Running Head: Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
Motivation to Read: Three Case Studies that Examine Factors in Reading Motivation
Shelly Shaffer
Arizona State University
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Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
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Every day during the first ten minutes of my eighth grade ELA (English Language Arts) class,
students pulled out their books and had time to engage in various literacy activities. During this tenminute reading workshop, students made trips to the library to choose books, wrote letters in their
reading notebooks, perused the classroom library, listened to book talks, and read their own selfselected book choices. Even though literacy activities occurred in my students’ lives in various other
ways, during reading workshop students were expected to read books. My classroom’s daily reading
workshop was one of the factors that influenced reading motivation for three of my students during a
year-long case study.
Another factor that influences reading motivation, research shows, is students’ predispositions
to read, including positive and negative reading experiences in and out of school. A deeper
understanding of these experiences may provide help in assisting struggling readers in English Language
Arts (ELA) classrooms to develop positive relationships with books. For the roughly 1800 students who
have passed through my classroom over the course of twelve years, previous experiences with reading
have seemed to weigh heavily on their motivation. Through a study conducted in my own classroom of
eighth grade students, I investigated past and present experiences with literacy and their influence on
reading motivation. Perhaps a deeper understanding of the influence of past and present experiences
with literacy on reading motivation will help inform a better classroom practice.
Rationale
A lot has happened since the publication of the National Endowment for the Arts’ (NEA) 2004
study report Reading at Risk. According to that study, based on twenty years of United States Census
Bureau surveys, literary reading was declining at such as rapid pace that it might prove to be
nonexistent in fifty years. According to the NEA 2008 study, Reading on the Rise, literary fiction reading
among young adults has gone from a “20 percent decline in 2002 to a 21 percent increase in 2008” in
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the six years between the two studies. More recent studies, such as the Pew Research Institute’s
Younger Americans’ Library Habits and Expectations (Zickuhr, K., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K., 2013), have
shown other kinds of trends, such as an increase in teens’ e-book reading (from 19% in 2011 to 25% in
2012) and nearly 100% participation in online reading. Nevertheless, the eighth grade reading scores at
my Southwestern suburban, Title 1 junior high were in a downward trend. The 2007 NEA study To Read
or Not to Read found a correlation between income, reading frequency, and proficiency, and there are
profound implications for students who read and read well (National Endowment for the Arts, 2007).
Despite my best efforts to motivate my students to read in school, many of my eighth grade
students failed to embrace reading. I came to believe the difference between the motivated readers and
unmotivated readers was due to circumstances that were outside of my observation and control. If all
students in my classroom were experiencing the same literacy opportunities, what prior and/or out of
school experiences motivated students to become readers? The current study examines the relationship
between reading experiences and motivation in junior high students. Even though the NEA study found
a rise in online reading, reading in this study refers to reading books and not to other types of reading,
such as online reading. These case studies will attempt to help the reader understand important factors
in students’ reading experiences that affect motivation to read books. This study is meant to inform
practice for increasing student motivation toward reading and to assist in the development of positive
attitudes toward reading in middle school students.
Literature Review
Research involving reading motivation has been done in the fields of psychology, literacy, and
English language arts. Three classifications within motivation theory and pedagogy used to motivate
students are important in this study: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, emotional impact of books, and
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types of texts. This research includes quantitative studies, longitudinal studies, experimental studies,
and case studies, using methods such as interviews, questionnaires, tests, diaries, and field notes.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Motivation theory provides a strong context to discuss reading motivation. Wigfield and Guthrie
(1997) discuss the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation in relationship to reading
behavior. Their study found that students with the highest intrinsic motivation read nearly three times
as many minutes per day as the group with the lowest intrinsic motivation. However, the groups with
high and low levels of extrinsic motivation did not differ nearly as much. Schiefele, Schaffner, Mӧller,
and Wigfield (2012) describe somebody who repeatedly shows a form of reading motivation to be a
habitually motivated reader. Hidi and Renninger (2006) discuss the need to foster conditions that
support student’s interest development so that students can make a shift from external support to
internal support as interest develops. Unrau and Schlackman (2006) investigated the effects of intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation on urban middle school students. Their study found that intrinsic motivation
decreased significantly between grades 3-8. However, extrinsic motivation changed little through the
grades and correlated negatively with academic performance: the higher students’ extrinsic motivation,
the lower their academic performance. Unrau and Schlackman (2006) also bring up the issue that
readers who have lower self-efficacy, or a person’s belief in his/her own competence, to develop and
sustain interest in an activity, towards reading often seek alternative forms of entertainment, such as
video games, and as their time devoted to reading decreases, so do their reading skills. Hidi and
Renninger (2006) communicate the need for teachers to support students’ development of self-efficacy.
