G. Koshy
Translation is a creative activity. J. C. Catford, in A Linguistic Theory of Translation, defines it as
“the replacement of textual material in one language (Source Language) by equivalent textual material in another language (Target Language)”.
Earlier scholars judged a translation, against its faithfulness with the original. Now, as Bassnet-
McGuire says, theorists look on for different types of faithfulness according to situations. Modern translation theory focuses on the process of translating, than the translated work. Theorists ask questions on the type of text to be translated, function of translation, level of equivalence etc.
According to Wilhelm von Humboldt, the history of translation may begin from 3000 B.C.
Translation may be seen as a bridge between creative minds, languages and culture. Every language has an unspoken cultural identity of its own. Meaning of a sentence is culturally conditioned in the texture of the language. Hence, translation should be based on words, intention (intended audience) and peculiarities of the source and target cultures. Louise M Haywood says that translation is a movement between two languages and two cultures; and successful translation may depend on the translator’s command of cultural assumptions in each language.
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Translation may be broadly divided into Human and Machine translation. Computers and internet with specially designed softwares are used in Machine Translation (Computer Aided
Translation). Human Translation may be Oral or Written . Oral Translation consists of Simultaneous ,
Consecutive and Sight translations. Written Translation are either literary or non literary .
Non Literary Translations are classified into following categories:
1.
Administrative Translation is used in the management of business organizations and government
2.
Commercial Translation requires specialist translators with the knowledge of terminology used in the business world for correspondence, company accounts, tender documents, reports etc.
3.
Legal Translation requires specialist attention as law is culture-dependent especially in translation of legal documents such as statutes, contracts and treaties.
4.
Academic Translation covers the translation of certificates related to awards, honours, degrees, achievements etc. in the academic field.
5.
Medical Translation requires specialization and covers packaging of medicine to manuals for medical equipments and to medical books.

6.
Technical Translation is specialized translation of documents like owners manuals, user guides.
It requires a high level of subject knowledge and mastery of the relevant terminology.
7.
Audio-Visual Translation involves professional exercises in the film world and Television
Channels, such as dubbing, subtitling etc.
Literary Translations are considered as the highest form of translation. A Literary translator should also translate feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other subtle elements of a work. They may be classified into poetry, Fiction, and Drama. a.
Poetry . Russian linguist Roman Jakobson declared that “poetry by definition is
untranslatable”. American poet James Merrill wrote a poem, “Lost in Translation”. According to Eugene
Nida, there is a grater focus on formal elements in poetry. It is difficult to reproduce both content and
form in a translation. Hence the form is usually sacrificed for the sake of content while translating. The translator has to make a consensus between the norms and conventions of two linguistic systems, cultures, literary traditions and poetic sensibilities. For accomplishing this one has to be a critic and a poet at the same time. Like a critic, the translator should understand the features of original poem against the cultural and literary traditions of the source language. Like a Poet, the translator should exploit his/her own creative powers against the cultural and literary traditions of the target language. b.
Fiction . Though prose does not have formal elements as much as in poetry, the translation of fiction is challenging. Each sentence, clause or phrase in any work is part of an organic
whole. While translating fiction, one can think of two types of translations, viz. adequate and
acceptable. Adequate translation is a faithful reproduction of the totality of information (semantic, grammatical, and stylistic etc.) found in the Source Language. An Acceptable translation presupposes lexical and stylistic sensitivity of the Target Language. The translated work must be acceptable in the
Target Language as it has to exist in the same. c.
Drama . Only some plays are meant to be performed apart from reading. Every theatrical text (plays to be performed) carries another text (inner text or ‘gestic’ text), consisting of the movement and actions of the actors on stage. Thus the translator should take into account the
performability of the play with the physical dimension of space, props, costumes, lighting etc. Stage
directions should be translated into the Target Language correctly. If the names of characters have any connection with the plot or personality of the characters, they also need to be translated appropriately.
Some Translation Techniques
1.
Borrowing . It means taking of words directly from one language into another without translation. E.g. Software, funk (Borrowed from English); passé, résumé hamburger and kindergarten
(Borrowed from other languages to English).
2.
Calque (loan translation) . It is a technique where a phrase is borrowed from another language and is translated word-for-word.. E.g. standpoint and beer garden from German Standpunkt and Biergarten.
3.
Interlinear Translation . It is word-for-word translation which involves the translation of all words in the original without taking the context into consideration. It retains the original word order.
It can be used in a few languages only.
4.
In Literal Translation, words are translated literally (keeping the dictionary meaning without taking the context), using the word order of the Target Language.

