2015
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BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCEMENT IN FOOD PRODUCTION
Introduction: The world population has increased rapidly during the past few decades. It is, therefore
necessary to increase the production of food obtained from both plants and animals. The scientists world
over, are engaged in making strategies for enhancement in food production. Several new techniques like
animal breeding, plant breeding embryo transfer technology and tissue culture techniques are going to
play a vital role in further enhancing food production.
Animal Husbandry:. Animal husbandry deals with the care and breeding of livestock like buffaloes,
cows, pigs, horses, cattle, sheep, camels, goats etc,. that are useful to humans. It also includes poultry
farming and fisheries.
Role of Animal Husbandry in human welfare
Animal husbandry deals with feeding, breeding and raising animal livestock whose primary
purpose is to provide meat and milk. It also includes poultry farming and fisheries. Since long time,
animals have been used by humans to get milk, eggs, meat, fish, wool, silk, honey, etc.
Management of Farm and Farm animals:
The production and management of farm animals require definite planning and professional
approach to traditional practices to boost up the animal food production. Some of the management
procedures, employed in various animal farm systems are described below.
Dairy Farm Management: Dairying is the management of animals which provide milk and its products
for human consumption. The most common dairy animals are cows, buffaloes, sheeps and goats.
Dairy farm management deals with processes and systems that increase yield and improve the
quality of milk. These include.
1. Good Breeds:. Selection of good breeds that are disease resistant and having high milk yielding
potential is very important.
2. Proper care: For higher yields, the cattle have to be kept in accommodation having adequate
ventilation, sufficient light and water alongwith good drainage system.
3. Feeding: The feeding of cattle should be carried in a scientific manner – with special emphasis on the
quality and quantity of fodder. Cattle should get well balanced feed. A balanced cattle feed contains
two types of substances (i) Roughage – coarse and fibrous substances having low nutrient content
(e.g., green fodder, hay and grasses) and (ii) concentrates – low in fibres but contain relatively high
proteins and other nutrients (e.g., cereals, millets, oil seeds, gram and their by products like bran, hush
and oil cakes, and molasses)
4. Cleanliness and Hygiene: Cleanliness and hygiene are most important features of dairy farm
management. The milking area should be free from accumulation of dirt and garbage. Nowadays the
processes of milking, storage and transport of the milk and its products have become mechanized,
which reduces chance of direct contact of the produce with the handler.
5. Regular Inspection:The above mentioned measures would of course, require regular inspections,
with proper record keeping. A regular visit of a veterinary doctor is a must to look after the health of
farm animals.
Poultry Farm Management
The term ‘poultry’ refers to the class of domesticated fowl (birds) used for food or for their eggs.
The common poultry birds are chicken, ducks, turkeys, geese, guinea fowls and pigeons.
Important components of poultry farm management are
1. Selection of disease Free and Suitable Breeds: The breed should be disease free and suitable to the
environmental conditions.
2. Housing and Shelter: The poultry house should be rainproof and protected from predators. It should
have windows with wire mesh for adequate ventilation.
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3. Sanitation and Hygiene: The house should be cleaned and disinfected regularly. All litters (straw or
other materials used as bedding for animals) should also be scraped and removed regularly.
4. Proper Feed and Water: A balanced diet is essential for the growth of broilers and egg production.
Clean and fresh water is very much essential for birds.
5. Lighting: Light is essential for high egg production 14 to 16 hours of light, including daylight is
required for optimum production.
Note: These days, there are reports about the ‘bird flu’ which has created a scare in the country and
drastically affected egg and chicken consumption. Bird flu resembles influenza and is caused by a virus
HSNA. The virus also infect humans through chickens.
Animal Breeding: Animal breeding is the practice of producing improved breeds of domesticated
animals by improving their genotypes through selective mating.
Objectives : Increase in production and improving the quality of animal produce.
Breed:A group of animals related by descent and similar in most characters like general appearance,
features, size, configuration etc., constitute a breed.
Methods of Animal Breeding: There are two methods of animal breeding – inbreeding and outbreeding
1. Inbreeding: It involves the mating of more closely related individuals within the same breed for4 – 6
generations.
For example, superior males and superior females of the same breed are identified and mated in pairs.
The progeny obtained from such mating are evaluated and superior males and females are identified
for further mating. In case of cattle, a superior female, is the cow/buffalo that produces more milk per
lactation. On the other hand, a superior male is the bull/male buffalo that gives rise to superior
progeny as compared to those of other males.
Advantages:
1. Inbreeding increases homozygosity. Thus, inbreeding is necessary, if we want to develop a pureline
in any animal.
