Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Costa Rica Briefing Notes

Location: Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north and Panama to the south; the
Pacific Ocean to the west and the Caribbean to the east

Area: 51,200 square km (around 20,000 square miles); around 1/3 the size of Georgia

Population: 4 million people

Urban Population: 48%

Terrain: The Caribbean and Pacific regions of the country are separated by high volcanic mountain
ranges running northwest to southeast. The highest point in this rugged mountain chain is Chirripó,
at 3,820 m (12,400 ft). Currently active volcanoes include Volcán Rincón de la Vieja, Miravalles,
Arenal, Poas, and Irazú, among many others. The three main ranges are the Cordillera de
Talamanca, Cordillera Volcánica Central, and the Cordillera de Tilarán.

Coastline: The total extent is 1,500 km or 940 miles, including both the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean
Sea.

Maritime claims: Continental shelf, 200 nautical miles; exclusive economic zone, 200 nautical miles;
territorial sea, 12 nautical miles

Capital: San Jose, located at 1000 m elevation (3,250 ft) in the fertile Central Valley or Meseta
Central, and surrounded by mountains.

Time: One hour behind U.S Eastern Standard Time, and 6 hours behind Greenwich Mean Time. No
daylight savings time at any time of year. Thus during May, the time in Costa Rica would be 2 hours
earlier than the time in Georgia; during November, it would be 1 hour earlier than the time in
Georgia.

Electricity: 110V, 60 Hz (the same system as in the US)

Climate: Tropical. Costa Rica enjoys a pleasant spring-like climate year-round. Temperatures
average 20º C (68º F) in the central zone and mountain-lined valleys, and 26º C (79º F) in the
lowlands and on both coasts. In Costa Rica, as in other tropical countries, temperature is constant
year-round, while rainfall varies seasonally. The rainy season or invierno is from May to November.
There is a substantial break in the rainy season in July and early August, locally called the veranillo
de San Juan or little summer of St. John. The dry season or verano occurs from December to April.
No time of the year has invariant weather: in the rainy season, there are plenty of sunny days with
blue skies, and in the dry season some days are rainy.

Land use: Arable land 6%; permanent crops 7%; pastures 45%; forest 34%; other 8%. The sum of
land in agricultural production is 58%.
1
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)

Land tenure: Most land tenure is small family farms, which are united into cooperatives for mutual
economic benefit; larger multinational corporations are involved in the production of banana,
pineapple, and oil palm.

Ethnic divisions: White including mestizo 96%; black 2%; Indian 1%; Chinese 1%

Indigenous peoples: Nine ethnic groups recognize their pre-Columbian roots: Chorotega, Quitirrisi,
Huetar, Maleku, Cabecar, Bribri, Boruca, Terraba, and Guaymi. The indigenous population numbers
around 25,000, living in reservations measuring 3,200 square km (1,250 square miles) in extent.

First European contact: Christopher Columbus (Cristobal Colon in Spanish) landed in Costa Rica in
1502 at Limon (then named Cariari) on his fourth and final voyage.

Language: Spanish is the official language. Some of the population speaks English or French,
especially young people, because of the emphasis on foreign languages in the schools. English is
widely spoken on the Caribbean coast.

Religion: The official religion is Roman Catholicism (76.3%). There is, however, complete freedom
of worship, and many religions are represented, including Evangelical (13.7%), Jehovah’s Witnesses
(1.3%), other Protestant (0.7%), and other religions in smaller numbers.

Government: Costa Rica is a free and independent democratic republic, and is one of the oldest,
most stable and peaceful democracies in Latin America. The Government of the Republic is
popularly elected, representative, and responsible. The government consists of three distinct and
independent branches, the Legislative, the Executive, and the Judiciary. None of these branches
may delegate the exercise of their functions.

Executive Branch: President and two vice-presidents are elected by popular vote for four-year
terms. Elections were last held on 3 February 2006. The cabinet is selected by the President.

Legislative Branch: Unicameral (one-house) Legislative Assembly (Asamblea Legislativa) with 57
seats; members elected by direct, popular vote, and serve four-year terms. At this writing, about
half of the representatives (diputados) are women, and half men.

Judicial Branch: Supreme Court; 22 justices are elected for eight-year terms by the Legislative
Assembly.

President: Oscar Arias, of the Liberación Party, elected 2006. Two vice-presidents, both on the
same ticket: Laura Chinchilla Miranda (first VP) and Kevin Roberto Casas Zamora (second VP).