Children’s evaluation of their competence in reading plays a significant role in their motivation
to read (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007; Wigfield & Guthrie, 1997). Brunner (2009) explains how
successfully completing a reading assignment can help modify a student’s opinion about reading. The
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more positive the experience, the more likely the student will be to try it again. Unrau and Schlackman
(2006) state, “If a reader is frequently frustrated when reading, those frustrating experiences can
contribute to a belief that reading is a frustrating experience” (p. 82). As a result of having a negative
experience, the reader’s attitude (and motivation) could become more negative. On the other hand,
when readers have positive experiences with reading, they are likely to feel more capable, thus
developing a higher self-efficacy towards the activity. In their discussion of interest development, Hidi
and Renninger (2006), state that students with lower ability are more likely to engage in a text they are
interested in than higher ability students who have less individual interest in the subject.
Emotional Impact of Books
Emotional impact of books can be determined by the types of reading experiences, types of texts
readers are exposed to, and the connections made between books and life experiences. In their analysis
of thousands of reading autobiographies of college students, Carlsen and Sherrill (1988) found a strong
relationship between positive reading experiences and attitude toward reading. They concluded that
students who had a more positive emotional experience with books when they were young were more
likely to be positive towards books as adults. Similarly, Burke (1999) shares a collection of letter-to-theeditor responses he received after writing his own letter-to-the-editor about a frustrating experience in
his high school classroom. Hundreds of respondents write about reading experiences that influence their
reading attitude and motivation. These reports suggest students who have a more positive experience
with books when they are young are more likely to be positive towards books as adolescents and adults.
Designing positive experiences with literature involves giving students access to books and other
literature that is meaningful, accessible, and engaging for them (Appleman, 2006; Brunner, 2009;
Groenke, Maples, & Henderson, 2010; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999
Richison, Hernandez, & Carter, 2006).
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Types of Texts
Students are motivated to read when teachers provide access to literature that appeals to their
interests. The connection between home and school is what Gutierrez (2008) refers to as the “third
space.” Teachers of English have an opportunity to link students’ out-of-school interests and
experiences with in-school reading by employing the practice of using self-selected reading in the
classroom. Appleman (2006) considers the barrier between classroom reading and reading for pleasure.
She states, “As a result, the books adolescents read for English class are often not books they end up
liking. How, then, do we expect our students to become lifelong readers if reading for them is not a
pleasurable activity?” (p. 5).
Bridging the divide between popular fiction and canon is vital since adolescents are more
motivated to read young adult literature than more canonical texts (Groenke, Maples, & Henderson,
2010). Atwell (1998) also mentions the need to teach students how to choose books while Richison,
Hernandez, and Carter (2006) emphasize the importance of creating positive experiences within the ELA
classroom to improve students’ attitudes toward reading. The authors suggest scaffolding canonical
literature with more accessible picture, children’s, and young adult books: “Readers will develop the
interests, willingness, and abilities to take on more sophisticated literature if they have first had the
opportunity to experience the pleasures of text that is meaningful, safe, and engaging for them”
(Richison, Hernandez, & Carter, 2006, p. 3). Young adult literature provides an emotional bridge
between the traditional literature used in many classrooms and student’s lives. It can be a great way to
scaffold to canonical texts and to allow students a way to confront complex issues such as drugs, racism,
or bullying (Appleman, 2006; Groenke, Maples, & Henderson, 2010; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Moore,
Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; Richison, Hernandez, & Carter, 2006). Characters in young adult
literature often grapple with social situations and complexities youth are confronted with in their own
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existences. Groenke, Maples, and Henderson (2010) claim young adult literature, rather than the canon,
gives students a way to address issues that are currently affecting their lives. Rosenblatt (1978) and
Gallagher (2004) describe the important transaction that occurs between a reader and the text he/she is
reading, which describes the meaning that readers make by reading a text that goes beyond answers on
a comprehension quiz. Rosenblatt (1978) found that when readers find their own meaning in texts, the
text itself is more meaningful and the experience is more memorable. According to Brunner (2009), the
connection students make between their lives and the literature they read should be personal and
meaningful. The International Reading Association’s Commission on Adolescent Literacy describes
reading as a vicarious experience that “can nourish teen’s emotions and psyches as well as their
intellects” (cited in Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999, p. 102). By providing students with literature
that establishes a connection to them emotionally, teachers are on the way to producing more
motivated students.
In addition, self-selected reading, where students choose their own texts, motivates students.
According to Krashen (2009), students engaged in self-selected reading earned higher test scores across
all levels compared to students who only read teacher-assigned reading. In addition to self-selected
reading, there are two other components to motivating students that are missing in many secondary
classrooms: (1) time to read and (2) a variety of reading materials that students can and want to read
(Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; Richison, Hernandez, & Carter, 2006). When students spend
more time reading, their increased word knowledge, fluency, and comprehension directly corresponds
to higher motivation, and when students are more motivated to complete a task, they enjoy it more and
may continue to do it in the future (Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; Richison, Hernandez, &
Carter, 2006). Adolescents feel a sense of independence when they are allowed to choose their own
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reading materials. They deserve the opportunity to select topics, genres, and materials they prefer
(Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999).