2. Inbreeding exposes harmful recessive genes that can be eliminated by selection.
3. It also helps in accumulation of superior genes and elimination of less desirable genes.
Disadvantages: Continued inbreeding especially close inbreeding causes
Inbreeding depression which may be defined as ‘the loss of fertility and productivity as a result of
inbreeding’. Whenever, inbreeding depression becomes a problem, selected animals of the breeding
population should be mated with unrelated superior animals of the same breed. This practice usually
helps to restore fertility and productivity.
2. Out breeding:It is the breeding of the unrelated animals which may bebetween individualsof the same
breed but having no common ancestors for 4-6 generations (out crossing) or between different breeds
(cross-breeding) or different species (inter-specific hybridization).
(i) Outcrossing: It is the practice of mating of animals within the same breed which do not have common
ancestors on either side of their pedigree upto 4 – 6 generations. The offspring of such a mating is called
an outcross.
Outcrossing is the best breeding method for animals that are below average in productivity in milk
production, growth rate in beef cattle etc. In most cases, a single outcross helps to overcome inbreeding
depression.
(ii) Cross-breeding: In cross-breeding, superior males of one breed are mated with superior females of
another breed.
This practice helps in bringing the desirable qualities of two different breeds together . The progeny of
hybrid animals are either themselves be used for commercial production, or subjected to some form of
inbreeding and selected to develop new stable breeds that may be superior to the existing breeds. This
strategy has helped developing many new animal breeds. For instance, a new breed of sheep – Hisardale
has been developed in Punjab by crossing Bikaneri ewes and Marino rams.
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(iii) Interspecific Hybridisation: It is the practice of mating of male and female animals of two different
related species.
The progeny obtained from such a mating are usually different from both the parental species. In some
cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the parents, and many be of considerable
economic value. For example, mule is produced from a cross between female horse (mare) and male
donkey. Mules are harder than their parents and are well suitable for hardwork in mountainous regions.
3. Controlled Breeding Experiments:They involve the techniques of Artificial Insemination and
Multiple Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET).
Artificial insemination (AI):
Is a technique of collection of semen from desired bull and introducing it
mechanically into the reproductive tract of the female animal.
In this method semen collected from superior quality bull is preserved at subzero temperature of -1960 C
(Cryopreservation) in liquid nitrogen.
Importance of artificial insemination:
1) The maintenance of the semen is cheaper than the maintenance of bull itself.
2) The stored semen can be easily transported to different places for breeding purposes.
3) Few ml of semen collected from single healthy and superior variety bull can be used to
inseminate more than 500 cows.
4) The semen collected and stored in the liquid nitrogen can be used even after the death of the male
animal.
5) Import and export of semen is very easy at a very low cost, whereas import and export of bull is a
difficult task and it is very costly.
Multiple Ovulation And Embryo Transfer (MOET):
In this technique the cow is induced to produce more number of eggs which are fertilized
in the animal itself and the embryos are transferred to the uterus of surrogate cow.
Steps:
1) Induction of super ovulation in donor cow: The cow releases only one egg in every estrous
cycle naturally. The cow is induced to produce many eggs by injecting follicle stimulating
hormone and prostaglandin. About 7 to 8 eggs are produced at a time. This is called super
ovulation or multiple ovulation.
2) Artificial insemination and recovery of the embryos: The super ovulated cow is inseminated
artificially and fertilization occurs naturally in the female genital tract. The embryos are
recovered from the cow using Foley’s catheter. The embryos are kept in the suitable media.
3) Synchronization of recipient cows: The recipient cows that are in the same reproductive stage
as the donor cow are kept ready by using Prostaglandin to receive the embryos from the donor
cow.
4) Transfer of embryos: Good quality embryos are transferred to the uterus of the surrogate cows.
The MOET technology has been successfully used in cattle, sheep, rabbits, buffaloes, mares, high milk
yielding breeds of females and high quality meat (lean meat with less lipid).
Bee keeping (Apiculture)
Bee keeping or apiculture is an age old cottage industry which involves maintenance of hives of
honeybees for the commercial production of honey and wax.
Common species and castes of honey bees: The local varieties are Apis indica (Indian bee), A. dorsata
(rock bee) and A. Florae (little bee).
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Location: Bee-keeping can be practiced in any area where there are more flowering plants for collecting
nectar and pollen.It may be in fruit orchards,cultivation crops, wild shrubs or in one’s courtyard on the
verandah of house or even on roof.
Tips for Bee-Keeping
For the successful bee-keeping, following are some important tips given below:
a. Knowledge of the nature and habits of bees.
b. Selection of suitable location for keeping the beehives.
c. Catching and hiving of swarms (group of bees).
d. Management of beehives during different seasons.
e. Handling and collection of honey and beeswax.
