Corporate volunteering and organizational outcomes: a theoretical model
Abstract
Even though the adoption of corporate volunteering programs has become an important trend
among organizations (e.g. Grant, 2012), it is still not clear whether it benefits the employeeorganization relationship or not. Therefore, the paper discusses its possible benefits and
pitfalls and provide four theoretical propositions, which are integrated into a single theoretical
framework. Specifically, the model links the participation in corporate volunteering programs
to organizational commitment, which can be moderated by the experience’s evaluation; and to
conflict, which can be moderated by the support of a servant leader.
Key words: corporate volunteering, organizational commitment, organizational behavior
Introduction
Corporate or employee volunteering programs are designed by companies to stimulate
their employees to volunteer outside the company, but at its expense, often by allowing them
to do volunteer work during working hours, in spite of their regular tasks (Gilder, Schuyt, &
Breedijk, 2005). The adoption of these programs has become an important trend among
organizations in a number of countries, such as The United States (Grant, 2012), United
Kingdom (Muthuri, Mathen, & Moon, 2009), and Brazil (Santos, Cavalcante, & Souza,
2010). The reason behind it is that they see these programs as opportunities to have social
impact (Lorenz, Gentile, & Wehner, 2011) and to increase employees’ satisfaction and
involvement (Haski-Leventhal, Meijs, & Hustinx, 2009).
Due to this growth in corporate volunteering activities, researchers have become
aware of its importance and this topic has appeared in a number of academic journals. They
mostly point out how employees engage in these programs (Pajo, & Lee, 2011), what
antecedents explain their repeated participation (Grant, 2012), how they benefit NGOs and
communities (Vian et al., 2007) as well as employees (Vian et al., 2007).
Not only is it important to investigate why people would participate in corporate
volunteering programs, but also, as soon as participation happens, to identify what are its
consequences, since the way in which a company benefits from having a corporate
volunteering program is still under-investigated by current literature (Pajo & Lee, 2011,
Madison, Ward, & Royalty, 2012). For example, it is not clear whether corporate volunteering
benefits the employee-organization relationship or not.
On one hand, one can predict that corporate volunteering programs can increase
employee’s organizational commitment (Madison, Ward, & Royalty, 2012). On the other
hand, one can imagine that not all volunteering experiences should present the same outputs.
On the contrary, some experiences may affect organizational outcomes in negative ways
(Bory, 2007, Houghton & Williams, 2009). It is known that the extent to which volunteers’
experiences match their motivations results in different satisfaction levels (Clary et al., 1998),
and less satisfied volunteers devote fewer hours for volunteering and are less prone to
maintain this activity for a long time (Finkelstein, 2007). Thus, it is reasonable that the
employee’s evaluation of his or her volunteering experience may produce different levels of
organizational commitment.
On the negative side, participating in corporate volunteer programs can generate
conflict between volunteering activities and job tasks (Farmer, & Fedor, 2001). For instance,
people who choose to participate might be seen as not focused on or not interested enough in
their regular task. (Gilder, Schuyt, & Breedijk, 2005).
Thus, there are a number of unexplored avenues concerning corporate volunteering
and this paper aims to provide a theoretical framework to shed light on these possible
relations between corporate volunteering programs and organizational outcomes. Specifically,
Corporate volunteering and organizational outcomes: a theoretical model
the model links the participation in corporate volunteering programs to organizational
commitment, which can be moderated by the experience’s evaluation; and to conflict, which
can be moderated by the support of a servant leader.
Corporate Volunteering Participation and Organizational Commitment
Commitment is often conceptualized as a psychological state, reflecting a desire, a
need and an obligation to maintain employment in an organization (Meyer & Allen, 1991).
This common conceptualization, however, meets important criticism claiming that it narrowly
refers to the likelihood of leaving the organization, instead of an attitude regarding the
organization (Solinger, Olffen, & Roe, 2008) and that it lacks preciseness, which threatens
construct validity (Klein, Molloy & Brinsfield, 2012).
Other researchers define commitment as an employee's attachment, goal congruency,
identification, loyalty and allegiance to their organization (Gallato et al., 2012), or as a
particular type of bond (Klein, Molloy & Brinsfield, 2012). Jex (2002) defines it as the extent
to which employees are dedicated to their employing organization and are willing to work on
its behalf, and the likelihood that they will maintain membership.