There are many students who self-select nonfiction texts, but struggle because these texts are
not accessible to them based on their reading skills (Smith & Wilhelm, 2002). Kelly and Clausen-Grace
(2009) describe the various types of readers in many ELA classrooms, explaining that many prefer
nonfiction. These readers feel discouraged in ELA classrooms where fiction seems to be more valued
than nonfiction. In a study conducted by Pitcher, Martinez, Dicembre, Fewster, and McCormick (2010),
students struggled with the comprehension because they did not have appropriate reading strategies to
help them understand what they read. In order for teachers to make nonfiction texts accessible to
students, they need to include lessons on reading strategies, pre-reading activities, and scaffolding.
Research Question
Based on prior research, motivation to read is influenced by many factors, including in school and
out of school experiences with literacy. Teachers have power to influence students’ motivation to read,
but factors that motivate or discourage reading are sometimes beyond the control of the teacher. This
led me to ask the following questions.

If all students in my classroom were experiencing the same literacy opportunities, what prior
and/or out of school experiences motivated students to become readers?

Which experiences may have bearing on the degree students are motivated to read?
Realizing that it was an assumption that all students were receiving the same treatment, I evaluated my
classroom practice to see if every student was receiving the same treatment. I also wondered,

What prior experiences with literacy motivated my students?

What prior experiences with literacy were unmotivating for my students?

What can I do to influence their motivation now?
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I hypothesized that influences on reading motivation may occur at home or in previous ELA classes, but I
needed to investigate. A motivated, high achieving reader, an unmotivated but capable reader, and a
low achieving, motivated reader are the subject of the cases investigated in this study.
Setting
This study took place in a suburban junior high school where I taught during the 2010-2011
school year. The school, which is in the Southwestern United States, was classified as Title I and
increasingly served minority students. The racial breakdown of the school was approximately 68% white,
27% Hispanic, 3% black, and 2% other (including Native Americans). The case study students were in my
eighth grade English classroom and were either enrolled in English 8 (on-level English) or English 20W
(honors English). I examined students’ interactions with literature in their English classroom and
participants’ reading habits and experiences at home. The study employed a multiple case-study design
with four students representing various backgrounds serving as single cases within the same educational
context; however, only three participants completed the study and will be discussed here.
Methods
As per Merriam (1991, 1998) and Stake (1997), using participant observation, document
collection, and interviewing, I collected data about how three case-study students used literature in
their English classroom and home lives to inform their reading motivation. This involved a pre and post
survey about reading, taking field notes of interactions, photographing and collecting reading projects
and other assignments, and interviewing each student throughout the year. I observed case-study
students during reading workshop and general class time. Analysis of student reading notebooks
occurred regularly in order to find evidence of reading attitudes. During this time, I looked for codes and
common connections among the student participants, between interviews, or other data and also used
Vygotsky (1978) to examine instrumental factors that affected motivation.
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Interviews with each study participant took place three times throughout the school year. I
audio recorded each interview to analyze attitudes toward reading and literacy and to aid with
transcription. Since interviews have a dialogic quality, Bakhtin’s (1984) suggestions for analyzing
discourse were used during analysis. Interviews focused on student perceptions about reading, amount
of reading students did at home and school, how they chose books, and what motivated them. (Figure 1:
The first interview protocol) Second and third interview questions evolved from responses to the first
interview as well as from observations in class and other collected data.
Participants
I recruited study participants from students in my English classes. All students completed a
reading interest survey (“Perceptions about Reading and Reading Practices at Home and School”) within
the first week of school. Gates McGinitie Reading Test Level 7/9: Form S and seventh grade AIMS
(Arizona’s Instrument to Measure Standards) scores determined students’ reading abilities. Using the
data from the reading interest survey, the Gates McGinitie Reading Test, seventh grade AIMS scores,
and/or classroom observations, I determined which students to invite into the interview portion of the
study. The three separate case studies focused on a more motivated and high achieving student, a less
motivated proficient student, and a motivated but low achieving student. Students’ ethnicity did not
enter in selection. Student records indicated the participants as one white male, one Latino male, and
one white female. Each case provides a different lens in which to view motivation. (See Figure 2)
Data Analysis
The method of data analysis was influenced by Charmaz (1983), Creswell (1998), Emerson, Fretz,
and Shaw (1995), and Graue and Walsh (1998) and their processes of coding and analyzing data. As
Charmaz (1983), recommends, I used codes to “summarize, synthesize, and sort many observations
made of the data” (p. 112). Transcripts of data were reviewed multiple times, looking for codes, or
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categories. The coding process began with a short list of coding categories: home reading practices,
reading motivation, time spent reading, and choosing books. As Creswell (1998) suggests, I began “with
a short list” of tentative coding categories and then expanded it as I went through the data (p. 141).