Importance of Bee-keeping: Bee keeping is a low cost investment and highly profitable industry. It has
the following importance.
a. Honey: Honey is a food of high nutritive value and also finds uses in the indigenous systems of
medicine. It contains sugars. (dextrose and laevulose), water, minerals, vitamins, amino acids,
enzymes and pollens. It is useful in the treatment of various disorders related to digestion, stomach
and liver.
b. BeesWax: Honey bee also produces beeswax, which finds many uses in industry, such as in the
preparation of cosmetics and polishes of various kinds,
c. Pollination: Bees are the pollinators of many of our crops such as sunflower, Brassica, apple and
pear. Keeping beehives in crop fields during flowering period increases, pollination efficiency and
improves the yield of the crop (beneficial both from the point of view of crop yield and honey yield).
Fisheries: Fishery is a kind of industry which is concerned with the catching, processing or selling of
fish, shell fish (prawns and molluscs) or other aquatic animals such as crab, lobster, edible oyster, etc.
Some of the freshwater fishes which are very common include Catla, Rohu and common carp. Some of
the marine fishes that are eaten include – Hilsa, Sardines, Mackerel and Pomfrets.
Importance of Fisheries: Following are the importance of fishery industry
1. Fish as food: Fish flesh is an excellent source of protein, has very little fat, contain a good amount of
minerals and vitamins A and D, and rich in iodine.
2. Fish Products: A number of products are obtained from fishery industry. These include fish
oil,manure, fish glue, isinglass, etc.
3. Income and employment: Fisheries has an important place in Indian economy. It provides income
and employment to millions of fishermen and farmers, particularly in the coastal states. For many, it is
the only source of their livelihood.
Pisciculture and Aquaculture:
Pisciculture is the process of fish farming in isolated water bodies. It involves proper utilization of
freshwater, brackish water and coastal areas.
Aquaculture involves production of useful aquatic plants and animals such as fishes, prawns, shrimps,
lobsters, crabs, molluscs (edible and pearl oysters) by the proper utilization of small and large water
bodies.
Blue revolution: It refers to development and flourishing of fishery industry that has brought a lot of
income to fish farmers and also to the country.
Plant Breeding:
Introduction: Traditional farming has provided a limited quantity of food for humans and animals.
Better management practices and increase in acreage can increases yield, but only to a limited extent.
However, plant breeding, as a technology has increased yields to a very large extent.
Plant Breeding
Plant breeding is the genetic improvement of a plant species in order to create desired plant types that are
better suited for cultivation, give better yield and are disease resistant.
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Classical plant breeding involves crossing or hybridization of pure lines, followed by artificial selection
to produce plants with desirable traits like higher yield, nutritional quality and resistance to diseases. But
presently, with the advancements in the field of genetics, molecular biology and tissue culture, plant
breeding is being carried out by using molecular genetic tools.
The main steps in breeding a new genetic variety of a crop are :
a. Collection of variability(Germplasm collection):
Collection and preservation of all the different wild varieties, species and relatives of the cultivated
species (followed by their evaluation for their characteristics) is a pre requisite for effective
exploitation of natural genes available in the populations. The entire collection (of plants/ seeds)
having all the diverse alleles for all genes in a given crop is called germplasm collection.
b. Evaluation and selection of parents:
The germplasm is evaluated so as to identify plants with desirable combination of characters.
c. Cross hybridization among the selected parents:
The desired characters have very often to be combined from two different plants (parents), for
example high protein quality of one parent may need to be combined with disease resistance from
another parent. This is possible by cross hybridizing the two parents to produce hybrids that
genetically combine the desired characters in one plant.
d. Selection and testing of superior recombinants:
This step consists of selecting, among the progeny of the hybrids, those plants that have the desired
character combination. This step yields plants that are superior to both of the parents. These are self
pollinated for several generations till they reach a state of uniformity.
e. Testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars:
 The newly selected lines are evaluated for the yield and other agronomic traits of quality, disease
resistance, etc.
 This evaluation is done by growing these in the research fields and recording their performance
under ideal fertiliser application, irrigation, and other crop management practices.
 The evaluation in research fields is followed by testing the materials in farmer’s fields. For at least
three growing seasons at several locations in the country, representing all the agroclimatic zones
where the crop is usually grown. The material is evaluated in comparison to the best available local
crop cultivar-a check or reference cultivar.
