 No particular order
 Needs rise and fall from time to time
 Situation to situation
 When a need in one area is fulfilled or frustrated, A person will be motivated to pursue some
other need
Conflicting Motives:
 Motives can sometimes be in conflict
 Results in discomfort
 Motivational pushes and pulls can create internal conflict
4 types of Conflicts:
1. Approach-approach Conflict:
 Choose one of the two desirable activities
2. Avoidance-Avoidance
 Must choose one of 2 undesirable alternatives
3. Approach Avoidance
 Single event or activity has both attractive and unattractive features
4. Multiple-Approach Avoidance
 2 or more alternatives each have both positive and negative features
 Harder to compare features
 Creates stress
 Cost-Benefit Analysis
Opponent Process Theory of Motivation
Richard Soloman
2 assumptions
1. Any reaction to a stimulus is followed by an opposite reaction called an opponent process
Example: being startled by a sudden sound is followed by relaxation and relief
2. After repeated exposure to the same stimulus the initial reaction weakens and the opponent
process becomes quicker and stronger
Connection between motivation an emotion
Motivation can intensify emotion
Emotions can also create motivation
People want to feel happiness so they engage in behavior they think will lead to those emotions
The Nature of Emotion:
Joy, Sorrow, Anger, Fear, Love, Hate
Defining Characteristics of Emotion:
Psychological and physiological reactions
Subjective aspects
1. Emotions are temporary short duration
Moods are longer lasting
2. Emotions can be positive or negative or mixed
3. Emotions can alter thought processes by directing attention
Negative emotions = fear can narrow emotion
Positive- can widen our thinking (think broadly)
4. Emotions can trigger action tendency or the motivation to behave in certain ways
Positive emotions joy, pride lead to playfulness and creativity and exploration of the
environment
Negative Emotions- sadness and fear promote withdrawal from threatening situations; anger
might lead to actions that lead to revenge…
Biology of Emotion:
Involved in
Generation of Emotion
Experience of Emotion
Autonomic Nervous System
ANS is not connected to brain areas affecting consciousness
Arousal accompanies emotions
Arousal to take action
Increase blood flow and glucose to vital organs
1. Sympathetic Nervous System
a. Norepinephrine (Fight or Flight)
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System
a. Acetylcholine (slow down)
Brain mechanisms:
Limbic System
Amygdala –
 active with recognition of emotional expressions
o Damaged amygdala causes problem in recognizing emotional facial expressions
 Also perception of emotionally charged words
2 Hemispheres deal with Expressions, Experience, Perception
Right Hemisphere
Active in:
 Laughing at jokes,
 Naming emotions from facial expressions
Left hemisphere is active with making left side facial expressions
Theories of Emotion:
Questions:
Do autonomic experience create emotion?
Or, Are autonomic responses due to emotion?
How are emotional reactions affected by the way we think about events?
Main Theories are:
Biological:
1. William James
2. Walter Cannon
Cognitive:
1. Stanley Schacter
2. Richard Lazarus
James’ Peripheral Theory (also supported by Carl Lange- AKA James-Lange Theory):
Late 1800’s
You see a bear and you run- said you are afraid because you run
Perception of the bear, causes physiological response and then the fear follows.
“once you strip away all physiological responses, nothing remains of the experience. Emotion, must
therefore be the result of experiencing a particular set of physiological responses.”
More Detail:
 A perception affects the cerebral cortex
 The brain interprets a situation and automatically directs a set of PERIPHERAL physiological
changes
 Unconscious until we become aware of bodily changes then we experience emotion
 Implication- each particular emotion is created by a particular pattern of physiological response
 Fear from one
 Anger from another
According to James there is no emotion center to the brain, not linked to a neurotransmitter
Evaluating James Theory:
Certain emotional states are associated with certain patterns of autonomic activity (supports James)
Example- Blood Flow to hands and feet increases with anger and decreases with fear
Some autonomic activity is also associated with specific emotional facial expressions.
Lie DetectionBased on James-LangeTherory
Supports physiological activity accompanies emotions
 Heart rate
 Breathing
 Perspiration
Control Question Tests clear control test
Directed Lie Test- when asked to lie about something, physiological readings are compared to truth info
Guilty Knowledge Test- see reactions when asked about information regarding a crime
Pg. 445 Cannon-Bard Theory Central Theory
Disagreed with James
Cannon argued
We see a Bear- we feel fear- you feel fear at the sight of Bear even before you run.
Emotional experience starts in central nervous system specifically in the Thalamus
Thalamus- is the structure that relays information from most sense organs to cortex.
Central Theory says
“When thalamus receives sensory information about emotional events and situations, it sends signals to
ANS and at some time to the cerebral Cortex when emotions become conscious.”
Cannon said that the experience of emotion appears directly in the brain with or without feedback from
peripheral responses (contradicts James)
Updating Cannon:
Research conducted showsAmygdala- main emotion area, then thalamus
Example- of fear
Strong emotion can bypass cortex and not require conscious thought to activate
Example- facial expressions can cause physiological arousal and not be conscious of arousal
Can also account for phobias too (not conscious)
Different parts of brain- produce feelings of pleasure or pain and associated with emotions
Dopamine ->= pleasure, drugs like cocaine are associated
Cannon did not see different parts of CNS may be activated for different emotions
Cognitive Theories:
Schacter (early 1960s)
“The emotions we experience everyday are shaped partly by how we interpret the arousal we feel.”
Schacter Singer Theory:
Response to James Theory
 He argued that emotions emerge from a combination of feedback from peripheral responses
and the cognitive interpretation of the nature and cause of those responses.”
 You notice the arousal then interpret the cause of the arousal.
 We label the bodily reaction as a specific emotion.
Attribution- is the process of identifying the cause of an event
Physiological arousal might be attributed to several emotions depending on the situation
Excitation Transfer:
 “A phenomenon in which physiological arousal from one experience carries over to affect
emotion in an independent situation.”
 Example: “When people have been aroused by physical exercise become more angry when
provoked, or experience more intense sexual feelings when in the company of an attractive
person, than do people who are less physically active.”
Richard Lazarus:
Cognitive Appraisal Theory:
 It is cognitive interpretation of events themselves that determine emotional experiences
 Example: a person’s interpretation of a grade on a test will be determined by the grade itself.
 How we think events will affect our personal well being
 A cognitive appraisal (evaluation)
 If the event is relevant to our wellbeing we experience an emotional reaction
 Positive or negative based on our appraisal depending whether we see the event as advancing
our personal goals or obstructing them.
Communicating Emotion
Social and Cultural Influences on Emotional Expression
Innate Facial Expressions
Social Referenceing