5.
Semantic Translation . It renders the exact contextual meaning of the original using the
word order of the Target Language.
6.
Communicative Translation . It is an effort to produce the effect (force) of the original, rather than the content.
7.
In Transposition, parts of speech change their sequence in translation as grammatical structures differ in various languages. E.g. The S-V-O order in English has to be changed to S-O-V order in
Malayalam. Translators use the technique of ‘creative transposition’ for making adjustments in translation with regard to communicative and aesthetic value.
8.
Adaptation . It is used when something specific to one language culture is expressed in a different way that is familiar to another language culture. Eugene Nida, the Bible scholar, gives the example of changing a phrase ‘white as snow’ to ‘white as egret feather’ for the people of Sudan.
9.
Compensation . When something cannot be translated or its meaning is lost in translation, the same have to be compensated somewhere else in the translated text. E.g. Japanese expression of formality.
The complexity of a language becomes clear in translation. Translation brings to light the limitations of the original. It stretches the limits of the intellect and imagination and develops an infinite curiosity about language, meaning and culture.
Questions
1.
Why is it said that the meaning of a sentence depends not only in the text but also on factors outside it?
As meaning is culturally conditioned, and intricately woven into the texture of the given language, it is said that the meaning of a sentence depends not only in the text but also on factors outside it.
2.
Why is the translation of a literary work considered the highest form of translation?
A Literary translator should also translate feelings, cultural nuances, humour and other subtle
elements of a work. Hence the translation of a literary work is considered as the highest form of translation.
3.
What do you understand by the term ‘creative transposition’?
‘Creative transposition’ is a technique used by the translators for making adjustments in the word order with regard to communicative and aesthetic value in translation.
4.
Why does Newmark comment on translation as a superb academic exercise?
Translation offers the students an insight into the nature of language, contrastive linguistics, and cultural studies. Translation brings to light the limitations of the original and stretches the limits of the intellect and imagination and develops an infinite curiosity about language, meaning and culture. Hence it is a superb academic exercise.

5.
6.
Write a note on the different types of translation. See the summary
Why is translating for the theatre considered to be an intimidating task?
First, the translator must be aware whether the play to be translated is also to be performed, or if it is intended just for reading. Every theatrical text (plays to be performed) carries another text (inner text or ‘gestic’ text), consisting of the movement and actions of the actors on stage. Thus the translator should take into account the performability of the play with the physical dimension of space, props, costumes, lighting etc. Stage directions should be translated into the Target Language correctly, without giving a chance for misinterpretations. If the names of characters have any connection with the plot or personality of the characters, they also need to be translated appropriately.
Essays
7.
What are the important factors that one should take into account when translating poetry, fiction and drama?
See the summary
8.
Discuss some of the important translation techniques.
See the summary
In the Flood
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai
Thakazhi Sivasankara Pillai was a novelist and short storywriter of Malayalam language. He is popularly known as Thakazhi , after his place of birth. He focused on the oppressed classes as the subject of his works. His most famous works are Kayar and Chemmeen . He was awarded India's highest literary award, the Jnanpith in 1984.
1.
Why was Chenna reluctant to leave the hut even though the water was rising?
Chenna was reluctant to leave the hut to protect a few bunches of banana and some hay from being stolen.
2.
Why does Thakazhi say that there was helplessness writ large in the eyes of the dog?
The dog was sitting alone on his hind limb gazing around the flooded water. It had no way to escape. Hence it is said that there was helplessness writ large in the eyes of the dog.
3.
Why does the writer call Chenna’s dog loyal?
Chenna’s dog is called loyal as he guarded his master’s house till his death. Even though his master had escaped without taking him, he was protecting his master’s property from thieves.
4.
Why was Chenna not able to identify his dog?
Chenna could not identify his dog as the body of the dog was all rotten and discoloured. It had also one of its ears missing.
5.
How did Chenna manage to save his family from the floods?

