0011 Budny 4:00
R12
ETHICAL CONCERNS REGARDING OFFSHORE WIND FARMS
James Ciabattoni (jjc112@pitt.edu)
INTRODUCING ETHICAL DILEMMAS OF
OFFSHORE WIND TURBINES AND
SEEKING MORAL SOLUTIONS
Engineers serve primarily as problem solvers, finding
solutions to national and local concerns that detriment the
public. The subject of such concerns can vary greatly, as do
the field of engineering, and can range from topics such as
infrastructure to the prevention of the threat of nuclear
terrorism. In order to address such problems, the United
States’ National Academy of Engineers has compiled a
series of “Grand Challenges”, widely believed to be the most
pertinent engineering-related concerns faced by this nation
today [1]. Many of the Challenges are not only technically
difficult but also require an ethically appropriate approach as
determined by codes of ethics, both general codes and those
pertaining specifically to an engineer’s particular field. The
most predominant of these codes is that of the National
Society of Professional Engineers, as it should not only be
followed by reputable engineers of all fields but also acts as
a framework for the derivative ethical standards held by
specific fields of engineering [2].
As a mechanical engineer concerned with the practical
application of alternative energy sources to both offset
energy prices and the negative environmental effects of
traditional fossil fuels, I must address all ethical concerns
arising from my current project. Designing an offshore wind
farm off the coast of North and South Carolina, I will be
required to follow the code of the National Society of
Professional Engineers in conjunction with the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers’ ethical standards, which,
while based on those of the NSPE, are tailored slightly for
mechanical engineers [3]. The project has so far received
opposition from primarily the local population, and the
concerns they express require an appropriate and ethical
response. In the following article, I will address a number of
their concerns in order to supplement the statistical
efficiency of wind energy with ethical solutions to yield a
system designed for the overall wellbeing of the populace
involved. Such topics to be discussed include the threat
level turbines pose to humans and certain animal species, the
impact on local economy, and the practicality of the wind
farm itself.
EXPRESSED CONCERNS REGARDING
DANGER TO AVIAN SPECIES
Since the onset of wind using wind as a contemporary
source of alternative energy, those opposed to the
construction of wind farms have argued that such large
University of Pittsburgh, Swanson School of Engineering 1
2013-10-29
turbines are unethical and dangerous, as they pose a threat to
different avian species, including bats and birds of prey such
as the bald eagle. By the late 1980’s, studies analyzing the
link between wind energy and mortality rates among avian
animals had begun [4].
Wind turbines can, indeed, pose a certain threat level to
bird life primarily due to the chance of mid-air collisions
with the large rotating blades of the turbine, or even the
tower and non-rotating blades. It is for this reason that, in
2009, K. Shawn Smallwood estimated in his study published
for the Wildlife Society Bulletin that almost 600,000 bird
fatalities per year would be attributed to wind farms in the
United States by 2012 [5]. As an engineer bound by ethical
standards, I find that addressing a concern such as danger to
wildlife is a high priority. Under the first canon of the NSPE
code of ethics, “Hold[ing] paramount the safety, health, and
welfare of the public” lies the assertion for the necessity for
conserving both “life and property” [2]. While not directly
stating the ethical necessity for the preservation of wildlife,
the term ‘life’ here can be generalized to include all forms of
life, both human and nonhuman alike. Similarly, an
engineer “shall consider environmental impact and
sustainable development”, two actions which, in such a
scenario as this, would play a direct and definitive role in the
decision making process of an engineer [3].
Environmentally conscious engineers should recognize that
the process of producing alternative energy at the cost of a
direct and negative effect on a region’s ecosystem does not
reflect the moral standards expected of an engineer.
Although wind turbines have been rightly accused
of the deaths of a large number of birds, comparing the near
20,000 avian deaths in the U.S. as a direct result of wind
turbines to the 330,000 deaths resulting from nuclear power
in 2009 highlights that traditional forms of energy
production pose a much greater threat [4]. In terms of fossil
fuels, including coal and natural gases, the number of avian
mortalities in the same year exceeded 14 million [4]. When
factoring in additional causes of death, including mid-air
collisions with buildings, electrocution from communication
towers and telephone wires, and being hunted by (mostly)
feral cats, wind turbines contribute less than 0.0000001% to
the total number of avian mortalities in the U.S. in 2009 [4].
