Scientific Inquiry
Summary:
This chapter is about three major elements involve in the study and practice of science. It is also
about the laboratory rules, equipment and Bunsen burners.
Attitudes
The attitudes of a good scientist include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Curiosity
Perseverance
Positive approach to failure
Open-mindedness
Cooperation with others(teamwork)
Tolerance
Impartiality
Healthy scepticism
Integrity
Refusal to believe superstitions
Skills and processes
In scientific inquiry, it is essential to process skills such as those listed below.
Skill
What is it about?
Using apparatus and equipment Knowing what can and cannot be done with laboratory apparatus. Being able
to choose the right apparatus for each task and handle them correctly.
Posing questions
Making clear what concepts mean by asking the appropriate questions.
Observing
Gathering information about objects, events, etc through the use of our
senses and instruments to help us when necessary.
Comparing
Finding similarities and differences among living and non-living things.
Classifying
Grouping things in specific groups according to their common characteristics.
Communicating
Presenting and reading scientific information in words, tables, graphs and
pictures.
Inferring
Drawing conclusions from observation, data, etc.
Formulating hypothesis
Coming up with explanations for a set of observations, data, etc. A hypothesis
consists of statements about observations that can be tested for accuracy by
other people.
Predicting
Using what we already know about something to work out future
observations that are presently unknown.
Analysing
Study carefully, collecting data to find out more about objects, events, etc.
Elaborating
Giving further and more specific details about objects, events, etc.
Verifying
Carrying out experiments to test the truth of statements made about objects,
events and phenomena.
Generating possibilities
Exploring choices for beyond standard methods and solutions.
Defining the problem
Putting down in clear and precise statements what a scientific issue being
studied is exactly.
Methods of science
1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis (verifying)
For example:
Observation: The computer monitor is not working
Hypothesis: The connection between the monitor and the CPU is loose.
Test the hypothesis: Fix the connection to see if the monitor works.
If the monitor works, then the hypothesis is correct. If not, suggest a new hypothesis and test it
out.
Products of science
The products of science include all the scientific concepts, theories and laws or principals that
scientists have discovered and formulated over the years.
Scientific concept- A scientific concept is an idea developed by scientists to describe, explain and
represent natural objects, events, etc
Scientific theories- A scientific theory comprises a collection of concepts, including abstractions of
observable phenomena expressed as quantifiable properties, together with rules (called scientific
laws) that express relationships between observations of such concepts.
Scientific laws or principals- A scientific law or scientific principle is a concise verbal or mathematical
statement of a relation that expresses a fundamental principle of science, like Newton's law of
universal gravitation.
In the Science Laboratory……..
Safety rules in the laboratory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Never enter the laboratory unless a teacher is present.
Never run or play in the laboratory.
Never remove anything from the laboratory without your teacher's permission.
Never use your bare hands to transfer chemicals.
Never leave experiments unattended.
Never smell gases directly - fan a little of the gas towards the nose instead
Never look directly down the test tube or point the mouth of a test tube towards anyone
when heating.
No eating or drinking in the laboratory.
Always adjust the Bunsen burner to give a luminous flame when not using it(or turn it off
Always tie up your tie or long hair.
Always wash hands after experiments.
12. Always follow strictly the instructions given.
13. Wear safety glasses when conducting experiments
14. Always read the label on bottles carefully to make sure it contains the chemical you want.
Remember to put the bottle in its original place immediately after use.
15. Always handle flammable liquids with great care and keep them away from naked flames.
16. Always handle concentrated acids with great care.
17. Report all accidents and breakage to your teacher. If any chemicals get onto your skin or
clothing, wash the affected area with a large amount of water.
18. Do not tamper with electric mains and other fittings in the laboratory.
19. Open all doors and windows unless otherwise instructed by your teacher.
20. Wash your hands after all laboratory work.
Hottest part
Bunsen Burner
Almost colourless
zone of complete
combustion
Dark zone of
unburnt gas
Non-luminous flame
-occurs when the air-holes are open, allowing air into the burner
-blue
-burns steadily
-hotter than the luminous flame
-hottest part of the flame is just above the tip of the blue zone.
Almost colourless
zone of complete
combustation
Dark zone
of unburnt
gas
Orange zone of
incomplete
combustion.
gas
-occurs when the air-holes are closed and very little air is allowed to mix with the gas
-carbon particles are deposited on apparatus
-orange
-appears flickering and unsteady
-not very hot
Measurements
Summary:
This chapter is about the measurement of physical quantities
Physical quantities
Mass, volume, time and temperature are examples of physical quantities. A physical quantity is
one which can be measured and used in mathematical equations of science. A physical quantity
is expressed in the form of a number and a unit.
Example: Length of square= 10 centimetres
Magnitude
Tells us how big and
small the quantity is.
Unit
A precise quantity used as a standard
of measurement.
We use our five senses to make observations. However, human senses are limited and not
always reliable. The optical illustration shows that our sense of sight can play tricks on us. In
scientific inquiry, we need to make accurate measurements to obtain accurate and reliable
results. Measuring instruments such as a ruler are used to make accurate measurements.
SI units
Since 1960, an international standard of units, called the SI units, has been used. The SI is an
abbreviation of Systeme International d’ Unites, which means International System of Units.
Physical quantity
Length
Mass
Time
Temperature
SI unit(symbol)
Metre(m)
kilogram(kg)
seconds(s)
kelvin (K)
Prefixes such as centi-, milli-, or killo-, are used with these units to change them into bigger or
smaller units.
Prefix
kilo
centi
milli
Examples:
1 centimetre (cm)= 1 x 1/100 metre = 0.01m
Factor
One thousand(1000)
One hundredth(1/100)
One thousand(1/1000)
1 millimetre (mm) = 1 x 1/1000 metre =0.001m
1 kilometre (km) = 1 x 1000 metre =1000m
1 milligram (mg) = 1 x 1/1000 gram =0.001g
1 kilogram (kg) = 1 x 1000 gram = 1000g
Length
Length is the distance between two points. Its SI unit is metre (m). Other units include kilometre
(km), centimetre (cm) and millimetre (mm).