Klein, Molloy and Brinsfield (2012) define commitment as volitional bond reflecting
dedication and responsibility for a target. They brought this definition after examining
commitments several definitions, antecedents, and outcomes discussed in the literature. Their
conclusion was that although commitments to different targets may serve different purposes
for individuals, there is a generalizable and distinctive meaning. In this sense, commitment
operates in a similar way, having similar antecedents and consequences, regardless of target
or context. They argue that those similarities have been obscured by previous definitions’
ambiguity and inconsistency, leading to confusion about what commitment is, and how it
operates. Because it better explains what commitment is, the later definition is considered for
this paper.
Companies’ beliefs, that running a corporate volunteering program results in greater
commitment from their employees, receive support from recent research. Madison, Ward, and
Royalty (2012) found that employees who volunteered because of encouragement by
corporate employers, governmental employers, or not for profit organizations reported
increased organizational commitment to the organizations encouraging them to participate in
the program. The underlying mechanism is that it increased agreement with organizational
values and a perception that the organization and the employee share common values, which
in turn, increased satisfaction.
In a case study from a corporate volunteer program organized by a large bank, Gilder,
Schuyt, and Breedijk (2005) had similar findings, that employee volunteering seems to have
positive effects on attitudes and behavior towards the organization. Accordingly, Madison,
Ward, and Royalty (2012) cited Deloitte’s Volunteer IMPACT 2011 survey, which showed
that employees who participate in corporate volunteering programs are 52% more likely to
feel loyal toward their organizations in comparison with those who do not participate.
According to exchange theory, if an organization provides the employee with the use
of individual’s abilities and satisfies his or her needs, the person reciprocates with
commitment to the organization (Magenau, Martin, & Peterson, 1988). Because volunteer
work enhances six aspects of well-being: happiness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, sense of
control over life, physical health, and depression (Thoits, & Hewitt, 2001), one can expect
that corporate volunteering may also enhance organizational commitment.
Grant, Dutton, and Rosso (2008) explain that giving strengthens affective
organizational commitment, which was defined as an attitude of emotional dedication to
organizations (Meyer & Allen, 1991). Because donating time in a corporate volunteer
Corporate volunteering and organizational outcomes: a theoretical model
program is a mean of giving, it should lead to the same strengthening of organizational
commitment.
For these reasons, it is reasonable that:
P1: An employee’s engagement into a corporate volunteer program is positively
related to high levels of organizational commitment.
It is important to mention that these relations found in the literature used different
conceptualization and operationalization of organizational commitment. Thus, my proposition
states that an employee’s participation in a corporate volunteer program leads to an increase
in the volitional bond that reflects into more dedication and responsibility for the company.
Volunteering Experience Evaluation
Even though the relationship between participating in a corporate volunteering
program and enhancing organizational commitment seems reasonable, it is unlikely that all
volunteering experiences result in a homogenous increase. Volunteering experiences are very
different, and the extent to which volunteers' experiences matches their motivations predicts
their satisfaction (Clary et al., 1998), which shapes their willingness to continue (Pancer &
Pratt, 1999).
According to Grant (2012), when participants of corporate volunteering programs face
certain (tasks, social and knowledge) characteristics, they enhance their volunteering motives
(prosocial, self-enhancement, belonging, self-protective, developmental and career), which, in
turn, increase the likelihood of their repeated participation and the building of their volunteer
identity. This prediction suggests that tasks’ characteristics shape individuals’ evaluations of
their experiences, which may moderate organizational outcomes.
Madison, Ward, & Royalty (2012) found that those who were more satisfied with the
volunteering experience reported increased agreement with the components of normative
commitment, which they defined as the extent the individual internalizes organizational goals
and values and identifies with the organization due to shared values, in agreement with
Caldwell, Chatman, & O’Reilly (1990).
Gallardo Vázquez et al. (2010) explains that when a corporate volunteering program is
well managed, it can enhance valuable employee’s competences and skills, such as selfawareness, self-control, motivation, empathy, social skills and emotional intelligence.
Madison, Ward, & Royalty (2012) also explained that when the employer sponsors volunteer
opportunities that interest the employee, perceptions of existing shared values between the
employee and the organization are positively affected.
These ideas are consistent with Pajo and Lee (2011)’s findings that initial engagement
and ongoing motivation in corporate volunteering programs are determined by the
characteristics of the volunteering activity. They explain that enriching volunteer tasks
significance and meaningfulness and incorporating relational elements lead to more satisfying
experiences, which, in turn, increases the likelihood of one’s participation. Taylor and Pancer
(2007) had similar findings, positing that students who had a more supportive and positive
volunteering experience were more likely to have continued to work as volunteers.