Green Revolution: After India’s independence, one of the main challenges facing the country was that
of producing enough food for the increasing population. As only limited land is fit for cultivation, India
had to strive to increase yields per unit area from existing farm land. The development of several high
yielding varieties of wheat and rice in the mid 1960s, as a result of various plant breeding techniques led
to dramatic increase in food production in our country. This phase started by M.S. Swaminathan is often
referred to as the Green Revolution.
Wheat and Rice:
 During the period 1960 to 2000 wheat production increased from 11 million tonnes to 75 million
tonnes while rice production went up from 35 million tonnes to 89.5 million tonnes. This was due to
the development of semi dwarf varieties of wheat and rice. Nobel laureate Norman E Borlaug, at
International Centre for Wheat and Maize improvement in Mexico, developed semi dwarf wheat.
 In 1963 several varieties such as Sonalika and Kalyan Sona, which were high yielding and disease
resistant, were introduced all over the wheat growing belt of India.
 Semi-dwarf rice varieties were derived from IR-8 (developed at International Rice Research Institute
(IRRI) Philippines) and Taichung Native-1 (from Taiwan).
 Later better yielding semi dwarf varieties Jaya and Ratna were developed in India.
Sugar cane:Saccharum barberi was originally grown in north India. But had poor sugar content and
yield. Tropical canes grown in south India Saccharum officinarum had thicker stems and higher sugar
content but did not grow well in north India. These two species were successfully crossed to get sugar
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cane varieties combining the desirable qualities of high yield, thick stems, high sugar and ability to grow
in the sugar cane areas of north India.
Millets: Hybrid maize, jowar and bajra have been successfully developed in India. Hybrid breeding have
led to the development of several high yielding varieties resistant to water stress.
Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance
A wide range of fungal, bacterial and viral pathogens, affect the yield of cultivated crop species,
especially in tropical climates. Crop losses can often be significant, up to 20-30 per cent, or sometimes
even total. In this situation, breeding and development of cultivars resistant to disease enhances food
production. This also helps reduce the dependence on use of fungicides and bactericides.
Disease Resistance is the ability to prevent the pathogen from causing disease and is determined by the
genetic constitution of the host plant.
Some of the diseases caused by
 fungi are rusts, e.g., brown rust of wheat, red rot of sugarcane and late blight of
potato
 bacteria-black rot of crucifers
 viruses-tobacco mosaic, turnip mosaic, etc.
Methods of breeding for disease resistance: Breeding is carried out by the conventional breeding
techniques or by mutation breeding or by sexual hybridization.
 The conventional method of breeding for disease resistance is that of hybridization and selection.
The various sequential steps are: Germplasm collection, Evaluation and selection of parents, Cross
hybridization among the selected parents, Selection and testing of superior recombinants, testing,
release and commercialization of new cultivars. Some crop varieties bred by hybridization and
selection, for disease resistance to fungi, bacteria and viral diseases are given below.
Crop
Wheat
Brassica
Cauliflower
Cowpea
Chilli
Variety
Himgiri
Pusa swarnim (Karan rai)
Pusa shubhra, Pusa snowball K-1
Pusa Komal
Pusa sadabahar
Resistance to diseases
Leaf and stripe rust, hill bunt
White rust
Black rot and Curl blight black rot
Bacterial blight
Chilly mosaic virus, Tobacco mosaic virus
and leaf curl.
Mutation Breeding
It is the technique of inducing mutations artificially through use of chemicals or radiations (like gamma
radiations).
Eg., In mung bean, resistance to yellow mosaic virus and powdery mildew were induced by
mutations.
Mutation is the process by which genetic variations are created through changes in the base sequence
within genes resulting in the creation of a new character or trait not found in the parental type.
Sexual Hybridisation: Transfer of resistance genes is achieved by sexual hybridisation between the
target and the source plant followed by selection.
Eg., Resistance to yellow mosaic virus in bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus) was transferred from a wild
species and resulted in a new variety ofA. esculentus called Parbhani kranti.
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Plant breeding for Developing Resistance to Insect Pests:
Insect resistance in host crop plants may be due to morphological, biochemical or physiological
characteristics as follows:
 Hairy leaves in several plants are associated with resistance to insect pests, e.g., resistance to jassids
in cotton and cereal leaf beetle in wheat.
 In wheat, solid stems lead to non preference by the stem sawfly .
 Smooth leaved and nectar less cotton varieties do not attract bollworms.
 High aspartic acid, low nitrogen and sugar content in maize leads to resistance to maize stem borers.
Breeding methods for insect pest résistance involve -Germplasm collection, Evaluation and selection
of parents, Cross hybridization among the selected parents, Selection and testing of superior
recombinants, testing, release and commercialization of new cultivars.
Sources of resistance genes may be cultivated varieties, germplasm collections of the crop or wild
relatives.