Metre rulers, half-metre rulers, measuring tape and vernier callipers are used to measure length.
Parallax error
A parallax error is an error in measurement when the eye is not correctly positioned vertically
above the marking to be read.
Accuracy
Vernier callipers-0.01cm
Metre ruler-0.1cm
Measuring tape-0.1cm
Positive and negative zero error
Positive zero error- If the jaws are closed and the zero on the vernier scale is to the right of the
zero of the main scale. To get the correct value, the zero error must be subtracted from each
reading.
Negative zero error- If the jaws are closed and the zero on the vernier scale is to the left of the
zero of the main scale. To get the correct value, the zero error must be added to each reading.
Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by matter. The SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3).
Mass
The mass of a substance is the amount of matter in it. The SI unit of mass is the kilogram (kg).In
science, mass is different from weight. For very heavy objects, the unit tonne (t) is used. For light
objects, the units gram (g) and milligram (mg) are used.
1 t = 1000kg
1 kg = 1000g
1 g = 1000mg
Mass can be measured using a beam balance or an electronic balance.
Time
The SI unit of time is second (s).
Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness. The SI unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K) although the
unit degree Celsius (0C) is more commonly used.
Area
Area is a measure of the extent of a surface. The SI unit of area is square metre (m2).
Diversity
Summary:
The living and non-living things around us are classified into different groups based on the
similarities and differences into their properties or characteristics. When classifying things, it is
important to choose the properties or characteristics which make the classification useful or
meaningful.
Physical properties
Physical properties such as shape, size, and colour are used describe an object. Density, strength,
hardness, flexibility, electrical and thermal conductivity and boiling and melting point are other
examples of physical properties.
Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. In general, metal have a high densities
compared to non-metals.
Strength
The strength of a material is its ability to support a heavy load without breaking or tearing.
Hardness
In science, the hardness of a material is its ability to withstand scratches. The table below shows
Moh’s scale of hardness.
Diamond
Corundum
Topaz
Quartz
Orthoclase
Apatite
Fluorite
Calcite
Fingernail
Gypsum
Talc
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2.5
2
1
Flexibility
The flexibility of a material is its ability to bend without breaking.
Electrical conductivity
The electrical conductivity of a material is a measuring of how readily an electric current flows
through it.
A material which conducts electricity well is called an electrical conductor. A material which does
not conduct electricity well is called an electrical insulator. In general, metals are good
conductors of electricity while non-metals are insulators of electricity.
Thermal conductivity
The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how quickly heat flows through it. Metals
allow heat to pass through them quickly, they are good thermal conductors. Non-metals such as
ceramics and plastics do not conduct heat well are known as thermal insulators.
Melting point
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance changes from solid
to liquid state.
Boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the fixed temperature at which the substance changes from
the liquid to the gaseous state.
Materials are chosen for their use based on their properties. If inappropriate or wrong materials
are used, the products may not work at all or work poorly, or they may not be safe or
comfortable.
States of matter
There are three states of matter: Solid, liquid and gaseous.
Kinetic Theory of Matter
Kinetic theory is the theory that gases are made up of a large number of small particles (atoms
or molecules), all of which are in constant, random motion. The rapidly moving particles
constantly collide with each other and with the walls of the container. Kinetic theory explains
macroscopic properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their
molecular composition and motion. Essentially, the theory posits that pressure is due not to
static repulsion between molecules, as was Isaac Newton's conjecture, but due to collisions
between molecules moving at different velocities.
Elements, compounds and mixtures
An element is a substance which cannot be split into two or more simpler substances by
chemical.
A compound is a substance consisting of two or more elements chemically combined together.
A mixture consists of two or more substances not chemically combined together.
Interactions
Solutions and Suspensions
A solution is a mixture formed when one or more solutes dissolve in a solvent. A solute is the
substance that dissolves. A solvent is the substance which the solute dissolves in, and it usually
forms the main part of the solution. A suspension is formed when a solid does not dissolve in a
liquid.
Types of solution
Solid-liquid solution: sugar solution, salt solution
Gas-liquid solution: hydrochloric acid, soft drinks
Solid-solid solution: brass, bronze
Liquid-liquid solution: vinegar, beer, wine
Gas-gas solution: air, natural gas
Solubility
Solubility is the maximum mass of solute which can dissolve in 100g of a solvent at a particular
temperature. The solubility of a substance depends on the temperature of the solution.
Saturated solution
A saturated solution is one which contains the maximum amount of solute dissolved in a certain
amount of solvent at a particular temperature.
Concentrated solution
A concentrated solution is one with a large amount of solute dissolved in a solvent.
Dilute solution
A dilute solution is one with a small amount of solute dissolved in a solvent.
Factors that affect solubility
1. Temperature of the solution
2. Nature of the solute
3. Nature of the solvent
Separation techniques
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Magnetic attraction
Filtration
Evaporation to dryness
Distillation
Chromatography
Sublimation
Magnetic attraction
This process is used to separate magnetic objects from non-magnetic objects.
Filtration
This process is used to separate insoluble solids from the liquid in a solid-liquid mixture. The
insoluble solid that remains on the filter paper is called the residue. The liquid that passes through is
called the filtrate.
Evaporation to dryness
Evaporation to dryness is a process used to separate a dissolved solid that does not decompose on
heating from a solution, e.g. common salt from a salt solution.
Distillation
Distillation is a process used to separate a liquid (solvent) from a solid-liquid solution or liquid-liquid
solution.
Fractional Distillation
This process can be used to separate miscible liquids with different boiling points where the liquid
with the lower boiling point will vaporize first.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a process used to separate the different components in a liquid or gaseous
mixture.