Chenna had made a raised platform in the hut with coconut husks and poles at the first sight of the surging waters. When the water had risen above the platform, he got out of the hut by making a crack in the thatch and looked around. He saw a catamaran and cried aloud to the boatmen. He quickly pulled out his wife and kids as well as the cat and the dog through the crack of the roof, when the catamaran came. As the dog was sniffing around the western end of the hut, the family and the cat got into the catamaran and escaped from the floods.
6.
How did the dog deal with the thieves who came to steal bananas?
When the boats of thieves stopped near the banana tree of Chenna, the dog leapt down from the rooftop and the man who had climbed up the banana tree went straight down into the water. The thieves took away all the bananas and hay from the plot, while the dog was barking his head off. When one of the thieves climbed on to the rooftop, the dog bit him hard on his leg. He got a mouthful of flesh.
The man shrieked in pain and threw himself back in to the boat even as his friend gave the dog a blow on his belly with a wooden pole.
Essays
1.
Do you agree with the view that “In the Floods” depicts tragedy of the loftiest kind? &
2.
beings. Discuss
“In the Floods” testifies that great works of literature need not always be about human
The dog was alone in the deluge; forgotten by its master in the heat of flight. In a vast emptiness filled with water— interrupted only by flies swarming around the occasional flotilla of carcasses, sneaking water-snakes, or a frog that plops up and urinates into the dog's nostrils— it howled and gesticulated at imminent death in "a language very close to the human language". It may be seen as a supreme allegory or an allegiance to the details of life.
One can easily compare the tragedy of the dog with that of an alienated Dalit. When the flood had started to gulp the village, the master had escaped leaving Chenna and his family. Similarly Chenna left the dog, though not deliberately, in the hands of the tragic destiny.
The dog had made only one mistake. When Chenna and family escaped in the catamaran, it did not try to save itself by getting into it. Instead, it was sniffing around the western end of the hut.
Perhaps, it could not leave the place of life as easily as the Master and Chenna. This may be seen as a fault only in terms of present day human society where one shrinks to oneself, when facing hazards.
However, this flaw was fatal for the dog.

The mellifluous chanting of Ramayana and the groaning of the dog by ‘elaborating the notes of a raga fit to melt the hearts’ are contrasted in the story. Chenna was too far to hear the prayer of the dog.
Even when the imminent tragedy was approaching him, the dog had its hopes just like a human being. Whenever a boat came, it expected some help and wagged its tail with an anticipated gratitude.
But he did not receive any assistance from anywhere. He asked for assistance in a universal language. A human being in his place could do nothing more than that.
The greedy people who came to steal the bananas and hay is a nice contrast to the loyal dog that protected his master’s property till the very end. The brave dog was very heroic when it attacked the thief and bit off a ‘mouthful of flesh’.
Death is a great leveller. The fate of the dog, at the mouth of the crocodile, was also no exception to this. Chenna could not even recognize his pet after the water receded
The dog, the hero of the story, had no flaws for this tragic end. It represents the marginalized. It had done its duty well. One could find no justification for its tragic death. But this is the way of the world. (One could state like Thomas Hardy who concluded the tragedy of Tess of the D’urbervilles that
“the President of the Immortals … had ended his sport” with the dog .)
(The dog could easily be replaced by a marginalized Dalit. In fact it represents every downtrodden upon whom the destiny is thrust upon. Thus ‘In the Floods’ is an allegory like The Animal
Farm of George Orwell and testifies that great works of literature need not always be about human beings.)
Degadu Parab’s Ashwamedha
Jayant Kaikini
1.
How did Degadu Parab sit on the horse?
Degadu Parab was the veiled bridegroom who sat on the horse as if he was a part of the vertebral column of the procession. Strands of jasmine, hanging from his zari turban, covered his face.
2.
Why was Degadu’s brother keeping an air of importance around him?
Balachandra Parab, the brother of Degadu, was walking with an air of importance as he was solely responsible for the first horse procession in the lives of the people.
3.
Why was Degadu’s sister-in-law laughing quietly to herself?
The sister-in-law of Degadu knew that her husband had arranged the horse procession out of pure spite against her father who had not arranged a horse for their wedding. When the horse disappeared with the bridegroom she laughed quietly to herself.
4.
the horse?
What was the magical transformation that happened to Degadu as he became one with

