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Cultural and Linguistic Competence in the Social Work Profession
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ISSUE STATEMENT
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Elements of cultural competence have received wide and far-ranging attention in social work
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literature, and the way it has been traditionally conceptualized is expanding. Cultural competence
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has been seen as containing the three basic elements of cultural awareness, cultural-specific
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knowledge, and skills (Abrams & Gibson, 2007). Cultural competence implies a heightened
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consciousness and analytical grasp of racism, sexism, ethnocentrism, class conflict, and cross-
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cultural and intra-cultural diversity. Furthermore, cultural competence contributes to efforts to
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address racial and ethnic disparities in health and mental health status and the disproportionate
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confinement in restrictive settings in the child welfare, juvenile justice, and criminal justice
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systems.
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American society is constantly undergoing major demographic changes that heighten the
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diversity issues confronting social workers. The 2010 Census reported that the largest single
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ethnic minority group is the Hispanic population, who comprise nearly 17 percent of the U.S.
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population (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). Earlier population projections for 2050 have changed
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and the United States growth has lowered because of a reduction in immigration and births,
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though the Asian and African American immigrants are expected to continue to increase,
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Hispanics will have the greatest immigration through 2060. (U.S. Census Bureau 2012) Immi-
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gration to the United States by peoples from Asia, Eastern Europe, Russia, Africa, and Latin
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America can be expected to intensify the diversity social workers will witness in their practice
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settings.
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One dimension of cultural competence is the capacity to communicate. In the United States, the
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number of people for who English is not the primary language has grown. The 2010 Census
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documented more than 380 language groups spoken in this country. More significantly, there has
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been an increase of over a 30 percent change in the number of foreign born limited English
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proficient (LEP) population in the U.S. from 2000 to 2011(MPI, 2013). As the country becomes
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more linguistically diverse, linguistic competence within the social work profession becomes
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more critical for effective service delivery. Linguistic competence is “the capacity of an
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organization and its personnel to communicate effectively, and convey information in a manner
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that is easily understood by diverse audiences including persons of limited English proficiency,
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those who have low literacy skills or are not literate, individuals with disabilities, and those who
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are deaf or hard of hearing” (Goode & Jones, 2009, p. 1). Individual practitioners and
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organizations are challenged to develop the capacity to use the verbal, written, and multimedia
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communications in a manner that supports effective practice.
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Culture is not just an attribute of racial and ethnic groups. Cultural differences are often made
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manifest by belief systems founded in religions. The values, beliefs, and practices of particular
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faith groups can be the primary source of cultural identity and create a specific worldview that
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affects every component of a person’s life. In addition, people who identify with a sexual
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orientation different from the dominant society also represent distinct cultural groups. Gay,
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lesbian, bisexual, Omni sexual (people having or open to many forms of sexual expression),
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transgender, queer and questioning women, men, and youths have established their own cultural
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identity and demand fair treatment and inclusion in all aspects of American life. Social workers
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of all sexual orientations must be prepared to bridge the cross-cultural experiences of people of
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different sexual orientations.
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Another example includes people with disabilities who have established a cultural identity that
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demands more than empathy and accommodation. They wish to be recognized as bicultural
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people with the right to seek inclusion in both mainstream and their own cultures.
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Professional interest in cultural competence among social workers is predated by a rich and
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varied history on the subject and many decades of discourse regarding the profession’s response
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or lack of response to the service needs of diverse clients. The settlement house movement in the
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early history of the profession is an example of efforts to serve immigrants, many of whom were
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culturally different from the dominant population at the time. In retrospect, the practice at the
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time was designed to facilitate acculturation of immigrants into the dominant society. The Civil
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Rights movement of the 1960s marked the beginning of a shift in focus from promotion of
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advocacy against the barriers to acculturation to greater affirmation of differences and
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recognition of the need to offer services attuned to the client’s view of his or her life
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circumstances shaped by his or her cultural worldview.