Elections: Presidential elections are held every four years. There was a one-term limit for
presidents, but this was overturned by the Supreme Court in 2003 so that Oscar Arias could run for
a second term. A Supreme Electoral Tribunal, of equal rank with and independent of the three
2
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Branches of State, is exclusively and independently in charge of the organization, execution, and
vigilance over all acts related to elections.

Suffrage: Voting is universal and compulsory at age 18. Voter turnout in presidential elections
ranges from 80–95%.

Independence: 15 September 1821 (from Spain); Independence Day festivities begin on 14
September each year.

National flag: Dates to 1848. Five horizontal bands; blue on the outside (top and bottom), white
next to the blue, and a red band in the center with the coat of arms on the red. All the flags of the
original five Central American countries (Guatemala, EI Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa
Rica) share the theme of blue and white bands on their flags. Originally, the white stood for the
Central American isthmus, flanked by the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea. The combination of
red, white, and blue additionally honors the flag of France, whose ideals were important in the
development of Costa Rica’s political philosophy.

Seal: Created in 1848, the original seal went through two changes. War symbols were removed in
1906; and two new stars were added to represent two new provinces in 1964. The seal shows
seven stars, one for each province; three volcanoes representing the country’s three mountain
ranges, and two merchant ships. There is a rising sun at the horizon.

National flower: The guaria morada orchid (Cattleya skinnen)

National tree: The guanacaste tree (Enterolobium cyclocarpum). A legume, it belongs to the
subfamily of the mimosas. It grows from sea level to around 900 m elevation (3,000 ft). Guanacaste
means “ear tree” since its compressed and curled pod looks like an ear.

National bird: The yiguirro, pronounced “jee-wee-rro” (Turdus grayi), or clay-colored robin. It is
found throughout Costa Rica and has a lovely melodious song, although its appearance is plain. It is
said to “call the rain” when it sings, as it usually starts to sing and mate during the beginning of the
rainy season.

Benchmarks: In 1869, primary education for both sexes was declared mandatory and free, to be
paid for by the State. In 1882, the death penalty was abolished. The armed forces were abolished
by constitution in 1949. Perpetual neutrality was declared in 1983. Costa Rica is headquarters of
several prestigious international human rights organizations.

Military branches: Civil Guard, Rural Assistance Guard (armed forces prohibited by constitution)

Literacy: 95.6% of persons aged 15 years and older can read and write; the rate is equal for both
men and women.

Population attending school: Ages 7–12, 100% attend school; ages 13–17, 58% attend school. The
proportion attending post-elementary school is higher in urban areas and lower in the countryside.
3
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Students leaving school to work must have a government work permit based on an evaluation of
the type of work to be assigned and permission of the parents. University admission is highly
competitive, but the cost of university tuition is low.

Educational expenditure: 4.3% of gross national product; 20.8% of government expenditure

Legal drinking age: 18

Medical services: An average of 97% of the population have access to free health care. Around 4%
make use of the private system of clinics and hospitals. All foreigners staying temporarily in Costa
Rica have the right to medical attention in hospitals and clinics in case of emergency, sudden
illness, or worsening of a chronic condition. Costa Rica has a modem and widely-respected medical
and hospital system.

Medical professionals: 15 physicians per 10,000 persons; 21 nurses per 10,000 persons (2001
estimate)

Health care facilities: 2 hospital beds per 1,000 persons

Health care expenditure: 9.1% of gross domestic product (2001 estimate)

Age structure: 0–14 years, 32.1%; 15–64 years, 62.7%; 65 years and over, 5.2% (2000 estimate)

Contraception: 70% of married women practice contraception. Contraceptives are readily
accessible; condoms are sold over the counter at supermarkets and pharmacies, and are openly
advertised on television and other mass media.

Birth rate: 21 births/1,000 population (2000 estimate)

Total fertility rate: 2.7 children born/woman (2001 estimate)

Infant mortality: 10.2 infant deaths/1 ,000 live births (2001 estimate); Costa Rica has the lowest
infant mortality in the region; other countries in Central America have 21-40 deaths per 1,000 live
births.

Proportion of births attended by trained personnel: 97.5% (2001 estimate)

Life expectancy at birth: Values were 75 years for men and 60 years for women in the 2001 survey.
The numbers have continued to improve, and Costa Rica currently has the second highest life
expectancy in the Western Hemisphere; Canada is in first place, and the US is in third. For
comparison, various indigenous groups in Honduras today have a life expectancy of 39–47 years for
men and 42–57 years for women.

Death rate: 4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 estimate)
4
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)

Population growth rate: 1.6% (2000 estimate)

Safe drinking water: 100% of the urban population has safe drinking water; 99% of the rural
population has safe drinking water.