Degadu became one with horse and experienced a strange lightness. He forgot his job, brother’s bullying, and the bride with buckteeth, as he held on to horse’s neck like Shivaji climbing Raigarh Fort.
5.
How far does Balachandra Parab succeed in the role of the elder brother?
Balachandra Parab is portrayed as a typical money- minded elder brother who takes all decisions even on matters regarding the marriage of his younger brother. He persuaded the bride’s people to fix a horse for the procession only to avenge his father-in-law who had not done the same. His brother,
Degadu, had to ride on the horse, though he was frightened to do it. Once he even thought of his plight for being born as a younger brother to this elder brother. When the horse took Degadu away from the place of marriage, Degadu was happy. He forgot his job, brother’s bullying, and the bride with buckteeth. Later he married Bhanumati without informing his brother and lived afar. Thus one could say that Balachandra Parab was a failure as an elder brother.
6.
Describe Degadu Parab’s adventure on horseback.
Degadu had never ridden on a horse and he was frightened. The people hoisted the decorated bridegroom on to the horse, with the help of a stool. He thought that his life would end if the horse shook his head. As soon as the band struck its first notes, the horse jumped lightly and Degadu’s backside was badly hurt. The horse had taken part in a film shooting and had had memories of being part of a circus team. When the motor cycle stuttered, the horse lifted its forelegs and neighing hysterically, galloped away like lightning, carrying the bridegroom along towards the Goshala road. On its back, Degadu swung like a pendant. He had clutched the horse in a close embrace, and had shut his eyes thinking that he had fallen off. He did not take notice of the noise of the crowd on the way. He experienced a magical transformation of strange lightness by becoming one with horse. He forgot his job, brother’s bullying, and the bride with buckteeth; as he held on to horse’s neck like Shivaji climbing
Raigarh Fort. At last the horse reached the stable of Bhanumati’s father, where he was accepted as a readymade bridegroom.
Essays
1.
2.
How far is it justifiable to call Degadu’s adventure on horseback as Ashwamedha? &
Comment on the element of irony and humour in the story.
The story, Degadu Parab’s Ashwamedha is an ironic narration on an important incident took place in the life of Degadu Parab. He was the younger brother of Balachandra Parab. Balachandra Parab arranged a procession for the marriage of his brother on a horse only to avenge his father-in-law who had not arranged the same. But Degadu, his brother, had never ridden on a horse and he was frightened. The people hoisted the decorated bridegroom on to the horse, with the help of a stool. He thought that his life would end if the horse shook his head. As soon as the band struck its first notes, the horse jumped lightly and Degadu’s backside was badly hurt. The horse had taken part in a film shooting and had had memories of being part of a circus team. When the motor cycle stuttered, the horse lifted its forelegs and neighing hysterically, galloped away like lightning, carrying the bridegroom along towards the Goshala road. On its back, Degadu swung like a pendant. He had clutched the horse in a close embrace, and had shut his eyes thinking that he had fallen off. He did not take notice of the

noise of the crowd on the way. He experienced a magical transformation of strange lightness by becoming one with horse. He forgot his job, brother’s bullying, and the bride with buckteeth; as he held on to horse’s neck like Shivaji climbing Raigarh Fort. At last the horse reached the stable of Bhanumati’s father, where he was accepted as a readymade bridegroom.
( The usual reason to perform Ashwamedha, the horse sacrifice, is to establish a King as the overlord of the World. A flawless horse is sanctified as the sacrificial horse. It is then set loose, with the armies of the King following it. Whenever this procession enters the realm of another King, that ruler either has to fight the army or has to agree to pay tribute. Once all the
Kingdoms have been conquered, the horse is brought back to the sacrificial altar.
Degadu Parab was simple person. Decisions were always thrust upon him by his elder brother, Balachandra Parab. Though everything happened to him after the unusual behaviour of the horse was accidental, one can easily compare it with an Ashwamedha. Degadu
Parab was a flawless person. He could travel on horseback all the way to Bhanumati’s house where he was given her in marriage.
There were no serious obstacles in his Ashwamedha. The only difference is that he never went back to his brother. But it was Degadu Parab’s Ashwamedha. Hence it is justifiable to call the procession as Ashwamedha.)
(It is ironic that Balachandra Parab, who had arranged this procession, had to travel and spend money in search of his brother, the bridegroom. There is also humour when he met an acquaintance and was asked about the propriety of being away from the place of his brother’s marriage.
One can find sarcastic elements when the police person asked Bhanumati’s father, who had complained about the missing horse, regarding the colour of the horse.
It is also ironic when Gulama is said to have become a Gulam (slave) when he saw Bhanumati hanging the clothes to dry. When Gulama asked Bhanumati’s hand in marriage, it is said that her father had “offered his own hand instead”.
The story also gives the moral that a marriage does not need these many paraphernalia.
Degadu’s marriage with Bhanumati took place within minutes. It was a lesson for Balachandra Parab who had tried many things for the marriage and Gulama who had done trivial things for getting the love of Bhanumati.
The author also mocks at the stingy character of Balachandra Parab whose heart pained when he paid the full amount to the band for playing only two songs.
The story also ends with an ironic remark made by Balachandra Parab to the question of his wife regarding the reimbursement of the money spent on mandapa and the wedding lunch. He said that what he did for his brother was the least “anyone could do as an elder brother”. But the reader knows what happened to Degadu, his brother, whom he was not even able to trace out after two months of the incident.)