IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Clauses
Culpepper et al. (2009) – clauses have FOUR communicative roles:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Declarative
Interrogative
Imperative
Exclamatory
Clauses can be MAIN and EMBEDDED (elsewhere referred to as MAIN and SUBORDINATE)
THREE most important types of embedded clause:
1. ADVERBIAL:
- typically beginning with a conjunction like if, when, because while…
- are used as ADJUNCTS
- different positions possible
- express TIME, MANNER, REASON etc
2. COMPLEMENT:
-typically required to complete the meaning of the rest of the main clause
- can be called NOUN CLAUSES or NOMINAL CLAUSES (include wh- noun clauses)
- function similar to that of NP – in subject or object slot
-correspond to declarative and interrogative main clauses, but form constructions of REPORTED
SPEECH rather than DIRECT SPEECH
3. RELATIVE:
- Like adjectives
- Modify a noun (their antecedent)
NON-FINITE CLAUSES
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Infinitive
-ing form (adverbial)
-en / -ed form (adjectival)
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IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Types of Adverbial Clause
Carter and McCarthy (2006) detail 9 types of adverbial clause by form and function. Can you identify an
appropriate label for each example of an adverbial clause below?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Norman wants to finish all his assignments before his next jujitsu tournament.
Qiuyan is considered beautiful wherever she goes.
Wakana can come to my party, as long as she doesn’t kick my pet cat.
Melody thinks her hair looks better tied up, while Evgenia thinks it looks better down.
Although Mark is ugly, he has somehow managed to find a wife.
Because Miho is an expert on academic writing, she can help you with your essays.
Xi Chen chose the name “Cissy” in order to make it easier for those of us who don’t speak
Chinese.
8. Korina has some stolen cash in her room, so the police want to speak to her.
9. To be honest, this exercise was far too easy.
LABELS
CONTRAST
TIME
RESULT
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PURPOSE
COMMENT
CONDITION
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CONCESSION
PLACE
REASON
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
RECURSION
In Sentence Structure, Nigel Fabb (2005) presents the final verse of “The House That Jack Built” as an
example of RECURSION, where a clause is embedded within a noun phrase, which is itself part of a
clause inside a noun phrase and so on. RECURSION opens up the possibility of never-ending sentences,
however unwelcome they may be to a reader! Fabb uses the terms ROOT SENTENCE and SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE in his explanation of RECURSION.
DISCUSSION
Which of the features of “sentence structure” that we met in our PREPARATORY TASK are covered by
the teaching materials you are familiar with?
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Is the term “clause” used in teaching materials you are familiar with? Is it a helpful term for the learner?
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Visual Representations of the Sentence
Refer to the separate handout and discuss the following questions:
1. How would you categorise these 12 visual representations of the sentence?
2. What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of each?
3. Which representations do you think would be most useful in the following teaching contexts:
- Teaching young learners?
- One-to-one IELTS preparation?
- Teaching on an EAP insessional programme ?
- Teaching ‘Business English’ to adults in full-time employment?
- Teaching ESOL to adults with limited literacy skills in their L1?
Sentences
Traditional classification of sentences:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Simple
Compound
Complex
Compound-complex sentence
Culpepper et al (2009) see traditional classification of sentences as “not particularly useful”, choosing
instead to focus on coordination and subordination. Sometimes the complexity of a noun phrase is more
important than the complexity of the sentence.
Leech (in Culpepper et al, 2009) concludes that the sentence is not a particularly useful unit to focus on.
Spoken English can make sense without “grammatical” sentence structures, and much language cannot
be classified in terms of sentence types (fancy that!). Leech proposes instead that CLAUSES and
PHRASES are more worthy of analysis
Are these sentences?
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Sort of.
And then?
Thank you very much.
That sort of thing, yes.
Oh I reckon they're lovely. I really do whippets. (from Carter & McCarthy, cited in Leech, 1998)
Page
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Pattern Grammar
Willis – Rules, Patterns and Words
1. “The basic structure of the clause is N + V + ?” What follows the verb depends on the verb and
its meaning, not “abstract grammatical considerations”
2. First noun is the subject
3. All clauses have a subject
+ addition of circumstances / circumstantial elements
Collocation, Colligation, and Sentences
Hoey (2005) takes the opening sentence from a Bill Bryson travel book:
In winter Hammerfest is a thirty-hour ride by bus from Oslo, though why
anyone would want to go there in winter is a question worth considering.
and compares it to:
Through winter, rides between Oslo and Hammerfest use thirty hours up in a
bus, though why travellers would select to ride there then might be pondered.