Sewage facilities: 100% of the urban population and 95% of the rural population have adequate
toilet and sewage treatment facilities.

Currency: 1 Costa Rican colon (C) = 100 centimos

Rates of exchange: The value of the colon varies with respect to the US dollar. Following are the
exchange rates during the period 1998-2004 (values shown are the number of Costa Rican colones
(C) per US $1):
April 1998
257
April 1999
272
April 2000
304
April 2001
322
April 2002
355
April 2003
390
April 2004 (projected)
430

Labor force (by occupation): industry and commerce 22%; government and service sector 58%;
agriculture 20% (1999 estimate)

Unemployment rate: 6.3% (2002 estimate); much underemployment

GDP per capita (purchasing power parity): $8,300 (2002 estimate)

Minimum wage: Although the minimum wage varies for different occupations, the minimum wage
for unskilled workers is around US $1.00.

Workers’ benefits: The national labor code provides for a number of benefits for all workers,
including an extra month’s salary paid on 15 December each year (the “aguinaldo”), hence 13
months of salary is paid for each 12 months of work; mandatory two weeks of paid vacation per
year; overtime payment for work on holidays or extra hours; paid maternity leave; paid leave in
case of illness or incapacity; severance pay in the amount of one month’s salary for each month
worked, up to a maximum of seven years; and 30 days notice of termination, or the equivalent in
salary.

Child labor laws: Children under the age of 18 must have the permission of parents to work, and
the type of work must be considered appropriate by the labor ministry.

Inflation rate (consumer prices): 9.1% (2002 estimate)

Exports: $5.1 billion (2002 estimate)
5
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)

Exports commodities: coffee, bananas, sugar, pineapples, textiles, electronic components, medical
equipment

Export partners: US 31.5%; Netherlands 8.9% ; UK 4.5% (2002 estimate)

Imports: $6.4 billion (2002 estimate)

Imports commodities: raw materials, consumer goods, capital equipment, petroleum

Import partners: US 36.7%; Japan 4.4%; Mexico 4.2% (2002 estimate)

External debt: $4.8 billion (2002 estimate)

Industries: Microprocessors (computer chips), food processing, textiles and clothing, construction
materials, fertilizer, plastic products

Agriculture: Agricultural production accounts for 70% of exports, especially coffee, bananas, sugar,
and beef. Other food crops include corn, rice, beans, potatoes, pineapples, and a diversity of fruits
and vegetables. Costa Rica is mostly self-sufficient in food except for grain. Timber is not exported
in the form of logs or sawn timber, but certain high-value wood products such as hardwood doors
are exported.

Additional major source of foreign exchange: Ecotourism

Electricity production: 6.839 billion kilowatts (2001 estimate); fossil fuel 1.5%, hydroelectric power
81.9%, nuclear 0%, other 16.6% (2001 estimate)

Electricity consumption: 6.109 billion kilowatts (2001 estimate)

Regulation of construction: All construction must go through a permitting process, involving review
by the appropriate offices of the municipality in terms of architecture and engineering. Remodeling
or adding onto existing structures is exempt from the process. Building to be carried out in or near
protected areas and reserves, near the coast, or in other fragile areas must pass an even stricter set
of rules, involving an environmental impact study. Buildings in the metropolitan area must be
designed to withstand earthquakes. No permanent structures are allowed within 50m (150 ft) of
the beach.

Economic overview: Costa Rica’s basically stable economy depends upon tourism, agriculture, and
electronics exports. Poverty has been substantially reduced over the past 15 years, and a strong
social safety net is in place. Economic growth rebounded from-0.9% in 1996 to 3% in 1997 and an
estimated 5.5% in 1998. At the same time, distribution of income remains unequal. Foreign
investors remain attracted by the country’s political stability and high education levels, and tourism
continues to bring in foreign exchange. However, traditional export sectors have not kept pace.
Low coffee prices and an overabundance of bananas have hurt the agricultural sector. The
6
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
government continues to grapple with its large deficit and massive internal debt, with the need to
modernize the state-owned electricity and telecommunications sectors, and with the problem of
bringing down inflation.

Key challenges for the current government of President Pacheco include curbing inflation, reducing
the deficit, and; improving public sector efficiency. There has been pressure from outside the
country (especially from the US) to privatize and increase efficiency in energy and
telecommunications, but there continues to be much political and public resistance to
privatization; while most agree that privatization could improve efficiency and boost development,
there is widespread feeling that the government is best able to make services available equally to
all districts and users, regardless of profitability.