My initial four categories expanded to thirty-four during the coding process such as, types of
motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, reading amount, good book recommendations, bad
recommendations, nonfiction reading, and books in Spanish. For example, when Javier says, “I only like
getting the non-fiction ones. I think the fiction ones are silly,” I coded the statement as “non-fiction
reading preference.” When Tony says, “I am reading more than I did last year,” this statement was
coded as “reading amount.” I began to sort the categories back together to three umbrella categories
that would allow me classify the data into themes that help to illustrate how motivation and experience
are linked for the three students in the case studies: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, types of texts,
and home reading experience.
Findings
The findings in this study reveal how the literacy experiences of three eighth grade students
prior to and/or outside of my class influenced their motivation to read. Reading test scores did not
correspond to the motivation each student had to read. Thus, three cases where factors other than
ability played a large role in motivation of these three adolescent readers are presented here.
Tony Criswell, a high achieving, motivated reader
According to the answers the first case-study student provided during the first week of school
on the reading survey as well as AIMS scores from seventh grade, Tony Criswell (psuedonyms used for
all case study participants) displayed the characteristics of a motivated and high achieving student. Tony
‘EXCEEEDED” on the AIMS test, scoring 100% in reading process, 94% in literary text, and 84% in
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informational text. Tony indicated on the survey that he “strongly agreed” with the statement “I am a
reader.”
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Tony’s reading habits demonstrate a habitual motivation to
read. When Tony says, “I love it [reading]. I could, if I could, I would just read all day” he describes
reading as a pleasurable experience—even using the word “love” to describe his feelings about reading.
Tony read thirty to sixty minutes per day out of school. In addition, on both the beginning of the year
survey and the end of the year survey, Tony believed that reading to “gain knowledge” was a huge
motivating factor explaining why people read. Reading to complete the class assignments for my class
could have been accomplished by reading as few as six books throughout the school year; by the end of
the year, Tony reported that he had read “about 40” books.
Tony is intrinsically motivated to read and identifies himself as a reader based on his
experiences as a child and his current reading practices. But, he recognizes that all of his classmates are
not as avid readers as he. Tony noticed a difference in the motivation level between himself and his
classmates; however, he attributes this difference to home reading experiences.
“For me, I think it is probably their parents did not read to them, so they are not acquainted to
reading [emphasis added]. They do not know if their parents like to read because their parents
did not really read them things so they have to fend for themselves to read so I think that’s a big
difference. With someone like me with my parents reading to me every night when I was little, I
think that helped because I knew books that I had liked because my parents read to me and
finally when I learned how to read, I could read those books on my own.”
Tony’s motivation to read was influenced by his parents; however, Tony feels that his classmates are
less motivated due to lacking the same positive experience as he had.
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Types of Texts. Tony exhibited a preference for fiction, specifically fantasy books, as noted
through interviews, observations, and on the end of year reading survey. Tony indicated J.K. Rowling,
Jon S. Lewis, and Rick Riordan as his favorite authors; all of these authors write fantasy stories. Fantasy
books were also the “easiest” for Tony to read and understand compared to other kinds of reading.
Tony mentioned borrowing books from the Percy Jackson book series, a fantasy series by Rick Riordan,
from his grandpa.
Tony mentioned a dislike for nonfiction books. The survey asked, “What kinds of books do you
like to read?” Tony responded, “any kind of books except nonfiction.” I followed up during the first
interview by asking “What kinds of books catch your attention?” Tony, again, responded, “I don’t like
nonfiction, though. I don’t like those.” When delving into Tony’s nonfiction reading, he indicated that
biographies were the hardest kind of reading for him. Tony’s difficulty with reading biographies may not
be the reading level itself, but the motivation to read the text because he connected with the characters
in nonfiction too strongly,
“I do not like reading about other people for some reason. It just…freaks me out. I do not know
how to explain it….I do not like reading about other people’s mistakes because it makes me feel
like I am not a good person because I do some of the mistakes other people have done that
already died….”
Tony articulated a tension with his larger world, about self, and others when making this statement.
Recommendations. The types of texts Tony read also reflected his motivation. Tony experienced
frustration when a teacher recommended Shakespeare, which was too difficult for Tony to read on his
own: “I tried that [Shakespeare] and I just couldn’t figure it out because it had all that vocabulary….”
This teacher did not provide a bridge for Tony into Shakespeare that would have made it accessible.
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Home reading experiences. Tony connects positive memories of reading as a child to his reading
habits and motivation as an eighth grade student. One positive emotional connection he has with books
is of his mom reading to him before bed:
“Well, before I went to bed, my mom…, I had a bunch of books in my room because it was my
own (emphasis added) room, so I had a tiny bookshelf in my room with all my books that I kept,
when I was like four or five, and she would let me go pick a book, and I would go pick a book and
she would read it to me before bed.”