Paper Chromatography
It is used for:
•
Analyzing ink dyes for forgery cases
•
Analyzing food dyes to ensure that only permitted colorings are used in foodstuffs
•
Checking whether pesticides on vegetables exceed safe levels
•
Detecting trace levels of drugs in urine sample
Its advantages include:
•
Able to obtain results quick.
•
Only a small amount of sample is required for chromatography.
Sublimation
This method is used to separate a solid which sublimes when heated.
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis (RO) is a filtration method that removes many types of large molecules and ions
from solutions by applying pressure to the solution when it is on one side of a selective membrane.
The result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure
solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective," this membrane should not allow large
molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow smaller components of the solution
(such as the solvent) to pass freely.
Cells, Tissues, Organs and Systems
The cell is the functional basic unit of life. It was discovered by Robert Hooke and is the
functional unit of all known living organisms. It is the smallest unit of life that is classified as
a living thing, and is often called the building block of life. Some organisms, such as most
bacteria, are unicellular (consist of a single cell). Other organisms, such as humans, are
multicellular (consists of more than one cell). Humans have about 100 trillion or 1014 cells; a
typical cell size is 10 µm and a typical cell mass is 1 nanogram. The largest cells are about
135 µm in the anterior horn in the spinal cord while granule cells in the cerebellum, the
smallest, can be some 4 µm and the longest cell can reach from the toe to the lower brain
stem also known as Pseudounipolar cells. The largest known cells are unfertilised ostrich egg
cells which weigh 3.3 pounds.
In 1835, before the final cell theory was developed, Jan Evangelista Purkyně observed small
"granules" while looking at the plant tissue through a microscope. The cell theory, first
developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all
organisms are composed of one or more cells, that all cells come from preexisting cells, that
vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and that all cells contain the hereditary
information necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the
next generation of cells.
The word ‘cell’ comes from the Latin word ‘cellula’, meaning ‘a small room’. The
descriptive term for the smallest living biological structure was coined by Robert Hooke in a
book he published in 1665 when he compared the cork cells he saw through his microscope
to the small rooms monks lived in.
Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism.
Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin,
that together carry out a specific function. The study of tissue is known as histology or, in
connection with disease, histopathology. The classical tools for studying tissues are the
paraffin block in which tissue is embedded and then sectioned, the histological stain, and the
optical microscope. In the last couple of decades, developments in electron microscopy,
immunofluorescence, and the use of frozen tissue sections have enhanced the detail that can
be observed in tissues. With these tools, the classical appearances of tissues can be examined
in health and disease, enabling considerable refinement of clinical diagnosis and prognosis.
Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues. In biology
and anatomy, an organ (Latin: organum, "instrument, tool", from Greek ὄργανον - organon,
"organ, instrument, tool) is a collection of tissues joined in structural unit to serve a common
function. Usually there is a main tissue and sporadic tissues. The main tissue is the one that is
unique for the specific organ. For example, main tissue in the heart is the myocardium, while
sporadic are the nerves, blood, connective etc.. Functionally related organs often cooperate to
form whole organ systems. Organs exist in all higher biological organisms, in particular they
are not restricted to animals, but can also be identified in plants. In single-cell organisms like
bacteria, the functional analogues of organs are called organelles. A hollow organ is a
visceral organ that is a hollow tube or pouch (as the stomach or intestine) or that includes a
cavity (as of the heart or urinary bladder). The functions of organ systems often share
significant overlap. For instance, the nervous and endocrine system both operate via a shared
organ, the hypothalamus. For this reason, the two systems are combined and studied as the
neuroendocrine system. The same is true for the musculoskeletal system, which involves the
relationship between the muscular and skeletal systems.
There are eleven major organ systems found in mammals.
Mammals such as humans have a variety of organ systems. These specific systems are also
widely studied in human anatomy.

Circulatory system: pumping and channeling blood to and from the body and lungs with
heart, blood and blood vessels.

Digestive system: digestion and processing food with salivary glands, esophagus, stomach,
liver, gallbladder, pancreas, intestines, rectum and anus.

Endocrine system: communication within the body using hormones made by endocrine
glands such as the hypothalamus, pituitary or pituitary gland, pineal body or pineal gland,
thyroid, parathyroids and adrenals, i.e., adrenal glands.

Excretory system: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra involved in fluid balance, electrolyte
balance and excretion of urine.

Integumentary system: skin, hair and nails.

Lymphatic system: structures involved in the transfer of lymph between tissues and the
blood stream, the lymph and the nodes and vessels that transport it including the Immune
system: defending against disease-causing agents with leukocytes, tonsils, adenoids, thymus
and spleen.

Muscular system: movement with muscles.

Nervous system: collecting, transferring and processing information with brain, spinal cord,
peripheral nerves and nerves.

Reproductive system: the sex organs, such as ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina,
mammary glands, testes, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate and penis.

Respiratory system: the organs used for breathing, the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
lungs and diaphragm.

Skeletal system: structural support and protection with bones, cartilage, ligaments and
tendons.
Organs of plants can be divided into vegetative and reproductive. Vegetative plant organs are
root, stem and leaf. The reproductive organs are variable. In angiosperms, they are
represented with the flower, seed and fruit. In conifers, the organ that bears the reproductive
structures is called a cone. In other divisions of plants, the reproductive organs are called
strobili (in Lycopodiophyta) or simply gametophores (in mosses).The vegetative organs are
essential for maintaining the life of a plant (they perform the vital functions, such as
photosynthesis), while the reproductive organs are essential in reproduction. However, if
there is asexual vegetative reproduction, the vegetative organs are those that create the new
generation of plants (see clonal colony).The two main organ systems in vascular plants are
the root system and the shoot system.
System (from Latin systēma, in turn from Greek σύστημα systēma, "whole compounded of
several parts or members, system", literary "composition"[1]) is a set of interacting or
interdependent entities forming an integrated whole.