Conservation: Over 25% of the country’s area is protected in national parks, reserves, refuges, and
so forth, making it a “world superpower” in the area of conservation. There is a growing movement
on the part of private landowners to set aside their land or part of it in the form of private reserves,
recognized formally by the Ministry of the Environment and Energy (MINAE), with appropriate
management plans and with conservation easements that remain with the land title in perpetuity.
This has been spearheaded by the Red de Reservas Privadas, or Network of Private Reserves.

Environmental issues: Subject to occasional earthquakes; hurricanes along the Caribbean coast;
frequent flooding of lowlands at onset of rainy season; active volcanoes; deforestation; soil
erosion.

Environmental practices: Recycling is widely encouraged, especially for glass and aluminum cans.
Most kinds of drinks (beer, soft drinks) can be purchased in returnable bottles, which are reused
directly rather than being recycled. Automobiles must pass a strict emissions test, and must display
the “eco-marchamo” sticker on the windshield as proof; driving a vehicle without the sticker can
lead to confiscation of the car. The inspection is stringent; about 60-70% of automobiles fail the
test on the first visit. Other environmental concerns that have received public attention in recent
years involve littering, pollution of rivers, damming of rivers for hydroelectric power, and waste
disposal.

Payment for environmental services: Some Costa Rican landowners receive income from the
government each year f or land they have either kept in forest or maintain in forest plantations.
These payments (around US$60 per hectare per year) act as an incentive for reforestation,
management of forested lands, and conservation. At present the program is primarily funded
through a national tax on gasoline, the World Bank and GEF have provided targeted funding and
long-term loans, and the Cervecería de Costa Rica and some hydroelectric companies have
provided funding for watershed protection; eventually it is hoped that this program will be
supported through the international sale of Carbon Bonds, purchased by countries or businesses
that produce excessive amounts of pollution, as proposed in the Kyoto conference on climate
change. Costa Rica is the first country to have implemented this program, and remains a world
leader in this area. Costa Rica is the only developing country in the world that has achieved overall
national increases in forest cover during the past five years, and has increased forest cover from
27% of the total territory to over 50% in 2005. One of the principal intellectual authors of the
7
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
concept of payment for environmental services is Dr. Franz Tattenbach, a Costa Rican economist
and Executive Director of the Costa Rican non-profit, FUNDECOR. Dr. Tattenbach has participated
as a guest lecturer for UGA Costa Rica’s summer study abroad program, Comparative Biodiversity
and Conservation Law. UGA Costa Rica Director, Quint Newcomer, studied the Payment for
Environmental Services program in Costa Rica for his Ph.D. dissertation.
8
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Costa Rican History and Traditions
Costa Rica is a land of great beauty, extraordinary biological riches, and warm, friendly people. But the
same could be said for many tropical countries.
This narrative focuses on what is truly unique about Costa Rica, and how it came to be the very special
place it is. Costa Rica is remarkably different from its neighbors in Central America, and has been
fortunate in escaping many of the problems that affect the region as a whole.
Christopher Columbus (or Cristobal Colón, as his name is said in Spanish) reached Costa Rica on his
fourth and final voyage in 1502. The natives Columbus encountered on the beach were wearing gold
jewelry, leading Columbus to the incorrect assumption that there were rich gold mines nearby, and
hence the name, Costa Rica, or Rich Coast. The indigenous peoples in Costa Rica at the time belonged
to nine tribes—the Chorotega (which lived in the San Luis/ Monteverde area), the Boruca, the Brunca,
the Bribri, the Huetar, and a few others. These groups formed loose bands, and subsisted by hunting,
gathering, and simple agriculture, growing beans, squash, corn, cotton, and various tubers. Though
they were contemporary, they did not have the sophisticated level of civilization of the Aztec in México
or the Inca of Perú.
Archaeologists do encounter beautiful artifacts and elaborately decorated objects in Costa Rica. The
National Museum and the Gold Museum in San José is filled with these kinds of items; they are found
quite frequently by farmers throughout the Costa Rican countryside.
Most importantly:
 the local indigenous people were not in high density, and a great many of them were killed in
early skirmishes with the colonists. Most of the remainder succumbed to European diseases
brought by the Spaniards.
 they did not have the integrated, complex civilizations which the Spaniards found elsewhere in
Central America.
 and they did not willingly interact with the Spaniards.
Thus immediately, a major difference is evident between Costa Rica’s early colonial period and that of
the rest of Central America: there was no possibility of dominating and enslaving Indians as a work
force, because there were few Indians left alive.
King Philip of Spain wanted nothing to do with the new colony, as it clearly had no major potential as a