Some released crop varieties bred by hybridization and selection, for insect pest resistance are given
below.
Crop
Variety
Insect Pests
Brassica (rapeseed mustard) Pusa Gaurav
Aphids
Flat bean
Pusa Sem 2, Pusa Sem 3
Jassids, aphids and fruit borer
Okra (Bhindi)
Pusa Sawani, Pusa A – 4
Shoot and Fruit borer
Plant Breeding for Improved Food Quality:
 More than 840 million people in the world do not have adequate food to meet their daily food and
nutritional requirements.
 A far greater number three billion people – suffer from micronutrient, protein and vitamin
deficiencies or hidden hunger because they cannot afford to buy enough fruits, vegetables, legumes,
fish and meat.
 Diets lacking essential micronutrients – particularly iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc – increase the
risk for disease, reduce lifespan and reduce mental abilities.
Biofortification:It is a plant breeding programme that aims at the improved nutritional quality of a crop
variety.
Breeding, for improved nutritional quality is undertaken with the objectives of improvingi) Protein content and quality.
ii) Oil content and quality.
iii) Vitamin content.
iv) Micronutrient and mineral content.
Some released crop varietieswithimproved food quality are 1. In 2000, maize hybrids that had twice the amount of the amino acids, lysine and tryptophan,
compared to existing maize hybrids were developed.
2. Wheat variety, Atlas 66, having a high protein content, has been used as a donor for improving
cultivated wheat.
3. An iron fortified rice variety containing over five times as much iron as in commonly consumed
varieties.
4. The Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi has also released several vegetable crops that
are rich in vitamins and minerals,
e.g., vitamin A enriched carrots, spinach, pumpkin; Vitamin C enriched bitter gourd, bathua, mustard,
tomato; Iron and calcium enriched spinach and bathua. And Protein enriched beans – broad, lablab,
French and garden peas.
Single Cell Protein (SCP)
One of the alternate sources of proteins for animal and human nutrition is proteins obtained from micro
organisms is single cell protein (SCP).
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Some examples are discussed below:
 Microbes like Spirulina can be grown easily on materials like waste water from potato processing
plants (containing starch), straw, molasses, animal manure and even sewage, to produce large
quantities and can serveas food rich in protein, minerals, fats, carbohydrate and vitamins.

It has been calculated that a 250 kg cow produces 200 g of protein per day. In same period, 250g
of micro-organism like Methylophilus methylotrophus, because of its high rate of biomass production
and growth, can be expected to produce 25 tonnes of protein.
 The fact thatmushrooms are eaten by many people and large scale mushroom culture is a growing
industry makes it believable that Microbes too would become acceptable as food.
Plant tissue culture:
Definition: It is the technique of culturing a single cell or tissue or an organ separated from a selected
plant in an artificial, aseptic, nutrient medium under lab conditions.
Haberlandt (1902) first started tissue culture technique.
The plant tissue or organ excised from selected plant and used for tissue culture is known as
explant.
The basic concept of tissue culture is the totipotency. It is the ability of a cell to develop into an entire
organism of its own type on nutrient media.
Note:The nutrient medium is prepared for tissue culture that contains water, sugar, amino acids, inorganic
ions and minerals like Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Mo, Bo etc. important vitamins and plant hormones like
auxins and cytokinins.
Applications of plant tissue culture:
1) Micropropagation: Many types of crop plants, medicinal plants, forest plants, ornamental plants and
the plants that are in the verge of extinction can be multiplied in millions through plant tissue culture
techniques. Each of these plants will be genetically identical to the original plant from which they
were grown. i.e., they are somaclones. Many important food plants like tomato, banana, apple etc.,
have been produced on commercial scale using this method
2) Virus free plants by meristem culture.: Using tissue culture technique virus free plants can be
produced by culturing meristems like apical and axillary buds of required plants. It is recovery of
healthy plants from diseased plants. Although the plant is infected with a virus, the meristem (apical
and axillary) is free of virus. Hence, one can remove the meristem and grow it in vitro to obtain virus
free plants.
3) Production of somatic hybrids: Somatic hybridization involves the production of hybrids by
crossing unrelated plants with desired characters by protoplast culture. After digesting the cell walls
naked protoplasts (surrounded by plasma membranes) can be isolated. Isolated protoplasts from two
different varieties of plants-each having a desirable character can be fused to get hybrid protoplasts
which can be further grown to form a new plant. These hybrids are called somatic hybrids and the
process is called somatic hybridisation. Eg: Intergeneric hybrids like
1) pomato – potato x tomato 2) Rabbage – Radish x cabbage.
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