The concept of an 'integrated whole' can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set
of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and
from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational
regime.
The scientific research field which is engaged in the study of the general properties of
systems include systems theory, cybernetics, dynamical systems and complex systems. They
investigate the abstract properties of the matter and organization, searching concepts and
principles which are independent of the specific domain, substance, type, or temporal scales
of existence.
Most systems share common characteristics, including:




Systems have structure, defined by parts and their composition;
Systems have behavior, which involves inputs, processing and outputs of material, energy
or information;
Systems have interconnectivity: the various parts of a system have functional as well as
structural relationships between each other.
Systems have by themselves functions or groups of functions
Termly reflection on your personal growth in science and performance in the science assessment
test.
Term
1
2
3
4
Results
70
56
Grade
A2
C5
There has been a drastic drop in my science results from Term 1 to Term 2. I believe the main
reason is that I have not been paying attention in class and as a result, I did not hear the important
lessons that my teacher had to teach and this in turn affected my academic performance. I resolve
to listen attentively and take notes in class, as well as have a more positive attitude towards work. I
aim to get at least an A2 in term 3 and an A1 in term 4.
Reflections on laboratory sessions
1P1: Getting to know the science laboratory
Reflection: For this first laboratory lesson, we found out about the different kinds of laboratory
apparatus, what they are used for, as well as the hazard symbols that we should know about.
1P2: Hot stuff
Reflection: For this second laboratory lesson, we learnt about the different parts of a Bunsen burner,
the different types of flames that it can produce, how to light a Bunsen burner and also how to deal
with a strike back.
1P3: Flames
Reflection: For this third lesson, we learnt about the differences between luminous flame and nonluminous flame with reference to the colour of the flame, the steadiness of the flame, the visibility
of the flame from a distance, etc.
1P4: Observing and Recording; 1P5: Observing and Recording (Part 2)
Reflection: For this fourth lesson, we learnt how to observe an experiment and record the results
and data in a table for future reference, and also how to use a thermometer and how to heat a liquid
in a beaker for an experiment.
1P6: Measurement of Length
Reflection: For this fifth lesson, we learnt how to measure length using metre ruler, venier calipers
and micrometer screw gauge.
1P7: Measurement of time
Reflection: For this fifth lesson, we used a stopwatch to measure the period of a pendulum and from
our result, we went further to find the approximate length of the pendulum which will give a period
of 2.0s.
1P8: Density of a regular object
Reflection: We used a micrometer screw gauge, an electronic beam balance, a small plastic bottle to
find the density of a regular solid and in this case, a glass marble.
1P9: Density of an irregular object
Reflection: Using a measuring cylinder, tissue paper, electronic beam balance, glass stopper, string
and scissors, we followed the following steps to obtain the density of an irregular object.
1. Weigh the glass stopper to determine its mass, M.
2. Pour water into the measuring cylinder to about one- third of its depth. Note the volume
reading, V1.
3. Tie the glass stopper with a piece of string and lower it gently into the water. Note the
volume reading, V2.
4. The volume of the glass stopper, V is equal to (V2-V1)
5. Remove the glass stopper and dry it using tissue paper.
6. Repeat step (b) twice with different value of V1 and obtain the corresponding values of V2
and (V2- V1)
1P11: Elements Compound and Mixtures
Reflection: We found out the properties of a mixture and a compound and also the procedures
and observations of observing elements.
1P13: Which can dissolve more?
Reflection: We found out if the solubility of different solutes differs in the same solvent.
1P14: The Solvent Matters
Reflection: We found out if the solubility of the same solute differs in different solvents.
Reflections on science excursions
2010 Science Camp: How Science Solves Crimes
Overall summary:
On the first day, we met at the Republic Polytechnic. We were given some free time as not
everybody has arrived, so the Republic Polytechnic student leaders took us up to the exhibition
hall to place our bags. We were then given a campus tour. When the others arrived and a head
count was done, we were led to the lecture theatre for an opening ceremony. After that, we
went to one of the many labs that the polytechnic had where we found out how to compare
blood samples to the ones collected at the crime scene. We had a one hour break for lunch
before going off for our next laboratory lesson. It was about DNA reading. We used strawberries
to practice. After extracting the DNA from the strawberries, it was sent to another lab to be
printed out. We were not allowed to follow as the process contained toxic materials and we
were not trained in that aspect. We had a talk from a psychologist about the minds of
psychopaths before going off for some games and dinner. After dinner, we had some teambuilding games before retiring to bed.
The next day, we woke up at 6.30am. We were given time to wash and brush up. The student
also allowed us to go to the seven-eleven store situated on the campus. Then, we all gathered
together for breakfast and went for our third and last lesson-DNA fingerprinting, where we were
each given a piece of evidence collected from a crime scene and find out who the suspect was
based on the fingerprints. We had some games and did some stretching before we were allowed
to have lunch. After lunch, we had an Amazing race which required us to use the skills that we
had learnt over the two days to complete each station. We had a tea break and then headed to
the lecture theatre for the closing ceremony. We went back to the Exhibition hall for individual
and group photo taking before heading home. Overall, it was a fun and enriching experience.
Critical reviews of new science breakthroughs or discoveries in science journals, books, magazines,
newspapers and the internet.
Cells synthesised from artificial DNA
A team from J Craig Venter's research institute says it has produced a living cell powered by
manmade DNA.
SCIENTISTS have created artificial life for the first time. They have developed a tiny new
bacterium, or "synthetic cell", that is controlled by man-made DNA.
The technological advance is the culmination of 15 years of research costing more than $47
million by a team led by Craig Venter, a controversial American biologist and entrepreneur.
The breakthrough promises the creation of new, useful synthetic bacteria that can clean up
pollution or produce energy, but there are also concerns man-made microbes could escape the
lab or be used as weapons by terrorists.