source of gold. Lacking natural resources and a labor force, noble Europeans stayed away from Costa
Rica. Instead, Costa Rica was settled by commoners willing to work their own land.
The Spanish colonists had to fend for themselves, feed themselves, and learn how to survive on their
own. Although there was plenty of land available to plant, each family held only as much land as it
could till; they had no labor (slave or otherwise) but themselves. The colony was essentially cut off
from Europe as it had nothing to export. Trading with the outside was difficult in any case, as there
were constant pirate raids, and the British navy blockaded Caribbean ports when it was at war with
Spain.
9
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
The culture that was being shaped during these early days had certain clear features; it:
 placed great value on self-reliance and independence;
 showed respect for drive, entrepreneurship, and resourcefulness;
 was egalitarian in the extreme;
 respected the dignity of labor; and
 was close to the land.
Few missionaries were sent, as Costa Rica did not have large numbers of indigenous people to be
converted to Catholicism. The role of the Catholic Church in Costa Rica’s early history was thus rather
different than that elsewhere in Central America.
And because there was no unruly or unwilling labor force to control, Costa Rica never had the type of
large military presence that was seen in other parts of Central America.
The first capital was established in the town of Cartago, at the eastern end of the Central Valley, just
under the shadow of the Irazú Volcano, the tallest volcano in Costa Rica. There the colonists built a
church in honor of the patroness of Costa Rica, la Virgen de los Ángeles, whose image was found
nearby miraculously carved in stone.
The basilica, built of stone, was destroyed several times by earthquakes related to activity of the Irazú
Volcano, and each time was rebuilt anew. The decision was finally made to rebuilt the basilica in wood
and this building still stands, having now withstood a number of major eruptions and earthquakes. The
Basilica de la Virgen de los Ángeles is one of Costa Rica’s most significant architectural and cultural
treasures.
And so the colony survived, always poor in material wealth, largely in isolation from the rest of Central
America and Europe, but developing its own unique character and strengths. The population settled
largely in the central valley or Meseta Central, with centers developing in San José, Alajuela, Heredia,
and Grecia. The population density remained low, and most people lived on small family farms. There
was land for everyone, and no one held huge amounts of property.
With virtually no contact with indigenous people, the way of life of the early Costa Ricans was
essentially European. Nowhere does one see the Native American influence—the spicy seasonings, the
brilliant textiles, the linguistic influence, or the ceramics, carvings, metal-working, and other art
forms—which is so evident in the mainstream cultures of other Latin American countries today.
Things remained largely unchanged until the early 1800’s when one key event altered dramatically
Costa Rica’s prospects and began to shape a different future for the country. The event was the
introduction of coffee. Originally from Africa, coffee thrives best with a cool, tropical climate with
relatively fertile soils, exactly as is found with the mid-elevation volcanic soils of Costa Rica. Coffee
proved to be ideally suited to conditions in Costa Rica.
Coffee at that time was hugely popular in Europe, creating a demand which was for all practical
purposes insatiable. In a government move designed to encourage planting of coffee, land was
10
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
granted to anyone who would agree to grow coffee. For the first time, Costa Rica had a valuable
product that it could produce for export; a ready market; and the opportunity to acquire wealth.
The capital outlay necessary to start growing and harvesting coffee, processing the beans, transporting
them to the port, marketing and shipping the beans was handled by forming coffee cooperatives—
small family farms joined forces with one another, sharing the major costs, and then sharing the profits
proportionally at the end of the season.
Some families in Costa Rica established substantial fortunes in the coffee industry at this time, and
many of these families are still in the forefront of Costa Rican society, politics, and wealth. Some
common brands of coffee still bear the names of the important coffee families, such as Volio coffee.
This pattern of land tenure remains predominant today in Costa Rica: small family farms united by
cooperatives, rather than enormous agribusiness enterprises, are used for production of most crops;
the exceptions—bananas and palm oil to name two—are interesting in their own right, and are
discussed below.
Transportation remained a problem—there was still no road from the central valley to the Caribbean.
The unstable, mountainous terrain, high rainfall, dense tropical forest crisscrossed by river gorges, and
steep cliffs, made it impossible to make a road large enough for a wheeled vehicle. The only traffic to
the Caribbean was on foot and by horseback.
Shipping of coffee to Europe was therefore done from the Pacific port of Puntarenas, from where the
ships sailed the long way around, undertaking the very dangerous and stormy voyage around the Horn.
