AP Biology
Midterm Review Study Guide
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Midterm exam date: period 1:January 22, 2016, 8:00am – 10:00am
period 3: January 25, 2016, 8:00am – 10:00am
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Format: 40 Multiple Choice Questions, math questions, and free response questions
This midterm will count as your midterm exam grade and your final exam grade. These 2 grades will be averaged with
your 5th marking period project grade to determine your 5 th marking period grade.
Use this review sheet to help guide you during your preparation for this exam. NOTE: This list is not all-inclusive.
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2 - Biochemistry
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What are the life processes?
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What determines the different types of bonds (Nonpolar Covalent, Polar Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogen)?
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Mass # , atomic #, isotopes, ions, electron configuration
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Protons (mass, +1, nucleus), neutron (mass, +0, nucleus), electron (no mass, -1, orbitals, valence e- involved in bonds)
2 – Water
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What types of bonds do you find within a water molecule? “ “ “ between water molecules?
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What atom in water is very electronegative?
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Properties: excellent solvent, high heat capacity—moderating influence on temperature, evaporative cooling, ice floats - insulation,
strong cohesion & surface tension, strong adhesion
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PH scale 0-14
acid = 0-(7) high [H+], low [OH-]
neutral = 7
base (7)-14, low [H+], high [OH-]
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What are buffers? Why are they necessary?
3 – Carbon / Organic Molecules
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What are some properties of the carbon (organic) atom?
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Functional Groups: structural formulas, properties, and examples of molecules they are found in:
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Amino, central carbonyl, terminal carbonyl, carboxyl, hydroxyl, methyl, phosphate, sulfhydryl
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Isomers = same number of atoms, different properties
3- Macromolecules
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What is the difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?
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C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 = C12H22O11 (disaccharide) + H2O
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Know macromolecule monomers vs. polymers, bonds, and examples:
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Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides, sugars, starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin, glycosidic
linkage bonds
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Proteins - structure, transport, defense, enzymes, amino acids, dipeptides, polypeptides, proteins, peptide bonds, 1°, 2°,
3°, 4° levels of structure
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Lipids - energy storage, structure, hormones, groups: triglycerides (fats, saturated C-C, unsaturated/kinky C=C),
phospholipids, steroids, (cholesterol, sex hormones), ester linkage bonds
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Nucleic acids- genetic information storage, structure: nucleotides (pentose sugar, nitrogenous base (A,T,C,G,U),
negatively charged phosphate groups, DNA, RNA, hydrogen bonds between bases, covalent bonds in backbone
6 - Enzymes/ Metabolism
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What do the first and second laws of thermodynamics state?
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What is the structure and purpose of ATP?
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What happens when high-energy phosphate bonds are broken in ATP?
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Δ G Reaction (Change in Energy of Reaction) = G products (Energy of Products) – G reactants (Energy of Reactants)
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Define: Catabolism, Hydrolysis, Exergonic, Negative Delta G
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What macromolecule are enzymes made of? What do they do to a substrate? Can they be reused? What do enzymes do to the
activation energy of a reaction?
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Function: metabolic catalysts, lock & key model, induced fit model, “-ase”, substrate specific
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Factors affecting enzyme action: pH, temperature, coenzymes, cofactors, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration
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Activators (ex: allosteric) vs. inhibitors (ex: competitive or non-competitive)
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Allosteric site vs. active site
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Negative feedback loop / feedback inhibition
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Be able to label & interpret a Rates of Reaction Diagram 
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4 - The Cell
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What are the names, functions, and locations of the following organelles?
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Nucleus, nucleolus, ribosomes, SER, RER, golgi apparatus, mitochondria, chloroplast, lysosome, peroxisome,
cytoskeleton, microtubules, flagella, cilia, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, centrosome, centrioles, large central
vacuole / tonoplast, vesicles, vacuole, cell wall, cell junctions (desmosomes, tight junctions, gap junctions,
plasmodesmata)
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Explain some differences & similarities between plant, animal (Eukaryotic) and bacterial (Prokaryotic) cells:
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eukaryotes: nucleus & membrane-bound organelles
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plants: cell wall, chloroplasts, central vacuole
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animals: lysosomes, centrioles
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prokaryotes (bacteria): naked circular DNA, ribosomes, no nucleus or membrane-bound organelles, sometimes cell wall
(peptidoglycans)
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What are viruses composed of and why are they exception to the Cell Theory?
5 - Membranes
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Explain Passive Transport (Diffusion, Osmosis, & Facilitated Diffusion) vs. Active Transport
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Define: Isotonic, Hypotonic, Hypertonic
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Define turgid plant cell, plasmolysed plant cell, lysed animal cell
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vesicular transport: exocytosis, endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
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Know the functions of the components of a cell membrane / phospholipid bilayer/ fluid mosaic model:
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Phosopholipids - hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails (amphipathic)
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proteins – amphipathic, integral & transmembrane, ion channel, transport, electron transfer, peripheral,
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glycoproteins - recognition, receptor, adhesion
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cholesterol - fluidity
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What types of materials can pass through a selectively permeable membrane and why?
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What types of materials cannot pass through a selectively permeable membrane and why?
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What types of cells have membranes and what are they composed of?