Mark Bedau, editor of the scientific journal Artificial Life, said the research represented "a
defining moment in the history of biology and biotechnology".
Dr Venter said his team's research was scientifically and philosophically important. "It
certainly changed my views of the definitions of life and how life works."
His team created the genome of a bacterium, Mycoplasma mycoides, from scratch, using bits
of DNA bought from biotech companies. They then transferred it into another type of
bacterium and the synthetic genome "booted up" the recipient cells, so they began to replicate
and produce M. mycoides proteins.
"We clearly transformed one cell into another," said Dr Venter, who heads the J. Craig
Venter Institute in Rockville, Maryland. "This becomes a very powerful tool for trying to
design what we want biology to do. We have a wide range of applications [in mind]."
The research is published in the journal Science.
One of the team's main aims is to design algae that can capture carbon dioxide and produce
oil for fuel. The approach could also have benefits in speeding up vaccine production,
cleaning water and producing chemicals and food ingredients, he said.
But Georgia Miller, of Friends of the Earth, said there was a risk that synthetic organisms
could harm the environment or be used for malicious purposes.
Regulations to control them were lacking, she said. "Although we've known this day would
come for many years, governments have done very little."
She was also critical that the researchers have filed patent applications on some of their
techniques, with the risk that "new organisms could be owned by their developers".
Michael Selgelid, deputy director of the National Centre for Biosecurity at the Australian
National University, said the research was a "historical achievement" with "enormous
potential", although its promise had yet to be realised.
He said many new technologies, including synthetic biology, could be used for good or evil,
and the development of dangerous synthetic microbes as weapons were a major concern.
Better regulations and safeguards had been under discussion for a decade, including
reviewing the risk of "dual purpose" use of research when a project was first proposed and
strengthening international conventions on bioterrorism.
Dr Venter said he had ensured an extensive bioethical review of the implications of the
research had been done first.
The making of mankind's first synthetic cell is a form of genetic engineering that could open
a scientific Pandora's Box, some ethicists and scientists warned today.
Researcher and entrepreneur Craig Venter unveiled the self-replicating bacteria cell overnight
in the US after 15 years of research, hailing it a "powerful tool" for designing biology.
Using the same method, scientists could design bacteria to help produce biofuels or to clean
up environmental hazards.
But critics say Venter is playing God and exposing humanity and the environment to bacteria
that could mutate, with unforseen consequences, or even be used as biological weapons.
"It's quite a radically different approach," biochemistry professor Ann Simpson of the
University of Technology, Sydney said.
"You've got to be very careful when you willy-nilly send something into the environment and
you can't control its spread.
"And you can't control a bacteria spread once you release it."
Professor Simpson said this form of artificial life was unlike other form of biomedical
advances, where changes are contained within an individual, drug or crop that could be
carefully checked before they are released into the environment.
"Bacteria have been known to mutate and change, and [this could] change into something that
they didn't predict, and it could be a problem."
Venter, who is also the co-author of the first sequencing of the human genome in 2000, has
defended his team's work, telling the BBC that "it's been a goal of humanity from the earlier
stages to try and control nature".
"That's how we got domesticated animals.
"This is the next stage in our understanding, it is a baby step in our understanding of how life
fundamentally works and maybe how we can get some new handles on trying to control these
microbial systems to benefit humanity."
Professor Don Chalmers of the University of Tasmania, who specialises in ethics and
biotechnology law, said regulation was the key to the safe development and use of the science.
"I think it's absolutely critical - as Professor Margaret Somerville, a very distinguished
Australian professor of law at McGill University expressed some years ago - that we have to
ensure that science time, which moves very quickly, is followed very closely [by laws].
"The ethical debates [should] be contemporaneous with the science and that the regulation is
in place to enable the good science to go forward but to control some of those perils."
Professor Chalmers said it was essential the public should be consulted and involved in
debates on how science could be developed responsibly.
Australia, he said, was already "in the forefront" of ethics debates on genetic manipulation,
while current laws and regulations have helped to draw the line on what science is acceptable
here, and what is not.
"The Gene Technology Act sets down very careful rules about licensing, about laboratory
standards, about the proper scientific review of the work from a biosafety point of view," he
said.
"Most importantly, the National Health and Medical Research Council, with the Australian
Health Ethics Committee and the Gene Technology Ethics Committee ... are bodies that give
the opportunity for the ethical issues to be examined.
"We want to see responsible science carried out ethically and responsibly, but there are times
when we will in fact become quite strict."
The synthetic genome created by the J. Craig Venter Institute is "watermarked" to distinguish
it from a natural one.
The watermarks included the names of 46 authors and scientists who worked on the project
on the genome along with its own website address - so that anyone who decodes it can send
an email to the team.
Three sets of quotations including "to live, to err, to fall, to triumph, to recreate life out of
life" from Irish author James Joyce were also included.
Venter told a press conference the team had started with a living cell, which had been
transformed with the synthetic genome, adding that the cell had gone through a "million steps
of replication" and was now frozen in a freezer.
"This is an important step we think, both scientifically and philosophically. It's certainly
changed my views of the definitions of life and how life works," he added in a statement.
He also dismissed fears that such synthetic technology could be use for bio-terrorism.
"The technology is not for sale, the cells are not for sale," he told the BBC.
"We are trying to use this technology to advance vaccine protection, we are trying to use it to
advance the basic understanding of cellular life."
Top 10 science breakthroughs in 2009
No. 1 Gene Therapy Makes a Comeback
This year, four teams of gene-therapy researchers had major victories in finding ways to
safely treat human volunteers. Their success is all the sweeter after the years of tragedy and
failure the field has suffered.
In 1999, 18-year-old Jesse Gelsinger died after receiving an experimental treatment for a liver
disorder that wouldn’t have been fatal otherwise. His loss became a symbol of recklessness
by genetics researchers. Several years later, five children developed leukemia after receiving
a gene that was meant to boost their immune systems. To top it off, the first doctor to perform
a gene-therapy procedure, French Anderson, is serving a lengthy prison sentence for child
molestation.