The trip from San José to Esparza (one of the important early way-stations) and then on to Puntarenas
took a week by oxcart; the trip takes a couple of hours at most today.
The new-found wealth which Costa Rica was enjoying from coffee revenues brought with it new
opportunities. One of the first decisions was to levy upon the coffee growers a voluntary tax which
would be used to build the National Theater, a move designed to attract visits by musicians,
orchestras, singers, and dramatic groups.
The building, which was completed around 1865, was modeled after the Paris Opera House, and was
built of materials imported from all over Europe—marble from Italy, stone, wood, and metals, as
needed—and using craftsmen, artisans, and builders brought from Europe for the purpose.
The results were as hoped for. San José became a cultural center, and the world’s best performers
began to include Costa Rica on their Western Hemisphere tours. This edifice is well worth visiting
when you are in San José, and if there is a performance scheduled, so much the better—tickets are
very cheap, making the performances available to everyone.
A second decision for the expenditure of coffee revenues was to send the country’s younger
generation away to be educated in the world’s best universities in Europe, primarily France. This they
did, and the timing was propitious: Europe at this time was undergoing a social and intellectual
upheaval, with such revolutionary notions as individual freedoms, civil liberties, the responsibility of
11
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
the state to its citizens, social welfare, labor rights, universal education, democratic ideals, and
egalitarianism.
Thus, Costa Rica got to participate in the progressive, liberal ideals that took firm root in Latin America,
fueling the independence movement from Spain. And from this generation came Costa Rica’s first
teachers, writers, philosophers, lawyers, doctors, and scientists.
One of these was Clodomiro Picado, a Costa Rican biologist whose work on the natural history and
systematics of tropical creatures was vast, and who is best remembered for his pioneering work on
snake venom. San José’s Instituto Clodomiro Picado is open to the public and is a fine place to learn
about poisonous reptiles. The institute also milks snakes to produce antivenoms. Important poisonous
snakes in Costa Rica are the fer-de-lance, bushmaster, and eyelash viper (all in the rattlesnake family)
and the coral snake.
Costa Rica’s phenomenal biological riches attracted the attention of others, and a strong tradition of
Costa Rican naturalists and biologists was started.
Meanwhile, other events had been taking place—Costa Rica and the rest of Central America declared
their independence from Spain on September 15, 1821, taking advantage of the distraction provided
by Napoleon’s invasion of Spain. Costa Rica, along with Chiapas, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
and Nicaragua were originally provinces within the Captaincy General of Guatemala, itself nominally
within the Vice Royalty of New Spain. Upon independence, the 6 provinces became a republic known
as the Central American Federation.
In 1822, following independence, the Central American Federation was annexed by the Mexican
Empire. The Federation broke away from Mexico 18 months later, but lost Chiapas in the process,
which remained a part of Mexico. The effort to unite Central America under a single flag ultimately
failed, and the Federation ceased to exist in 1839 after a period of unrest. Each of its constituent
provinces became an independent nation.
The capital city of Costa Rica was moved from Cartago to San José, after a short period of civil strife in
which Alajuela, Heredia, and San José all vied for the honor. The principal battleground was at a place
called Ochomogo, located between Cartago and San José.
A pivotal point in Central American history came from the invasion of Nicaragua, and later Costa Rica,
by William Walker, and event that unified Central America. Volunteers came from all parts of Latin
America to help liberate Nicaragua from the American invaders.
William Walker was a U.S. “adventurer” and soldier of fortune. In the mid-nineteenth century,
adventurers known as filibusters participated in military actions aimed at obtaining control of Latin
American nations with the intent of annexing them to the United States-an expression of Manifest
Destiny, the idea that the United States was destined to control the continent. Walker moved to
California in 1850 and led an armed invasion of Baja California, Mexico three years later. He proclaimed
himself the president of the new independent republic of Sonora and Baja California after his
successful invasion.
12
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
In 1854, the Liberal party in Nicaragua was fighting the Conservative party for power and losing. In
desperation, the Liberals sought out Walker's military assistance. So, in 1855, Walker and 58
mercenaries captured the capital city of Granada. He double-crossed the Liberals, and made himself
president of Nicaragua in 1856, and was quickly recognized by the United States government as such.
He proceeded to declare English as the official language and attempted to become a United States
slave-state.
Walker's ambitious plan was to unite all of Central America into one country under his rule, and
invaded Costa Rica in 1856. Volunteers from all parts of Costa Rica came to the defense of the country;