There was an emphasis on the word own when Tony referred to his room. This seems to indicate the
importance of actually owning the books and having access to those books in your own room. Tony’s
mom reading to him before bed may also be an influence on Tony’s reading habits. Later, he said, “I
can’t sleep without reading, so I just read until I fall asleep.” Every night, Tony continues with the habit
his mother began of reading before bed. Tony also emphasizes that reading is a necessary part of his
routine every day. Obviously, Tony’s reading motivation has been influenced strongly by the emotional
relationships he has with his family connected to books. Even when Tony talks about where he gets
books, he mentions his grandparents rather than the bookstore or public library.
Access to books. Tony’s grandma gives books to Tony every year for his birthday, so he gets at
least one book per year. He said that his other grandmas really like reading, so they give him a lot of
books they have already read, which is “how I got most of my books,” Tony says. “If there’s a series that
I really want that I haven’t read yet, then I’ll ask it for my birthday and I usually get it.” Tony also
mentions going to the public library during the summer although his preference is to borrow books from
his family. In November 2010, Tony stated that “last time I counted, I think I had forty two [books]” at
home in his bedroom.
Javier Montez, a capable but unmotivated reader
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The second participant, Javier Montez, presents the case of a reader who was a less motivated,
but proficient student. On the survey, Javier stated he “strongly disagreed” that he was a reader and felt
“neutral” about being a good reader even though his AIMS scores from seventh grade indicated he had
“MET” the standards for reading, scoring 83% in reading process, 59% in literary text, and 56% in
informational text.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. Javier thought people who read do so because they like to read
or because it is a school assignment. When asked the question, “Why do you read?” Javier responded,
“They make me,” voicing an extrinsic rather than intrinsic motivation to read.
He admitted that people needed to practice reading in order to get better although he did not
actively practice reading at home on a regular basis. When I first interviewed Javier in October 2010, I
asked him how much time he spent reading at home, and he said he liked to read at home when he had
a book he liked to read and spent about thirty minutes a night reading A Child Called It (1995).
Types of Texts. After observing and speaking to Javier several times during the first months of
school, I noticed that Javier had trouble choosing books. He chose his first book, A Child Called It (Pelzer,
1995), almost immediately on our first class trip to the library, but once he finished that book, he was
unable to find another book on his own. I asked him about the kinds of books he liked to read; he said,
“A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995)—interesting books like that.” I tried to match Javier with several fiction
and non-fiction books throughout the year, but Javier would read the book for a few weeks, only to
abandon the book before he finished. I did not understand what caused Javier to abandon these books,
which seemed similar to A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995).
In the library, Javier immediately gravitated to the non-fiction section. He seemed to know
exactly where to look for the book he was interested in and did not ask the librarian, or me, for help in
finding his book choice: A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995). Throughout his time reading A Child Called It, he
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commented in his reading notebook letters how sad he was about Dave Pelzer’s life and wondered how
a mother could treat her own son the way Dave’s mom treated him. In a reading notebook entry Javier
wrote in September, he stated, “I felt that boy should have ran away or at least tell the truth…. This is a
book worth recommending. It made me want to read.”
He repeatedly mentioned a non-fiction preference, and when I asked him why he liked nonfiction so much more than fiction, he said, “What’s the point of reading them if they aren’t true? I like
nonfiction because I like to know about things that are true so I feel like I am learning something.” I
asked Javier if he had a favorite book, and he immediately named Dave Pelzer as his favorite author
although he had only read one book by this author. This seemed to indicate a lack of knowledge
regarding authors and books. Since Javier seemed only to be able to mention one book throughout our
interview, I asked him what his strategies were when he went to the library to choose books. He did not
really know what to do at the library. He said he looked on the library catalog for nonfiction books, but
he did not have knowledge to look for biographies or other kinds of nonfiction that might be interesting
for him.
Recommendations. Javier chose A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995) based on another student’s
recommendation rather than a teacher recommendation. I asked him during the first interview how he
chose the book, and he said he had heard people talking about it. From what I observed, it seemed like
he had been waiting to read the book since seventh grade. I hadn’t heard anybody talking about it
during class, but during the interview, I was able to guide the conversation back to his book choice. He
said he knew about A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995) from his friends talking about it. He brought the book
with him every day to class during the five-week timeframe students had to read their first book and
complete their first book project for class: a poster with major plot elements illustrated.