Despite those setbacks, many scientists continued their work in the tumultuous area of
research. Nanotech researchers concocted dozens of tiny particles that may be able to carry
fragile DNA and RNA through the bloodstream and into the cells where they’re needed.
Biologists have refined a method for clipping disease-causing DNA sequences out of any
genome with extreme precision. But the greatest success this year belongs to doctors who
treated blindness, brain disorders, immune system deficiencies and a severe skin condition
with an array of different gene-therapy techniques.
Two boys with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy, a disease that ravages the brain, are doing
well after French doctors gave them a gene that helps to maintain the delicate myelin coating
on their nerve cells. A woman with Pachyonychia Congenita, a painful skin condition,
watched one of her sores fade after doctors switched off the offending protein with a newer
kind of gene therapy called RNA interference. Twelve patients who were blinded by Leber’s
congenital amaurosis showed signs of recovery after getting a genetic treatment in one of
their eyes. Italian researchers announced that most of the 10 patients who received gene
therapy for severe combined immunodeficiency, or “bubble boy disease,” are doing very well
eight years after the procedure that repaired their defenses against infection.
Also this year, researchers at the University of Washington cured two adult monkeys of
colorblindness by giving them injections of a gene that produces pigments necessary for color
vision. After the treatment, the animals scored higher on a computerized color blindness test.
In the coming years, gene therapy will be tested as a remedy for all sorts of inherited diseases,
cancer, viral infections and even high cholesterol.
No. 2 Ardi Usurps Lucy
Ever since a 3.2 million-year-old Australopithecus afarensis skeleton named Lucy was
unearthed from an Ethiopian riverbed in 1974, humanity imagined that its first bipedal steps
were taken on the savanna.
But in October, paleontologists unveiled Ardipithecus ramidus, or Ardi — an uprightwalking primate who lived in Ethiopia a full million years before Lucy. But rather than
dwelling in the savanna, Ardi evolved in light woodlands
Moreover, Ardi — the closest creature we have to the last common ancestor of humans and
chimpanzees — looked far less chimplike than expected. It’s not just Homo sapiens who’ve
evolved, it’s the other great apes too.
Whether Ardi falls directly on the evolutionary branch that produced humans, or belongs to
an early offshoot, is still being argued. But there’s no argument about Ardi’s importance.
No. 3 Schizophrenia in the Genome
When the Human Genome Project was roughly completed in 1999, citizens and scientists
alike expected that genetic explanations of complex diseases would soon follow. When this
didn’t happen, researchers predicted that genome-wide association studies, which compare
the genomes of thousands of people at a time, would find the genetic clues.
In July, three separate teams of researchers returned the results of just such a study for
schizophrenia, a disease that had defied other attempts at genetic analysis. The researchers
analyzed more than 50,000 genomes in their search for clear disease patterns. They didn’t
find them. Instead they found approximately 10,000 genetic variants, each responsible for a
miniscule percentage of disease risk. Some commentators likened the results to a genomic
Pearl Harbor, or the Battle of Dunkirk.
But though the findings set back the notion that complicated diseases have simple genetic
explanations, they were not a scientific setback. If anything, they were the opposite.
Researchers are now embracing the complexity of disease, treating those genes — and others
found in similarly baffling genomic studies — as threads leading them to as-yet-undiscovered
biological networks and interactions.
After all, an answer in the form of a puzzle is still an answer.
No. 4 Life Extension Breakthrough (for Rodents)
In the first major pharmaceutical extension of lifespan in a mammal, scientists gave elderly
mice Rapamycin, an immunosuppressant used to slow cell growth in cancer patients. After
taking the drug, the rodents lived a mouse equivalent of 13 extra years. Even longtime
longevity-enhancement skeptics were stunned by the results, which were duplicated
independently in multiple laboratories on different mouse strains, showing that whatever was
responsible for the results wasn’t an accident.
There’s no way of knowing whether Rapamycin could theoretically extend human lifespans.
Because of the drug’s severe side effects, it’s unlikely that anyone will try it. But the drug
will be used in lab animals to investigate as-yet-unknown cellular mechanisms of aging,
raising hopes that the human lifespan will someday be lengthened.
No. 5 Bisphenol A in Plastics Harms Humans
For years, the plastic additive Bisphenol A was the center of a bitter environmental health
battle. Researchers pointed to studies showing that its estrogen-mimicking qualities caused
cancer and developmental damage in laboratory animals, and might do the same in people.
Plastic manufacturers said animal tests were no substitute for human studies, which didn’t
exist. The U.S. public — of whom 90 percent have detectable levels of BPA in their bodies
— was caught in the crossfire.
In November, epidemiologists produced a study of BPA in humans. In 164 male Chinese
factory workers exposed to high levels of BPA, severe sexual dysfunction was rampant. Their
exposures were far higher than most people, but it can no longer be argued that BPA affects
only lab animals, not people.
No. 6 Jellyfish Stir Oceans
Until recently, marine animals were thought to play but a small part in stirring Earth’s waters.
Scientists thought that hydrological friction would absorb the forces of flippers and fins, just
as desk fans can’t stir air in buildings across the street.
But geophysicists underestimated the power of induced fluid drift, or the tendency of liquid
to stick to a body as it moves through water. In what is almost certainly the most poetic
discovery of 2009, studies now suggest that jellyfish may stir the oceans with as much power
as winds and tides.
No. 7 Computer Program Predicts Drug Side Effects
If you have a rare disease, don’t count on big drug companies to find a cure. Your best shot is
to find out whether drugs that are already approved by the FDA for other purposes might
work as a remedy for your illness.
This year, a team of researchers from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and the
University of California, San Francisco developed a computer program to do that. Their
software compares the shape of each drug to thousands of other drugs and natural chemicals,
and uses that information to predict which biological buttons the drug can push. By looking at
the constellation of proteins the drug affects, they can predict how it may affect the body.