this ragtag citizens’ army marched 12 days from San José to the northern border, bearing knives,
machetes and any kind of firearms they could find, and included around 9,000 people, from campesino
farmers and artisans to teachers, students, lawyers, and businessmen. In a battle that lasted only
minutes at the Casona in what is now Santa Rosa National Park, the well-armed mercenary force were
driven off. The army was pursued into Nicaragua, where at the Battle of Rivas, a young boy from
Alajuela, Juan Santamaría, volunteered to set fire to the Walker stronghold, and was killed in the
ensuing exchange of gunfire. Today Juan Santamaría is a national hero, and the international airport in
San José bears his name.
Eventually, Walker's supporters appropriated a transit company owned by the American industrialist
Cornelius Vanderbilt, who retaliated by financing the Conservative forces against Walker. Walker was
overthrown in a battle in 1857, and despite his attempts to recapture Nicaragua he never again
regained control. The British captured Walker in Honduras in 1860 during another takeover attempt,
and he was promptly executed by the Honduran authorities (library.thinkquest.org/
17749/walker.html; www.calnative.com/n_walk.htm).
By the end of the war, Costa Rica managed to annex the Nicaraguan department of Guanascate in the
process. In exchange, the San Juan River and navigation rates were ceded to Nicaragua.
As an epilogue, many years later, as the Contras fought the Sandinistas, Ronald Reagan found a man
named William Walker, and appointed him US Ambassador to Nicaragua.
But by the late 1800s, there still had been no solution to the terrible problem of transportation
between the Central Valley and the Caribbean. A deal was struck between Costa Rica and the British
government, in which Britain agreed to put in a road. Most of the funds in Costa Rica’s national coffers
were spent, and they failed.
In the 1900s, after the British had failed to build a road to the Caribbean coast, a U.S. engineer named
Minor Keith appeared, offering to solve the problem of access to the coast. Costa Rica declined the
offer as it had no more money to devote to the project. Keith suggested that they pay him in land
instead.
Minor Keith built a railroad, not a road, and was able to span the impassable gorges and raging rivers
with bridges. He took as payment a wide belt of land surrounding the railway right-of-way, and
planted it in bananas. This was the start of United Fruit Company, the first of the multinational fruit
producers to work in Costa Rica.
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Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Having no labor force to turn to the purpose—other Costa Ricans being more interested in working
their own farms—he imported laborers of African descent from the islands of the Caribbean. They
settled around Limón and other coastal areas, and their influence is still felt there in terms of music,
food, and the ethnic composition of the population. It is likely that they brought to work in the railroad
and the banana plantations were wooed with promises of high wages that they could retire on in their
home islands; needless to say, the wages were less than hoped for, and few ever returned home. The
cultural influence of the African population has remained concentrated along the Caribbean coast in
Costa Rica—in fact until 1948, they were not permitted to live west of Turrialba, hence were excluded
from the urban areas of the Central Valley.
Thus United Fruit was the first instance of large corporate agriculture in Costa Rica. In the 1950s, the
labor force working for United Fruit, or “Mamita Yunai” (“Mommy United”) as the company was
irreverently called, went on strike, demanding better wages, working conditions, and benefits. The
company broke the strike by firing the workers, converting the fields from bananas to African oil palm,
a crop that requires almost no labor force at all. Now much of the area in the Central Pacific part of
Costa Rica, around Parrita and Quepos, is planted in oil palm. The oil is used in making soap as well as
cooking oil.
At the time Costa Rica was first visited by Columbus, around 95% of the country was covered in forest,
or so it was originally thought. More recent studies looking at pollen in sediment suggest Costa Rica
has heavily deforested when Columbus arrived, and the forest regenerated when the Spaniards killed
the natives off. The most rapid and most extensive loss of forest has happened during the past 30-40
years, with an increase in population size and a tendency to convert forest to pastures to grow beef.
More recent studies looking at pollen in sediment suggest some parts of Costa Rica was heavily
deforested when Columbus arrived, and the forest regenerated when the Spaniards slaughtered the
natives.
At the same time that modern deforestation was taking place, the conservation movement was just
beginning. Costa Rica’s world-renowned system of national parks and protected areas was started in
1963, with the establishment of Cabo Blanco Absolute Nature Reserve. This country now protects
some 25% of its land area as parks, reserves, and refuges, making Costa Rica a world leader in the area
of conservation.
Sports are immensely popular. Every town and village has a soccer (“fútbol”) field, where organized
competitions with other teams or just pick-up scrimmages (“mejengas”) take place. Cycling, baseball,
and basketball are also popular.
Costa Rica produces almost all of its own food. Supplementary amounts of corn, beans and rice are