It would be unethical for an engineer to employ the use of tu
quoque, or answering criticism by criticizing the accuser of
similar actions, in order to mask the relatively small number
of bird deaths; thus preventing the death of wildlife in this
case should still be a priority for the engineers involved.
Although the United States has yet to produce offshore wind
farms, it stands to reason that the threat to avian creatures
would still be present.
James Ciabattoni
its detection capabilities [9].
Keeping in mind a
consideration for the environmental impact, I would choose
to integrate this radar technology as well as cross-reference
migration patterns in order find appropriate locations for
wind turbines so as to minimize the number of avian
fatalities. A mechanical engineer should look to the codes of
ethics set forth by the NSPE and ASME, as well as his or her
own personal morality, to reach conclusions regarding his or
her professional endeavors [10].
APPLYING ENGINEERING ETHICS TO
ARRIVE AT A SOLUTION
In order to produce the most desirable solution to an
engineering-related problem, it is necessary to apply the
ethical codes under which an engineer is bound in order to
promote general wellbeing while maintaining both personal
credibility and that of the engineering profession. An
offshore wind farm, while being able to harness stronger and
more consistent coastal winds, would more likely than not
lie within the paths of many migratory patterns of coastal
bird species [6]. Two such examples are the Brant, a species
of goose that uses coastal winds to migrate to regions of
North Carolina, and the Ipswich race of the Savannah
Sparrow, which migrates to Georgia, both of which would
require travelling over the coastal waters of the Carolinas,
part of a large and heavily travelled route known as the
Atlantic Flyway [6][7]. The Atlantic Flyway contains not
only the wind currents that allow migratory species to travel
the distances they do but within it also lies the same coastal
winds that an offshore wind farm in the region would seek to
harness (see FIGURE 1 and FIGURE 2), and it is for this
reason that offshore turbines create an ethical dilemma that
requires an appropriate response [8].
One of the most practical solutions would be to construct
the wind farm outside of known migratory patterns to
minimize the chance of collisions [8]. The Ipswich
previously mentioned has a strictly narrow migratory path
that would be greatly impacted by the presence of wind
turbines; however, this migration pattern lies within a
quarter of a mile away from the eastern coast of the U.S.,
and would therefor be relatively easy to avoid by placing
turbines just a mile from the shore [6][8]. (This proximity to
the coastline would cause additional ethical concerns, which
I will address later.) In terms of finding an ethical solution
to the potential risk of offshore wind farms to migratory
patterns of birds, simply constructing the turbines away from
known patterns could be enough to greatly reduce the
likelihood of avian deaths during migration seasons and thus
contribute to the wellbeing and preservation of the natural
environment.
Additional solutions could be applied in order to produce
the safest possible situation for migrating birds. One simple
solution would be to shut down the turbines during peak
times of migration, and while this would not prevent
collisions with stationary blades or the tower itself, it would
remove the added factor of a spinning blade, which could
disorient or confuse a bird in flight [8]. An additional
method involves a radar system that alerts the turbine of
nearby bird migrations that shuts down the wind farm until
the skies are clear. The radar, designed by a Swiss company
for the application to Switzerland’s rapidly burgeoning wind
energy capacity, is acclaimed to be able to detect a “swarm
of mosquitos from a distance of five meters”, a statistic Urs
Seiffert, the manager of the radar project, uses to emphasize
FIGURE 1 [11]
Coastal winds in Carolina regions lie within the 18-20 mph
range
FIGURE 2 [12]
The Atlantic Flyway runs along the eastern coast of the
United States
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James Ciabattoni
visibility of turbines at tourist-heavy locations could have on
a coastal region’s economy. Using such information, an
engineer as myself could make the ethical decision to
construct the wind farms at a distance from the coast great
enough to prevent a decrease in revenue to United States
beaches.