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When I met with him at the end of October, I suggested a nonfiction book about the Holocaust
called Yellow Star by Jennifer Roy (2006), which is a novel in verse. Javier took the book home and came
back the next day saying his mom wanted to read it, so he did not have it with him. We figured out the
book was available as an e-Book, and even when his mom had finished reading it, he continued to read
it on the computer each day for several weeks. He got about halfway through the book and then
abandoned it. I tried again to match Javier to a book by suggesting Held Hostage: The True Story of a
Mother and Daughter’s Kidnapping by Michelle Renee (2006), and again, Javier’s mom wanted to read
the book, so he did not have it with him the next day. He read half of that book before abandoning that
book, as well. In February, I suggested A Hole in My Life by Jack Gantos (2002). He did not take it home,
and with time in English and reading class to read every week, he finished that book by the end of
March. By the end of the year, I still felt like I hadn’t helped Javier to become an independent reader
because he still needed help finding books in the library that matched his interest and often abandoned
books that he chose.
Home Reading Experiences. On the survey, Javier strongly disagreed that he liked to read and also
indicated that books were not available for him to read at home. He stated he owned only one book, but
that he had read twenty books within the past year. When I interviewed Javier, I asked him about books
at home, knowing he had written he only owned “one” book at home on his beginning of the year
reading survey. He couldn’t name any books he had at home; he had given away most of his books
because he did not like them anymore. He said his parents never read to him when he was young. His
mom reads “mostly in Spanish,” so there aren’t English books available at home. Javier told me he has
never been educated in reading or writing Spanish. When I asked him if he read his mom’s Spanish
books, he said they weren’t interesting to him and they were “Mexican” books. He seemed to be
embarrassed that his mom was reading this type of book. I noticed that he definitely identified his mom
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as a reader even though she was reading in her native language. Javier appears to identify reading
English books with a positive connotation, but reading Spanish books does not seem to have the same
connotation. Interestingly, when Javier brought home a book from school, on more than one occasion
during the study, Javier did not have his book at school the next day because his mom wanted to read
the book. On the end of the year reading survey, Javier indicated that he had not bought any new books
during the year and had only read two books. He responded to the question “How often do you read at
home?” with the answer: “I don’t.”
Access to Books. With this in mind, since Javier was not motivated to find books anywhere but at
school, access to books and time to read during school are factors that influence his reading motivation.
When he was unable to get a book from school, he did not get a book at all. Javier said, “Nowhere. I
don’t go anywhere to get books. If not at school, I don’t get them at all” after being asked, “Where do
you get books if not at home?” Javier did not read at home after A Child Called It (Pelzer, 1995) as
indicated by his response on the end of the year survey when he wrote “I don’t [read at home].”
Mariana Bianchi, a low achieving, motivated reader
According to her test scores, Mariana Bianchi, the third case study student, exhibited the
characteristics of a struggling reader, in terms of tested comprehension, who nonetheless was a
motivated reader. She “APPROACHED” the standards on the AIMS test in seventh grade, scoring 58% in
reading process, 35% in literary text, and 60% in informational text; her scores in the 6th percentile on
the Gates McGinitie Reading Test also reflected a struggle with reading. I became interested in
Mariana’s reading after she responded on the reading attitudes survey at the beginning of the school
year that she “agreed” with the statement “I am a reader” because despite her poor test performance,
Mariana still had a positive attitude towards reading.
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
19
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation. As far as reading amount, Mariana responded to the
beginning of the year survey question of “How often do you read at home?” by responding “A lot.” On
the end of the year reading survey, Mariana reported that she read ten books during the school year,
and that this was more than she normally read. Mariana indicated that she read “because it gets me
wondering.” Mariana was curious to find out new information and to use reading to learn more about
things that she was interested in. Despite Mariana’s motivation to read, she did poorly on standardized
tests; therefore, the connection between ability and motivation was not strongly correlated in Mariana’s
case. Mariana indicated in an interview, “Sometimes I get in the mood to read. And sometimes I won’t.”
For Mariana, the motivation to read seemed to be determined by her mood rather than by the book
itself.
Types of Texts. When I asked Mariana what kinds of book caught her attention, she replied, “I
kind of like some good like real (emphasis added) books.” She demonstrated this later in the interview
as she talked about The Last Song by Nicholas Sparks (2009), a book about a girl whose dad dies
suddenly, which she finished rereading in March.
S: What would you have done if that had happened to you?
M: It would be really sad (pause) because if it was like right in front of you, you know. That
would be sad.
S: It would be harder if you had to watch it? Compared to not….
M: When I was like three. I had a great grandpa that died, and he was in the hospital. Like we
were going to visit him, and he had a heart attack—so I kind of watched him die.
Recommendations. Mariana was reading Kira Kira by Cynthia Kadohata (2004) when I
interviewed her in October 2010. This Newberry Award winning book was suggested by her reading
teacher and was not the type of book she normally read. Mariana did not appear to be excited about the
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
20
book when I talked to her. When she told me about the plot of the book in the interview, she confused
details of the book. She said,
“It is about these two Japanese girls, sisters and stuff. And one of the sisters gets ummm cancer
later on. And they then they move to Japan, like I do not remember where they move from, but
they move to Japan, and they are really close sisters….”