The program could help big pharma too. Drug companies often spend millions of dollars
testing the safety and effectiveness of a chemical, only to learn that it has unacceptable side
effects or is useless. With this simulation technique, they could catch those problems sooner
and avoid costly mistakes.
No. 8 Breathalyzer Detects Lung Cancer
Researchers at the Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa built a sensor that can smell cancer.
It uses gold nanoparticles to check for a telltale set of volatile organic chemicals that are
emitted by malignant cells. The device could be used to give patients an early warning that
they have the disease, which should increase their odds of survival.
Each sensor has nine sets of gold nanoparticles. When those sensing elements come in
contact with a particular chemical, their electrical resistance changes in a predictable manner.
Other researchers have developed similar gadgets, but they do not perform well in high
humidity, and human breath is pretty moist. Mass spectrometers can also detect the
distinctive aroma of melanoma or lung cancer, but they are bulky and not very user friendly.
No. 9 Progress toward a Vaccine for Dengue Fever
Several vaccines for dengue fever, a disease that strikes roughly 230 million people each
year, showed promise in preliminary human trials. Larger scale tests began this year, and
researchers should know just how effective they are by 2012.
The most promising experimental vaccine is made by combining a crippled yellow fever
virus with proteins that are produced by each variety of dengue fever. In theory, those
proteins can train the immune system to recognize and attack the deadly microbes. Four
thousand children in Thailand will get the shot, which may offer protection from all four
types of the virus.
Earlier this year, researchers prematurely announced the first successful test of an HIV
vaccine. They claimed that two ineffective vaccines could offer a modicum of protection
when combined. But their analysis was too optimistic. Other scientists were quick to tear
down the findings.
No. 10 Element 114 Confirmed
In a cyclotron at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, a beam of calcium atoms slammed
into a plutonium target, producing a pair of element 114 atoms for the second time in human
history. Years earlier, a Russian team made similar claims, but their accomplishment
remained in doubt.
It turns out that the Russians were right. But their results were somewhat disappointing. Each
atom lasted for only tenths of a second. An older generation of scientists had hoped that
humanity would someday find a way to make extremely heavy elements that last a long time.
That search continues.
Top 10 science breakthroughs in 2008
1. Finding ice on Mars
After a seven-month journey through space, the Phoenix lander touched down on Martian soil,
and soon after discovered ice.
On May 31, two days after the lander’s robotic arm went to work, its camera caught a
glimpse of something shiny under the craft. Lead researcher Peter Smith speculated that the
landing rockets had blown a thin layer of soil away, exposing buried ice.
The big announcement came on Jun. 19, after scientists compared two photos of a ditch
called Dodo-Goldilocks. In the first image, several bright nuggets were visible, and four days
later the chunks had disappeared. Taking the temperature and atmospheric pressure into
account, the specks had to be ice that sublimated after being uncovered by the mechanical
claw.
The red planet may have an inhospitable climate, but at least it has water, and that will be
tremendously useful when the first group of explorers lands there.
2. Growing a new organ from a patient’s own stem cells
Thanks to stem cell research, people with failing organs may not need to wait for a donor or
take harsh medications that prevent their immune systems from rejecting transplanted tissue.
One of the greatest examples of regenerative medicine — the science of building or fixing
body parts — took place this year, when doctors removed some cells from a 30-year-old
woman with tuberculosis and used them to grow a new trachea, replacing a segment that was
destroyed by the bacterium.
They took stem cells from her bone marrow, layered them onto a decellularized trachea from
a deceased donor, and surgically implanted it in the woman. Four months later, Claudia
Castillo could breathe well and showed no signs of the side-effects that patients have when
they receive an organ from someone else.
3. Finding another building block of life in our galaxy
This has been a very big year for astrobiology. Several teams of researchers have found the
building blocks of life outside our solar system and others have spotted dozens of planets that
aren’t much bigger than earth.
When astronomers in France pointed the IRAM radio telescope at a region of the Milky Way
filled with newborn stars, they found signs of a sugar molecule called glycolaldehyde. It is an
ingredient of RNA, the substance that may have played a key role in the dawn of life. Until
then, the organic chemical had only been spotted at the chaotic core of our galaxy. Using the
Hubble telescope, another group of researchers found the first evidence of water and carbon
dioxide on a planet outside our solar system.
4. Curing HIV in Germany
Some people are remarkably resistant to HIV, and scientists have found two ways to give that
immunity to others. In the first case, Berlin doctor Gero Huetter transplanted bone marrow
from a virus-resistant donor to a man who had both HIV and leukemia. By doing that, he
cured both diseases with one treatment. It sounds great, but Huetter had to kill off his
patient’s immune system with drugs and radiation before replacing it with a better one.
Because that tactic is tremendously harsh and risky, it is unlikely that the miraculous
procedure will catch on. Instead, his victory provided solid evidence that gene editing might
offer a viable solution. Every virus-resistant person has two mutant copies of a gene called
CCR5, and a new biotech tool called zinc finger nucleases can give anyone that mutation.
Instead of transferring bone marrow from another person, doctors could take a few cells from
a patient, modify them to be HIV-resistant and then put them back in.
5. Breaking the petaflop barrier
The latest generation of supercomputers can perform more than a quadrillion operations per
second, and that remarkable capability will revolutionize the way scientists do research.
It will allow them to identify meaningful patterns in unfathomably large mounds of data, and
perform simulations with unprecedented accuracy. Meteorologists could know exactly where
a hurricane will strike days before it makes landfall. Neuroscientists may be able to emulate a
simple brain. So far, two machines have broken the petaflop barrier, and as more follow we’ll
see monumental advances in every field of science.
6. Sequencing entire genome of a cancer patient, including tumor
For the first time, doctors sequenced the entire genome of a cancer patient, and also read the
genetic code of her diseased cells. That allowed them to pinpoint the exact mutations
responsible for the illness.