For these reasons, it seems that:
P2: A boundary condition for an increase in employee’s organizational commitment due to
engaging into a corporate volunteering program is having a positive volunteering experience.
Corporate Volunteering Participation and Conflict
Conflict arises when the emotional and behavioral demands of work and non-work
roles are incompatible, making participation in one role more difficult due to participation in
the other (Kahn et al., 1964; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985). It can arise from a number of
sources, such as between work and leisure (Staines & O'Connor, 1980), between work and
Corporate volunteering and organizational outcomes: a theoretical model
"self" (Holahan & Gilbert, 1979a, 1979b) or between work and family (Greenhaus & Beutell,
1985).
According to its own definition, participants of corporate volunteering programs are
allowed to volunteer during their working hours. Therefore, it is possible that demands of
work get incompatible with demands of volunteering, so that participation on volunteering
programs make work more difficult. As time is a sparse resource, the time devoted to
volunteer could be precious for an employee to achieve his or her organizational goals. When
employees feel that they are overload, they feel higher levels of conflict (Organ, & Ryan,
1995, Bolino, & W. H., 2005).
In addition, evidence from the work-family literature suggests that not only time
constraints, but also emotional interference reduces both the quantity and quality of family
contact time because workers do not feel emotionally capable of participating in family
activities (Pisarski, Bohle & Callan, 1998). As such, it is possible that when work is too
demanding, employees will not feel emotionally capable to volunteer.
Thus, it is proposed that:
P3: Participation on corporate volunteering programs is positively related to high levels of
conflict.
Servant Leadership and Conflict
According to this large body of research, supportive work environments and managers
can reduce conflict (Allen, 2001; Allan, Loudoun & Peetz, 2005). Thus, it is likely that the
same happens when leaders support participation on corporate volunteering programs. In
other words, when an employee really believes that his or her leader supports the participation
on corporate volunteer programs, this participation may be seen as a genuine part of the job
and conflict is alleviated.
This situation is more likely to happen when the leader has a servant style. According
to Liden, Wayne, Zhao and Henderson (2008), servant leadership stresses personal integrity
and serving others, including employees, customers, and communities. The authors found that
servant leadership is a multidimensional construct, including the following dimensions:
‘helping subordinates grow and succeed’ and ‘creating value for the community’.
Consistent to it, Beck (2010) found that leaders that volunteer at least one hour per
week demonstrate higher servant leader behaviors. In addition, servant leadership is positive
related to community citizenship behaviors (Liden et al., 2008). Because a servant leader is
more prone to understand the benefits of volunteering for both the communities and
employees, it is more likely that he or she would support his or her followers’ participation in
volunteer programs.
Therefore, the following can be proposed:
P4: The relation between participation on corporate volunteering programs and conflict is
weaker when the leader has a servant style.
Theoretical Model
The model that summarizes these propositions is displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Theoretical Model
Corporate volunteering and organizational outcomes: a theoretical model
Discussion and Future Directions
To better explain the impact of the participation in corporate volunteering programs on
organizational commitment, a model that explains in which conditions these relations occur
have been developed. More specifically, the model includes the fact that developing this kind
of program will not affect organizational outcomes in a homogeneous way for ever kind of
experience and for all participants.
From a theoretical standpoint, this model meets the need to extend current literature
about corporate volunteering (Pajo & Lee, 2011, Madison, Ward, & Royalty, 2012), doing the
important task of bringing the focus of organizational research to real and current
organizational phenomena (Rynes, 2007).
First, it relates the participation in corporate volunteering programs to organizational
commitment. Because commitment is an antecedent of a number of important outcomes, such
as intention to remain, attendance and performance (Steers, 1977) corporate volunteering
programs can be sources of competitive advantage, in accordance with Madison, Ward and
Royalty (2012). It also aggregates two moderators in this relationship, which make theoretical
sense, but have not been proposed by the literature yet.
Moreover, it suggests that participation in corporate volunteer programs also has its
pitfalls, which, from my best knowledge, has not been suggested by the literature yet. In
addition, it shows that under certain conditions (e.g. the presence of a servant leader), these
pitfalls can be minimized.
From a practical perspective, it sheds light on a growing organizational phenomenon,
giving attention to the importance of providing positive experience to participants of
corporate volunteering programs, and suggesting that even though participants will tend to
increase their commitment within the organization, it will not happen homogeneously to all of
them.
After proposing this model, the natural next step is to test it empirically, using data
from employees working for companies that offer corporate volunteering programs.
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