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Plant Cells vs. Animal Cells Placed in solutions of different Molarities (M)
7 – Respiration
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Net Equation: C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
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Aerobic Respiration: Know the locations, reactants, products of:
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Glycolysis
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-level phosphorylation), 2 NADH
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all aerobic & anaerobic organisms, most widespread pathway, cytosol
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Kreb’s Cycle / Citric Acid Cycle
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PreKrebs: 2 pyruvate -
2 rounds of Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP (substrate-level phosphorylation), 6 NADH, 2 FADH2
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Aerobic only, matrix of mitochondria
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Electron Transport Chain / Oxidative Phosphorylation / Chemiosmosis)
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NADH & FADH2 donate electrons to ETC, cytochrome carrier proteins in membrane,
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pump H+ ions to intermembrane space, H+ flow down concentration gradient through ATP synthase,
phosphorylate ADP 
2 is final electron acceptor
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yield: 36-38 ATP
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Aerobic only, folded inner membrane of mitochondria aka cristae (lots of surface area)
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Anaerobic Respiration: Know the locations, reactants, products of:
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Lactic Acid Fermentation (mammalian muscle cells, bacteria), no CO2 produced
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Alcohol Fermentation (bacteria, yeast), CO2 produced
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both start with Glycolysis (the most widespread pathway)
8 – Photosynthesis
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Net Equation: light + 6 H2O + 6 CO2 --> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
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LEO the “RED-OX” says GER: Redox reactions: Lose Electrons = Oxidation, Gain Electrons = Reduction
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Know the locations, reactants and products of:
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Light Reactions AKA Light Dependent Reactions
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How is chemiosmosis associated with the light reactions?
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Chloroplast: thylakoid membrane, grana
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noncyclic photophosphorylation
• photosystem II (P680), photolysis, primary electron acceptor, electron transport chain, ADP  ATP
(phosphorylation)
• photosystem I (P700), primary electron acceptor, electron transport chain, NADP -->NADPH
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why does cyclic photophosphorylation occur?
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Calvin Cycle AKA Dark Reactions AKA Light – Independent Reactions
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Chloroplast: stroma
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carbon fixation: inorganic CO2 + RuBP -- enzyme Rubisco 
6 “turns” = 6 CO2 input = 1 glucose (6C) output
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What is photorespiration?
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C3: can undergo photorespiration, b/c of inefficiency of Rubisco in high [O 2], Ex: wheat, rice
2
8 – Photosynthesis (continued)
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C4: minimizes photorespiration, separate 2 steps of carbon fixation anatomically = 2 different cells, PEP carboxylase in
outer ring of mesophyll cells, 4C "storage" compounds, (oxaloacetate, malate)., passes carbon by regenerating CO 2 in
inner bundle sheath cells to Calvin Cycle and Rubisco. Ex: crabgrasses, corn, sugar cane
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CAM: minimizes photorespiration, separate 2 steps of carbon fixation temporally = 2 different times, fix carbon at night
with PEP carboxylase (when stomates open), put it in “storage” compounds (organic acids: malic acid, isocitric acid),
then in day (when stomates closed), release CO2 from “storage” compounds to Calvin cycle with Rubisco. Ex: cacti,
succulents, pineapple
5- Cell Communication
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Local vs. Long-distance signaling
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Signal transduction pathway: reception, transduction, response
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Phosphorylation cascade
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Cell junctions (gap junctions, plasmodesmata) vs. Cell-to-cell recognition (glycoproteins)
9 – Mitosis
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What is the purpose of mitosis? (clones, asexual reproduction, growth, repair)
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Haploid vs. diploid
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Know specifics about Interphase (G1, S, G2), Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, Cytokinesis (animal cleavage furrow
vs. plant cell plate)
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Purpose of Checkpoints, mutation prevention, no signal at G1 checkpoint / “restriction point”  G0 – nerves, muscle cells
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Chromosomes vs. chromatids, centromere, complementary strands
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cell division triggered by growth (surface to volume ratio), density dependent inhibition
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What are the differences between mitosis in plant cells vs. animal cells?
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How do bacteria asexually reproduce?
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Cancer = unregulated cell division
10 – Meiosis
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What is the purpose of meiosis? “reduction division”, haploid gamete (sex cell) production, genetic variation & recombination
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Know specifics about Interphase, PI, MI, AI, TI / Cytokinesis I, Interkinesis, PII, MII, AII, TII/ Cytokinesis II.
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What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis? What are the differences between Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II?
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What is chromatin?
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Interphase I, Prophase I (synapsis, tetrad, chiasmata, crossing over), Metaphase I (independent assortment), Anaphase I
(separates homologous pairs), Telophase I (diploid 2n -
Interphase II / Interkinesis (rest), Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II (separates sister chromatids), Telophase II (haploid 1n--
11 - Mendelian Genetics
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Using Punnett squares to determine genotypes of parents and offspring
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Testcross
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locus, gene, allele, homologous pairs, dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, monohybrid cross,
dihybrid cross; P, F1, F2 generations,
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Multiple alleles : Blood type determination (ex: cross: IAIB x ii)
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Incomplete dominance (pink flowers) vs. Codominance (roan cow)
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Use a pedigree to determine the inheritance pattern of an autosomal Mendelian trait.
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Law of Segregation: random segregation of alleles to separate gametes
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Law of Independent Assortment: chromosomes segregate separately from other nonhomologous chromosomes
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Epistasis
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Pleiotropy
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Polygenic inheritance
12 - Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
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List some examples of sex-linked (X-linked) traits.
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Use a pedigree to determine the inheritance pattern of a sex-linked trait.
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As the distance between 2 linked genes increases, what happens to the crossover frequency?
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Use crossover frequencies (map units) to determine a linkage map of the locations of genes on a chromosome.
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What are some chromosomal mutations? (non-disjunction, deletion, duplication, translocation, inversion)
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X-inactivation (DNA methylation, Barr bodies)
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