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The concept of cultural competence has moved through a progression of ideas and theoretical
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constructs favoring cultural pluralism, cultural sensitivity, multiculturalism, and a transcultural
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orientation to social work practice (Gould, 2008). A brief review of the social work literature in
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the past few years reveals a range of content areas present in cultural competence, including
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racial identity formation; the interrelationship among race, gender, class, and ethnicity; racial,
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ethnic and socio-economic health disparities; ; work with poor families; work with poor African
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American or Puerto Rican families; sexual identity and sexual orientation; gay adolescents;
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acculturation and immigration; spirituality and religious diversity; biculturalism and
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multiculturalism; cross-racial practice considerations; work with people with disabilities;
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outreach to American Indian and Asian American clients; empowerment; interracial marriage;
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racially mixed clients; biracial children; mental health services for Chinese, Cuban, Indochinese,
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and West Indian clients; sociocultural models of practice; and training of culturally sensitive
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practitioners.
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Diverse groups have differential experiences in American society. The differential treatment is a
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function of the dynamic inter - action with the dominant culture of U.S. society, which in turns
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contributes to the values, beliefs, and practices adopted by the group. Social workers need
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sophisticated skills and abilities to advocate for clients against the underlying devaluation of
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cultural experiences based on difference and oppression. This mandate is addressed to social
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workers of all cultures, not just those who are members of historically and currently underserved,
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under - represented, and oppressed groups. All social workers need to master culturally
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competent knowledge and skills because the pluralistic society is a social reality (Gould, 1995).
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Cultural competence requires awareness. The quest for authentic cultural competence is a
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process of becoming more attuned to how clients experience their uniqueness, deal with their
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differences and similarities, and cope with a sociopolitical environment that is often unconcerned
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with the welfare of their people, however diverse their needs may be. Culturally competent social
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work practice starts with the driving assumption of individual uniqueness connected to
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humanness, and the individual experience of culture through which reality is seen and meaning is
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interpreted (Congress, 2013). Social workers’ self-awareness of their own cultures is as
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fundamental to culturally competent practice as the informed assumptions about clients’ cultural
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background and experiences. Just as the advocacy agenda is applicable to social workers of
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dominant groups, the need to develop cross-cultural skills is requisite for all social workers,
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including those from historically oppressed, underserved, and underrepresented populations. This
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expectation is important because of intragroup variability and the any given individual is a
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member of multiple cultures.
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Although the discussion of culture often isolates people by virtue of race, ethnicity, religion,
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nationality, gender, class, sexual orientation, physical ability, and other attributes, in reality
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people represent intersections of these various cultural groups. Cultural competence requires the
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capacity to recognize the interaction of these multiple identities at the individual, family, group,
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neighborhood, and community levels and discern the salient cultural issues within any given
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helping relationship. Cultural competence requires a heightened consciousness of how clients
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experience their uniqueness and deal with their differences and similarities within a larger social
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context (NASW, 2001, 2007).
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The complexities associated with cultural diversity in the United States affect all aspects of
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professional social work practice, requiring social workers to deliver culturally competent
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services to a broad range of clients. Cultural and linguistic competence requires knowledge,
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skills, and attitudes that promote and support respectful and effective cross-cultural commu-
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nication and practice. To that end, efforts are required at the micro-, mezzo-, and macro-practice
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levels to affect direct practice and supervision, program administration, and social policy to
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achieve meaningful outcomes as defined by consumers, families, and communities.
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Social workers using a person-in-environment framework for assessment need to include to
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varying degrees important cultural factors that have meaning for clients and reflect the culture of
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the world around them. Although in U.S. social work cultural diversity historically has been
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associated primarily with race and ethnicity, social workers are also aware of the need to develop
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culturally competent skills, knowledge, and values when working with people of a different
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gender, social class, religion or spiritual belief, sexual orientation, age, and disability. This kind
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of sophisticated cultural competence does not come naturally to any social worker and requires a
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high level of professionalism. This policy statement speaks to the need for definition, support,
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and encouragement of a heightened level of social work practice that encourages cultural
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competence among all social workers so that they can respond effectively, knowledgeably, and
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sensitively to the diversity inherent in the agencies they work in and with the clients and commu-
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nities they serve.
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Cultural competence is a vital link with the theoretical and practice knowledge base that defines
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social work expertise. Increasing cultural competence within the profession requires efforts to
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recruit and retain as diverse a group of social workers as possible, many of whom bring some
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“indigenous” cultural competence to the profession. In addition, cultural competence requires
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efforts to increase avenues for the acquisition of culturally competent skills by all social workers.
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Indigenous cultural competence is a result of absorbing positive and negative cultural memories
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through lifelong experiences, which can be an advantage as well as an obstacle when the workers
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confront the subjective qualities of sharing the same cultural experiences as their clients.