Mariana was correct that one sister got cancer, but the sisters actually moved from the Midwestern
United States to the Southeastern United States, so Mariana’s summary was not correct. She later
abandoned the book, probably because she did not understand it.
Home Reading Experiences. On the beginning of the year survey, Mariana described both her
mom and dad as non-readers by responding that she “strongly disagreed” to the statements “My mom
is a reader” and “My dad is a reader.” However, in the interview, Mariana said that as a young child, her
mom and dad read nursery rhymes and riddles to her although they did not take her to the library.
Mariana engaged in reading at home as she helped her mom and dad cook dinner. “When I cook with
my mom and my dad, I read the back, like the ingredients and stuff.” Mariana also indicated that she
read the recipes. Reading the labels of kitchen ingredients and recipes falls into the informational text
category of reading, the highest category on Mariana’s AIMS scores. During the interview, Mariana also
described her parents’ home reading habits, which contradicted her earlier answer. Her dad, a DJ who
was working at the time of the first interview to design his own website, was reading a lot of
information about how to design a website, and Mariana’s mom, a massage therapist, was engaged in
reading books and articles that would help her with massage therapy.
Access to Books. On the beginning of the year survey, Mariana agreed with the statement
“There are books available for me to read at home.” When asked to explain her current access to books
at home during the first interview in October 2010, she responded, “My brother is a book nerd, so he
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
21
usually, he has like tons of books.” I asked her if she was interested in any of the books that he had, and
she admitted that she did like some of them. She also said that she had a small library at home of her
own; the most recent book she added was The Last Song by Nicholas Sparks (2009). However, on the
end of the year reading survey, a question asked “Have you bought any new books this year?” and
Mariana responded “No.” During the nine months she was in my class, she had not added any new
books to her personal library.
Implications
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Tony’s positive experiences with books intrinsically motivated him to read even more during school
when he was given the chance to read what he wanted (Wigfield & Guthrie, 2006); he demonstrated a
habitual motivation to read based on the amount of time he spent reading (Scheifele, U., Schaffner, E.,
Mӧller, J., & Wigfield, A., 2012). Mariana, as well, was motivated to read ten books throughout the
school year even though her test scores showed that she struggled with reading. Javier, on the other
hand, had test scores that were acceptable according to the AIMS, but still did not identify himself as a
reader, only reading two books throughout the school year. Javier’s case illustrates what tests do and
don’t measure about readings. Readers like Javier may have a low self-efficacy in regards to reading
because they have not had good experiences with reading (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006). Javier
associated positive reading experiences with reading English texts, but viewed it negatively when it was
a non-English text. He did not seem to think that the Spanish texts his mom was reading qualified as the
same type of reading that occurred in school or when reading English books. As per Moore, Bean,
Birdyshaw, and Rycik (1999) and Richison, Hernandez, and Carter(2006), Javier’s access to books and
time to read are factors that influence his motivation to read outside of school.
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
22
External motivation played a small role in motivation for the case study students. Tony was
extremely motivated by grades in class and completed all of his book related assignments to ensure that
he earned a good grade in class. Mariana completed all four of the book projects although two were
turned in late. As per Appleman (2006), Groenke, Maples, and Henderson (2010), Moore, Bean,
Birdyshaw, and Rycik (1999), and Richison, Hernandez, and Carter (2006), when Mariana experienced
reading as a pleasurable activity, she was more motivated to do it on her own time. Javier completed
one out of four book project assignments, either because he was not motivated by grades or because he
did not complete the book in time. This seems to indicate that Javier is not intrinsically motivated to
read, but that extrinsic motivation indicated by the response: “They make me” sometimes motivates
him to read during school, as per Unrau and Schlackman (2006). For Javier, grades as an extrinsic
motivator was not effective.
Types of Texts
For two of the case study students, reading books that were more realistic was more motivating
than reading books that were not realistic. One student, Javier, was a capable but unmotivated reader
while Mariana was a motivated, but not as capable reader, showing that the connections to the text
were stronger motivating factors in types of text than ability. Kelley and Clausen-Grace (2009) mention
students that have a preference for reading non-fiction; Javier definitely exhibited a preference for
nonfiction reading compared to fiction. For Javier, reading about characters that were struggling with
real-life issues helped him to relate to the book on a deeper level. As per Rosenblatt (1978), Javier made
many text-to-self connections, which seem to strengthen his reading motivation in class. He seemed to
feel strongly about the book and was able to connect with Pelzer’s (1995) experience vicariously
(Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999). Javier exhibited the need to be able to make connections
between the text, life, other texts, and himself, as per Gallagher (2004) and Rosenblatt (1978). Mariana
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
23
also formed connections with The Last Song (2009) by using this book as a bridge between her real-life
experiences and the events she experienced vicariously through the text (Brunner, 2009; Gallagher,
2004; Moore, Bean, Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; Rosenblatt, 1994). In this way, teachers have an
opportunity to help students make connections where “reading books becomes the vehicle by which
dreams can come true” (Guttierez, 2008, p. 158).