Hoey’s explanation focuses on COLLOCATION and COLLIGATION. For example, his corpus tells him that:
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59% of uses of IN WINTER relate to a clause whose verb is PRESENT SIMPLE
54% of uses of IN THE WINTER relate to a clause whose verb is PAST SIMPLE
IN WINTER is more likely to occur with “relational process verbs” than “material process verbs”
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IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
References and further reading
Ballard, K. 2007 The Frameworks of English, 2nd Edition, Palgrave MacMillan
Biber, D. et al. 2002 Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and Written English, Longman
Bolinger, D. and Sears, D. 1981 Aspects of Language, 3rd Edition, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
Brazil, D. 1995 A Grammar of Speech, Oxford University Press
Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. 2006 Cambridge Grammar of English, Cambridge University Press
Carter, R., Hughes, R. and McCarthy, M. 2000 Exploring Grammar in Context, Cambridge University Press
Cowan, R. 2008 The Teacher’s Grammar of English, Cambridge University Press
Culpeper, J. et al (eds) 2009 English Language: Description, Variation and Context. Palgrave Macmillan
Fabb, N. 2005 Sentence Structure, 2nd Edition, Routledge
Hoey, M. 2005 Lexical Priming, Routledge
Leech, G. 1998 “English Grammar in Conversation.” Available at http://www.tuchemnitz.de/phil/english/chairs/linguist/real/independent/llc/Conference1998/Papers/Leech/Leech.ht
m [Accessed 22 November 2011]
Lewis, M. 1997 Implementing The Lexical Approach, Thomson Heinle
Odlin, T. (ed) 1994 Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, Cambridge University Press
Parrot, M. 2010 Grammar for English Language Teachers, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press
Willis, D. 2003 Rules, Patterns and Words, Cambridge University Press
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Yule, G. 1985 The Study of Language, Cambridge University Press
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Notes on Preparatory Task
1. I know an old lady who swallowed a fly
S V
O
RELATIVE CLAUSE
Embedded in the NP, which is the OBJECT of the CLAUSE
Post-modification of the HEAD
Issues for learners:
Defining – as opposed to non-defining
I know an old lady, who swallowed a fly.
I know an old lady, which is interesting.
Relative pronoun
*I know an old lady which swallowed a fly
*I know an old lady swallowed a fly
I know an old lady that swallowed a fly
English doesn’t employ resumptive pronouns:
*I know an old lady who she swallowed a fly.
2. I don't know why she swallowed the fly
S
V
O
3. I don't know how she swallowed the cow
S
V
O
NOMINAL/ WH-NOUN CLAUSE
OBJECT of the CLAUSE
Embeds a CLAUSE within a CLAUSE
ADVERBIAL function
Issues for learners:
Distinction between NOMINAL and RELATIVE CLAUSES
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Distinction between NOMINAL CLAUSES and QUESTIONS
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
4. I know an old lady who swallowed a spider that wriggled and jiggled and tickled inside her
S V
O
RELATIVE CLAUSE
Embedded in the NP, which is the OBJECT of a RELATIVE CLAUSE
Post-modification of the HEAD
Includes COORDINATION
Includes the PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE “inside her” (with an ADJUNCT / ADVERBIAL function)
5. She swallowed the spider to catch the fly
S
V
O
A
NON-FINITE CLAUSE
TO- INFINITIVE CLAUSE / INFINITIVE CLAUSE / INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE
ADJUNCT function
Issues for learners:
NON-FINITE means that “to catch” does not show tense
Position in sentence:
To catch the fly she swallowed the spider.
6. How absurd
EXCLAMATORY
Issues for learners:
No subject or verb! Although we could produce How absurd it is.
HOW can be used with an ADJECTIVE
WHAT can be used with a NOUN PHRASE
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Distinction between EXCLAMATORY and INTERROGATIVE CLAUSE:
INTERROGATIVE: How tall are you? (C V S)
EXCLAMATORY: How tall you are! (C S V)
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
7. Imagine that
Has the form of an IMPERATIVE CLAUSE…
…but has an EXCLAMATORY FUNCTION
Issues for learners:
Appropriacy of use : imperatives can be considered impolite
Exclamations are usually informal, but imperatives could be found in formal contexts
Range of functions : can give orders, make requests, and invitations
8. She's dead of course!
S V C
A
ADVERB PHRASE
ADJUNCT / ADVERBIAL function
Issues for learners:
Position in sentence and effect on meaning:
Of course she’s dead.
She of course is dead.
She is of course dead.
9. This is the farmer sowing his corn
S
V C
A
NON-FINITE –ING CLAUSE / PARTICIPLE CLAUSE
ADJUCT / ADVERBIAL function
10. That waked the priest all shaven and shorn
NON-FINITE –EN / -ED CLAUSE / PARTICIPLE CLAUSE
ADJECTIVAL function
Issues for learners:
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Difference between NON-FINITE CLAUSES and REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES
This is the farmer sowing his corn v This is the farmer who is sowing his corn.
the priest all shaven and shorn v the priest who is all shaven and shorn
IA902 Practical Description of English Session 7 : Clauses and Sentences
Types of Adverbial Clause : KEY
1. Norman wants to finish all his assignments before his next jujitsu tournament.
TIME
2. Qiuyan is considered beautiful wherever she goes.
PLACE
3. Wakana can come to my party, as long as she doesn’t kick my pet cat.
CONDITION
4. Melody thinks her hair looks better tied up, while Evgenia thinks it looks
better down.
5. Although Mark is ugly, he has somehow managed to find a wife.
CONTRAST
6. Because Miho is an expert on academic writing, she can help you with your
essays.
7. Xi Chen chose the name “Cissy” in order to make it easier for those of us who
don’t speak Chinese.
8. Korina has some stolen cash in her room, so the police want to speak to her.
REASON
9. To be honest, this exercise was far too easy.
COMMENT
PURPOSE
10
RESULT
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CONCESSION