ETHICAL ASSESSMENT OF THE IMPACT
ON COASTAL ECONOMIES
The installation of offshore wind turbines to supplement
the current energy capacity of the United States is currently
a rapidly growing topic of interest among engineers. It is
said that an estimated 900 GW of potential wind energy lies
off the coasts of the U.S. which might be difficult to harness
due primarily to local opposition [13]. In a region such as
the Carolinas, this local opposition is not unwarranted, and is
usually concerned with the risk that offshore wind could
pose to the states’ tourism industries. In 2009 alone, North
Carolina, ranked sixth highest state for travel volume, saw
35.9 million visitors [14]. A major facet of North Carolina’s
tourism industry is its beaches and areas immediately
surrounding those beaches. North Carolina received over
$1.5 million in tax revenues from its tourist industry, but
questions regarding the visual impact of a nearby offshore
wind farm to this tourist industry are of serious concern to
many locals, as some consider the large towers eyesores that
mar the beauty of a natural landscape [15][16]. Reports
show that something as simple as coastline erosion is enough
to cause tourists to United States beaches look to foreign
coasts for travel, so the visibility of turbines offshore could
pose a serious threat to the regional economy dependent on
revenue from the tourism industry [17][16].
An ethical engineer should take into account the welfare
of the public, and in this case, consider the impact on the
economy of the area in question, even though studies at
several Czech tourist destinations determined the visual
presence of turbines has a “minor effect on tourist
destination choice” [2][18]. In addition, a wind farm on
average generates approximately 1070 jobs per 100 turbines
constructed, which could benefit the regional economy [19].
Nevertheless, examining such components of the completion
of any project, regardless of predicted impact, should assist
an engineer to reach professional and ethical decisions.
While the actual distance from shore the wind turbines will
be located varies based on intensity and consistency of
coastal winds, it is important to note they are still
significantly visible 10 nautical miles from the coast (thus a
distance of one mile as previously mentioned would create
quite noticeable visual impact) [16]. In order to best meet
the regional population’s expectations, it would be
appropriate to conduct research regarding the possible
impact of offshore turbines on the tourism industry of North
and South Carolina, which may be little to none, as was
concluded in the Czech Republic [18]. Another factor
contributing to a reducible impact on tourism is net benefit
of a clean and renewable energy source for the region, as
professed by a local, Molla Donaldson, who “would rather
have wind turbines than fracking or offshore drilling” [16].
In terms of reaching an ethical solution to the location of
offshore wind farms, engineers should consider the
proximity to coastal regions heavily dependent on tourism
revenue and study the potentially detrimental effects the
ADDRESSING HAZARDOUS CONDITIONS
RESULTING FROM THE PRESENCE OF
OFFSHORE WIND FARMS
A paramount concern for the construction of wind
turbines is the possibility for a direct and negative effect on
human health. Considering the ethical standards held by
both the NSPE and the ASME require protection of the
safety and health of the public under their first canon, it is
evident that an engineer must always be mindful of these
factors in order to maintain the integrity of the profession
[2][3].
Wind turbines, while considered clean and
renewable sources of energy, can pose some health threats to
humans that should be addressed. Large wind turbines
experiencing turbulent winds can produce infrasound, or low
frequency sounds less than 20 Hz and inaudible to humans
[20].
Such infrasound, while inaudible, can over time
potentially cause significant sound-related hearing loss as
well as more immediate health problems. One such possible
health risk, often considered minor as the symptoms include
primarily headaches or increased stress levels, is caused by
the interference between infrasound and audible noises,
resulting in a slightly pulsating frequency known as a beat
[20]. A slightly more noticeable health concern caused by
such frequencies is “endolymphatic hydrops”, a type of
swelling of the inner ear that can subsequently cause
symptoms such as vertigo, nausea, and disequilibrium [20].
This potential danger generates another reason to decrease
the proximity of offshore wind farms to inhabited land, as
the intensity of the infrasound will decrease as it travels
before reaching local residents and tourists to the region
alike. Additionally, research regarding the resistance of
wind turbines to turbulent winds and the added friction
resulting from this irregular motion could yield a blade or
tower design more resilient to turbulence and less likely to
generate infrasound.
For the specific case of offshore wind turbines, caution
should be taken to prevent collisions of marine vessels
travelling the coastal waters, and some requirements should
be set to ensure the safety of those aboard the vessels.