imported in most years, and wheat is imported from temperate countries. In general, though, Costa
Ricans eat fresh food year-round which is consumed near where it is produced.
The current top sources of foreign exchange include computer chips (Intel operates a large factory in
the San José area), tourism, agriculture (led by coffee and banana), and textiles (clothing sold by Gap,
Jordache, and many others is assembled in Costa Rica).
14
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Around 45% of the population lives in rural areas, and they still retain rural manners—they are
unfailingly polite; they take time to talk and listen to one another; they are non-violent and diplomatic
in all they do; and they take every opportunity to make one feel welcome. As in the rest of Latin
America, extended families are still important. At a typical rural dance, one might find three to four
generations all having fun together, dancing to the same music, and talking to one another.
Costa Ricans are fascinated by nature, and take pride in their leadership role in conservation. The
spectacular biological diversity of the country of course has attracted the attention of scientists and
students from all over the world.
Many other things are uniquely Costa Rican. The Institute of Biodiversity has as its goal the collection,
naming, and cataloging of every form of life in the country—an endeavor never attempted anywhere
before.
The development of ecotourism and educational tourism as a means to help pay for the costs of
conservation has been remarkable, and some of the most innovative, and highly-regarded efforts of
this kind were started in Costa Rica. New paradigms of conservation, designed to include, not exclude,
human beings, have taken hold here, along with novel ways to place conservation and economics on
the same path.
As the popularity of Costa Rica as a travel destination has increased, so has tourism of the oldfashioned type. One of the current challenges faced by Costa Rica is the balancing the demands of
tourists alongside its traditional efforts in ecotourism and conservation.
With no military spending to support, and a large middle-class, Costa Rica has been able to place
emphasis on the arts. There is an outstanding youth symphony orchestra, world-class dance and
theater groups, and a thriving drama scene. Costa Rica has become a magnet in Central America for
scientific research and education, and has welcomed the presence and participation of tropical
biologists from all over the world.
In cuisine as well as other areas, Costa Rican has borrowed from others but still developed its own
traditions—for example, Costa-Rican-style tamales (an indigenous dish of steamed corn meal, meat
and vegetables) are made with all the local ingredients but omitting the hot chiles that must have been
so foreign to the palate of the European colonists.
Conversely, influences from Europe have been adapted to suit a Costa Rican sense of values. Bull
fighting, a tradition from Spain, is enormously popular, but—it is illegal to kill the bull! There is
excellent one-on-one cape play between the bull and the bullfighter—but no goring of the bull from
horseback, nor stabbing of the bull with colorful flagged banderillas, nor killing of the bull by the
matador. At the end of the event, the bull is roped from horseback with fancy lasso work and led from
the arena. And to make the tradition even more typically Costa Rican—the bullfight is completely
democratic in that everyone can—and does—take part! Spectators may drop from the stands into the
arena and see how close to the bull they can get.
As elsewhere in Latin America, immigrants from all over the world have arrived over the past century
and a half. Scan the summaries in the phone book—it contains surnames from the world over.
15
Adapted from UGA Costa Rica Ecology Program Handbook (D. Lieberman)
Today, Costa Rica enjoys prosperity and quality health care far beyond that of its neighbors.
Consequently, Costa Rica has resisted all efforts for regional integration, so as to protect its standard of
living and prevent a wave of immigrants from its impoverished neighbors. Already, some estimates are
that as many a 1 million people in Costa Rica are Nicaraguan immigrants, who are viewed as taking
advantage of Costa Rica’s generous social welfare, while contributing little to its coffers. The net result
is diplomatic tension between Costa Rica and its neighbors.
This brief survey of early Costa Rican history should shed some light on current differences between
Costa Rican and its neighbors in Central America—and in particular how Costa Rica came to be spared
the ravages of civil war, inequitable distribution of wealth and opportunity, and repressive
governments. It also explains why the food, the artistic traditions, and material culture of Costa Ricans
show their Spanish origin, and are generally devoid of the Native American influence that characterizes
the cultures of other parts of the region.
AS A GUEST OF THIS SMALL BUT ENCHANTING COUNTRY, YOU WILL BE WARMLY WELCOMED, MEET NEW FRIENDS, AND SHARE
FULLY IN THE ENJOYMENT OF LIFE COSTA RICAN STYLE. FOR YOUR PART AS A VISITOR, YOU CAN BEST SHOW YOUR RESPECT FOR
COSTA RICANS AND THEIR CULTURE BY LEARNING ALL YOU CAN ABOUT CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, VALUES, AND MANNERS, AND
PUTTING THAT UNDERSTANDING INTO PRACTICE—AND THE OUTCOME WILL WITHOUT A DOUBT BE THE EXPERIENCE OF A
LIFETIME.
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