In the short run, that data will give cancer researchers a much better understanding of the
disease, but their real triumph is bringing the medical community a step closer to offering
personalized health care.
Cancer is hard to fight because nearly every case is different, and yet doctors use a somewhat
one-size-fits-all approach to treating patients. As new medications like gene therapy and
RNA interference become widespread, oncologists will be able to tailor treatments for
patients because of what’s wrong with their genetic code. In the meantime, some physicians
are using simple genetic tests to predict which medications will work well on their patients.
7. Building loudspeakers from carbon nanotubes
Scientists have been tinkering with carbon nanotubes for decades, and this year the work has
paid off. Chinese scientists have used the nanotubes to make transparent audio speakers and
sheets of paper stronger than steel. The speakers work by a thermoacoustic effect: They
vibrate and make noise when heated by an electrical current. The scientists demonstrated in
YouTube videos that their prototype could blast a scratchy but understandable version of the
Moldovan pop song "Dragostea din tei" while it was taped to the side of a waving flag.
Another team at Florida State University made paper that is far lighter and stronger than steel
by pressing sheets of carbon nanotubes together. Those composite materials, developed by
Ben Wang and his team, could make aircraft parts and body armor.
In a perfect sheet of the material, all of the carbon nanotubes should be pointing in the same
direction. Wang figured out how to align the tiny cylinders with magnetic fields. Thanks to
that discovery, and other advances, buck paper could be on the market within a year.
8. Marking greenhouse gas levels — 800,000-year high
The numbers on Wall Street were dismal in 2008, but even more frightening figures came
from Antarctica. When scientists traveled to the frozen continent and analyzed ancient
pockets of air trapped deep in the ice, they learned that our atmosphere has 28 percent more
carbon dioxide now than at any other time in the past 800,000 years. Thomas Stocker of the
University of Bern provided some of the most compelling evidence to date that we are
irreversibly warming our planet. He showed that the rise and fall of CO2 concentrations in the
atmosphere matched the melting and thawing of the polar ice caps, and identified a period in
which the greenhouse gas was at an all time low. Another team, led by Jerome Chappellaz of
Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble, drew the same conclusions by measuring methane
levels in ice core. They remarked that another greenhouse gas, CH4, has not risen above 800
parts per billion in the past 650 millenia, and currently it is at over twice that level.
9. Turning water into fuel
Companies like Nanosolar and Solyndra slashed the cost of solar energy, but scientists are
still looking for a clean way to store all that juice. Daniel Nocera of MIT has an elegant
solution:
Use electricity to break water into hydrogen and oxygen, store it in separate tanks, then
recombine the gases in a fuel cell when you need power.
Anyone can do this. Just hook a 9-volt battery to electrodes and dunk them into a jar of water.
The problem is that it takes a lot of energy to do this. If you want to fill tanks with those
gases, and use them to run a fuel cell, you’ll need to do it very efficiently. Nocera, and his
team at MIT, found a catalyst that makes the task of splitting H2O remarkably easy. It could
store the energy harvested by solar cells and wind farms.
10. Troubleshooting stem cell therapy
In 2007, scientists learned how to reprogram skin cells into stem cells, without cloning or
destroying embryos. It seemed too good to be true, and it was. The tissues grown from those
cells had a nasty tendency to become cancerous, which made them useless for regenerative
medicine — the science of building and fixing body parts. In 2008, several research groups
figured out what was going wrong and solved the problem.
Researchers had used an adenovirus to slip four genes into each cell, but the microbe was
causing lots of collateral damage. By switching to a different kind of virus, scientists at The
Whitehead Institute and Massachusetts General Hospital were able to make the procedure
safe.
Other Links
1. Breakthrough as artificial life is created
21 May 2010 ... The breakthrough promises the creation of new, useful synthetic bacteria
that ... Scientist Craig Venter and his synthetic cell creation. ...
www.smh.com.au/.../breakthrough-as-artificial-life-is-created-20100521-vrsj.html?...
2. Radio New Zealand News : Stories : 2010 : 05 : 21 : Creation of ...
21 May 2010 ... Creation of synthetic cell hailed as breakthrough. Updated at 3:17pm on 21
May 2010. Scientists in the United States have developed the ...
www.radionz.co.nz/news/stories/2010/05/21/1248046b23ab - Cached
3. Major Breakthrough in Stem Cell Creation from Adult Tissue
The creation of human induced pluripotent stem cells was first reported in December 2007,
and while the work was a major breakthrough, it was unsafe and ...
www.elements4health.com/major-breakthrough-in-stem-cell-creation-from-adulttissue.html - Cached - Similar
4. BBC NEWS | Health | Skin transformed into stem cells
20 Nov 2007 ... The breakthrough promises a plentiful new source of cells for use in ...
graphic showing different techniques for stem cell creation ...
news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7101834.stm - Cached - Similar
5. AAAS Policy Brief: Stem Cell Research
Scientific Breakthrough. The issue of stem cell research burst on the scientific ... (1) the
creation of a human embryo or embryos for research purposes; or ...
www.aaas.org/spp/cstc/briefs/stemcells/ - Cached - Similar
6.Sizing up the 'synthetic cell' : Nature News
20 May 2010 ... "Implementing a synthetic genome in a modern cell is a significant
milestone ... sizing up the JCVI latest creation to be in league with one hit (Steen
Rasmussen); ... most recent stories. Ardi may be more ape than human ...
www.nature.com/news/2010/100520/full/news.2010.255.html
Synthetic Biology Breakthrough. In the 20 May 2010 edition of ScienceExpress, Gibson et al.
report the creation of a bacterial cell controlled by a ...
www.sciencemag.org/feature/data/hottopics/synthetic_genome.dtl
11. Other evidences of independent research related to science
12. Showcase of exemplary samples of your own work, research write-ups and projects
(attachment of two files.)