Simply adding brightly colored or reflective material to the
turbines so as to increase their visibility during the day, as
well as lights for hours between dusk and dawn, should be
mandatory for all offshore turbines to reduce the risk of
collisions, which could result in equipment damage and
human casualty [21]. Before all else, human health and
safety should be a priority for engineers regardless of field.
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James Ciabattoni
In terms of offshore wind farms, an ethically appropriate
response would include the addressing of potential health
risks to humans as well as research aimed at reducing the
generation of dangerous infrasound and the increase of
turbine visibility for the sake of reducing the chances of
collisions with marine vessels.
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[1] “Grand Challenges.” (2012). National Academy of
Engineering.
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[2] “NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers.” (2013). National
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[3] “Code of Ethics of Engineers.” (February 1, 2012).
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m
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REACHING A CONCLUSION:
RECOGNIZING ETHICAL CONCERNS
AND RESPONDING APPROPRIATELY
Not only does the application of engineering ethics to
immediate and real-life situations help an engineer produce a
result in accordance with the public’s expectations of both
the project and the engineer, but it can serve as an example
to engineers not yet faced with an ethical dilemma, and is
thus important for the perpetuation of maintaining the
integrity and efficacy of the engineering profession [22].
The construction of an offshore wind farm, like nearly all
engineering-related endeavors, raises the question of several
ethical concerns, each of which should be addressed
objectively and appropriately as required by the codes of
ethics an engineer is bound by. A situation involving the
location of turbines within the Atlantic Flyway and the
possible risk of mid-air collisions with avian species
resulting in bird fatalities could be avoided by applying
ethical standards to seek a proper solution. In this situation,
the most ethically appropriate solution would be to construct
the turbines away from known migration patterns to reduce
the likelihood of avian deaths.
The coastal regions, near which offshore turbines would
be constructed, while receiving the benefits of job
production to maintain the wind farm, could be faced with
negative economic repercussions regarding the tourism
industry that U.S. beaches thrive on. Increasing the distance
of the wind farm from the shore as well as recognizing the
clean and renewable nature of wind energy as a substitute
for traditional fossil fuels are two possible methods
engineers could employ in order to reach a conclusion to the
dilemmas posed by such a project.
The wellbeing of both life and property should be
addressed to inform the public of all possible dangers,
regardless of how likely or serious they may be. Doing so,
which may at first stir opposition, would maintain the
integrity of the engineering profession. All precautions
should be taken, including reducing the production of
infrasound and increasing the visibility of turbines for the
purpose of safety, in order to produce an offshore wind
turbine that not only generates clean and renewable energy
but also meets the expectations of both the American public
as well as nationally reputed engineering codes of ethics.
The completion of this wind farm project can and should be
done in an ethical manner that resolves the moral conflicts
involved in the construction of offshore turbines.
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James Ciabattoni
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11948-0109211-9/fulltext.html
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(2012).
Natrual Resources Defense Council. (Online
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[20] A. N. Salt. (June 19, 2013). “Wind Turbines can be
Hazardous to Human Health.” Cochlear Fluids Research
Laboratory, Washington University in St. Louis. (Online
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[21] “Offshore Wind Energy.” (2012). Bureau of Ocean
Energy
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[22] T. Hoke.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES
“Installed Wind Capacity.”
Energy Information
Administration.
(2012).
(Online
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http://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/wind_installed_capac
ity.asp
Knutson, Thomas R. (January 30, 2013). “Global Warming
and Hurricanes.” Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory.
(Online article). http://www.gfdl.noaa.gov/global-warmingand-hurricanes
“The U.S. Population Living in Coastal Counties.” National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. (2011). (Online
article). http://stateofthecoast.noaa.gov/population/
“Wind Data and Information.”
Energy Information
Administration.
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html
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank my father, above all else, for the
inspiration to pursue a career in engineering. Second, I wish
to thank Dr. Dan Budny for offering his students this
opportunity to further their knowledge of engineering topics
important to them, and John Calvasina for offering
constructive criticism regarding previous assignments.
In addition, I would like to thank my peers, Christopher
Potts, Mikayla Ferchaw, Akinwande Olaofe and Kyle
Montel for offering advice utilized in the completion of this
assignment. I would also like to offer thanks to Evgeniya
Anna Lvovna Maslakova for offering critique on and
proofreading this paper.
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