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Cultural competence should not be equated with cultural identity or consciousness. For example,
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a Latino social worker is not inherently culturally competent when working with Latino clients;
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that is, it is not the social worker’s ethnicity that makes him or her effective when dealing with
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clients of similar heritage. Rather, it is the combination of the worker’s cultural history that is
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mediated through his or her social work training that makes for effective social work practice.
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This training emphasizes focus on the client context of socioeconomic status, race, gender,
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sexual orientation, religion, age, and abilities— all of which may vary among clients who share
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an ethnic heritage. When social workers have little contact with people who are culturally dif-
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ferent, they must acquire cultural competence through cognitive methods to achieve affective
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insight. The profession needs to enhance culturally competent social work practice by addressing
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the needs of both indigenous workers and those from different cultures struggling to acquire
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competence.
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Cultural competence builds on the profession’s stance on self-determination and individual
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dignity and worth, adding inclusion, tolerance, and respect for diversity in all its forms. Social
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workers know the importance of developing practices that are sensitive to different races,
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nationalities, language proficiencies, and immigration or migration experiences. Social workers
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are keenly aware of the deleterious effects of racism, sexism, ageism, anti-Semitism,
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homophobia, and xenophobia on clients’ lives and the need for social advocacy and action to
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better empower diverse clients and communities. This policy statement reinforces this awareness
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but moves the discussion toward the development of clearer guidelines, goals, and objectives for
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the future of social work practice in which cultural diversity will increase in complexity.
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POLICY STATEMENT
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NASW seeks to promote cultural and linguistic competence in all areas of social work practice,
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research and education. Social workers must honor the ethical responsibility to be culturally
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competent practitioners and the NASW Code of Ethics (NASW, 2008) instructs. This policy
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statement adopts the definition of cultural competence proffered by Cross and colleagues (1989)
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as “a set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system or agency
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or among professionals and enables the system, agency, or professionals to work effectively in
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cross-cultural situations” (p. 13). The word “culture” is used because it implies the integrated
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pattern of human behavior that includes thoughts, communications, actions, customs, beliefs,
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values, and institutions of a racial, ethnic, religious, or social group. The word “competence” is
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used be - cause it implies having the capacity to function effectively. A culturally competent
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system of care acknowledges and incorporates at all levels the importance of culture, the
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assessment of cross-cultural relations, vigilance toward the dynamics that result from cultural
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differences, the expansion of cultural knowledge, and the adaptation of services to meet
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culturally unique needs (Cross, Bazron, Dennis, & Isaacs, 1989; NASW, 2001).
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NASW promotes and supports the implementation of cultural and linguistic competence at three
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intersecting levels: the individual, institutional, and societal. Cultural competence requires social
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workers to examine their own cultural backgrounds and identities while seeking out the
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necessary knowledge, skills, and values that can enhance the delivery of services to people with
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varying cultural experiences associated with their race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual
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orientation, religion, age, or disability. Culturally competent practice is a critical component of
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professional social work expertise in all practice settings that include but are not limited to direct
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practice, community organizing, supervision, consultation, administration, advocacy, social and
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political action, policy development and implementation, education, and research and evaluation.
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Culturally competent practice is required in all geographic communities, whether urban,
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suburban, rural or frontier.
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Culturally competent social work practice cannot occur within a vacuum. It requires an
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institutional and professional infrastructure that supports the efforts of individual practitioners to
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conduct themselves in a culturally competent manner. Additionally, social workers should be
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respectful of cultural diversity amongst colleagues in the workplace setting creating an
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atmosphere of open acceptance and inclusion. This means that the organization must have
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policies, procedures, and financial allocations that support and reward the growth and
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development of the staff. Furthermore, organizations must have the appropriate philosophy,
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policies, and procedures to ensure that the appropriate structures and practices are designed,
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funded, staffed, implemented, and evaluated to achieve the most effective and acceptable
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services to meet the unique needs and perspectives of a culturally and linguistically diverse
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service population. It is only through partnership with consumers, families, and cultural
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communities that social work institutions can successfully design the appropriate services.
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It is the position of NASW that social policy be developed at the local, state, and national levels
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to promote cultural and linguistic competence. Such policies should assert the expectation of
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cultural and linguistic competence institute the structures and financing to facilitate cultural and
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linguistic competence, and demand accountability of institutions and practitioners for cultural
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and linguistic competence. Such policies must address human resources and program factors that
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promote the recruitment and retention of a culturally diverse work - force, require appropriate
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educational preparation and continued professional development in cultural and linguistic
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competence of the workforce, and establish strategies to monitor and evaluate service outcomes
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for people of diverse cultures. Not only are these social policies needed to address the
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requirements of cultural and linguistic competence, but also such policies are needed to continue
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to work against the continued expression of racism, prejudice, and discrimination in this country.
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NASW supports access to services and care for diverse populations and policies that encourage
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inclusion of culturally and linguistically competent care. The development of partnerships to
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meet the needs of diverse communities is necessary in order to increase access to services. The
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Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA) provisions address ways to increase access to healthcare for
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diverse and limited English proficiency (LEP) people.
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NASW recognizes that the expertise required for the development of appropriate and effective
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interventions for diverse populations re - sides within that population. It is the position of NASW
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that collaboration with consumers, families, and cultural communities is a precondition for
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creation of culturally and linguistically competent services, reasonable accommodations,
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interventions, programs, and policies.
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It is the position of NASW that practitioners and their host organizations ensure that services are
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offered in the language preferred by the consumers and families receiving service. In addition,
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NASW supports tending to the linguistic needs of social work’s diverse workforce. Linguistic
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competence requires the growth in capacity to use the preferred language of the consumer and
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also to develop the skills to use appropriate strategies for interpretation and translation. Several
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strategies that organizations can pursue include modifications in staffing and operations, such as
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the inclusion of bilingual and bicultural staff; foreign language interpretation services; use of
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cultural brokers; provision of materials in alternative formats such as audiotape, Braille, enlarged
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print; and print materials in easy-to-read, low-literacy, picture, and symbol formats (Goode &
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Jones, 2009).
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NASW recognizes that a policy statement alone cannot fully define the values, knowledge, and
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skills required for culturally and linguistically competent practice. Cultural competence is an
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important ingredient of professional competence, as important as any other component that
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forms the basis of the theoretical and clinical knowledge that defines social work expertise. This
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policy statement supports and encourages promulgation and adherence to the NASW Standards
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for Cultural Competence in Social Work Practice (2001, 2007).
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NASW supports the advancement of practice models that have relevance for the range of needs
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and services represented by diverse client populations. It promotes the application of practices
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for which there is evidence of effectiveness for the relevant cultural group and the development
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of a knowledge base that emanates for the practice within and on behalf of cultural communities.
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As advocates for the providers and consumers of social work services, social workers need to
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promote cultural competence by supporting the evaluation of delivery models that are offered as
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culturally competent. Monitoring cultural competence among social workers should include
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establishing mechanisms for obtaining direct feedback from clients.
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The social work profession is encouraged to take proactive measures to ensure cultural
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competence as an integral part of initial and continuing social work education and practice and to
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increase research and scholarship among its professionals. The social work profession should
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ensure cultural competence is an integral part of organizational practice and social policy.
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REFERENCES
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Abrams, L. S. & Gibson, P. (2007). Teaching notes: reframing multicultural education: teaching
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white privilege in the social work curriculum. Journal of Social Work Education, 43, no.1,
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147-160.
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Congress, E. P, Kung, W.H (2013). Using the culturagram to assess and empower culturally
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diverse families. Multicultural Perspectives in Social Work Practice with Families, Third
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http://www.springerpub.com/samples/9780826108296_chapter.pdf
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Cross, T. L., Bazron, B. J., Dennis, K. W., & Isaacs, M. R. (1989). Towards a culturally
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competent system of care: A Monograph on effective services for minority children who are
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severely emotionally disturbed, Volume I. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Child
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Development Center, Child and Adolescent Services Program Technical Assistance Center.
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Gallegos, J.S., Tindall, C., Gallegos, Sheila (2008). The need for advancement in the
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conceptualization of cultural competence. Advances in Social Work, 9, no.1, 51-62.
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Goode, T., & Jones, W. (2009). A definition of linguistic competence. Washington, DC: George
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town University Center for Child and Human Development, National Center for Cultural
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Gould, K. H. (1995). The misconstruing of multiculturalism: The Stanford debate and social
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http://www.census.gov/population/projections/data/national/2012.html
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