However, Tony was not motivated to read about realistic issues, feeling that reading about
other people’s problems was “freaky;” this shows that Tony was not motivated to read this type of text
(Hidi and Renninger, 2006). However, as per Rosenblatt (1978), Tony all too easily and readily identified
with others, or at least characters in the biographies. In this way, it can be read as an insightful comment
on Tony’s reading. It imaginatively connects him to others, but this experience can be disturbing as well
as pleasurable. Books, and perhaps especially biographies and autobiographies, hold a mirror up to us,
showing us a life both like and unlike our own. Tony’s connections to books created tension for him.
Throughout the study, Tony preferred to read fantasy books rather than realistic ones.
Recommendations. When teachers have made recommendations of books that are not at the
students’ reading or interest level, this can create problems. Tony’s teacher did not recognize that
Shakespeare was not a text that Tony could read independently, and because she did not provide a
bridge that would have made Shakespeare accessible, Tony became frustrated with the text and
abandoned it (Appleman, 2006; Groenke, Maples, & Henderson, 2010; Richison, Hernandez, & Carter,
2006). However, Mariana, a struggling reader, may need more help to develop positive experiences with
reading, as per Atwell (1998). Because Mariana frequently abandons books, like in the case of teacher
recommended Kira Kira (2010), her self-efficacy towards reading may not be as high as it would be if she
were to read books she could finish (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006). Mariana and Tony’s negative
experiences with teacher recommendations may make each of these students less likely to ask for
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
24
teacher recommendations in the future. When teachers recommend books to students that fit the
student’s interest level, the students can have a positive experience with the text (Richison, Hernandez,
& Carter, 2006). Javier preferred recommendations by his friends to recommendations by his teachers
and struggled to find books throughout the study that fit his interests.
Home Reading Experiences
The way students read is connected to the types of experiences students have had with reading,
starting at a young age. Per Carlson and Sherrill (1988) and Burke (1999), Tony connects positive
experiences to reading with his current identity as a motivated reader. Part of Tony’s relationship to
reading appears to be linked to having books of his own that are accessible and available (Appleman,
2006; Brunner, 2009; Groenke, Maples, & Henderson, 2010; Hidi and Renninger, 2006; Moore, Bean,
Birdyshaw, & Rycik, 1999; Richison, Hernandez, & Carter, 2006). Since Mariana enjoyed reading recipes
with her parents and helping cook, she engaged with the text (Hidi and Renninger, 2006), and this may
have led to a higher self-efficacy towards reading those kinds of texts (Unrau and Schlackman, 2006).
Both of Mariana’s parents modeled reading behavior that was motivated by the desire to learn more
about something they were interested in (Brunner, 2009; Hidi & Renninger, 2006; Wigfield & Guthrie,
1997). Students, like Tony and Mariana, who have had good experiences with books either at home or at
school seem to have more positive reading motivation than students who have not had positive
experiences.
Access to Books. When Tony says, “I love it [reading]. I could, if I could, I would just read all day”
he is showing a positive connection to reading (Appleman, 2006; Burke, 1999; Krashen, 2009; Richison,
Hernandez, & Carter, 2006). When examining Tony’s statement about other students’ reading
experiences, “For me, I think it is probably their parents did not read to them, so they are not
acquainted to reading [emphasis added],” this shows what Bakhtin (1986) refers to as diglossia or
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
25
double voiced discourse. The phrase “they are not acquainted to reading” itself has a double meaning,
suggesting both “being introduced to reading” and “books are like friends (new acquaintances) you
meet.” The phrase also stands out because it does not sound like Tony is using his own words; it sounds
instead like he is quoting words he has heard somebody else say before. This seems to show once again
the close link Tony’s identity as a reader is to his family experiences; he may even be citing somebody
from his family with his statement. Tony’s comment also illustrates his self-efficacy towards reading as a
result of reading books with his mom when he was little and being able to read books on his own once
he learned how to read (Unrau & Schlackman, 2006).
Conclusion
For teachers in ELA classrooms, the findings show that reading motivation is connected to outof-school and in-school reading experiences rather than reading ability as measured by state tests.
Tony’s motivation to read was not a surprise, as he scored extremely well on standardized tests;
however, even though Mariana did not score well on standardized tests, she was still motivated to read,
but Javier, who was a capable reader, was generally not motivated to read. All of the case study
students differ in degree of motivation, but each had some form of motivation to read when they were
reading a book they liked although the motivation was not long-lasting for all students after completing
the particular book they were interested in. There was a difference in the types of books preferred by
Tony (a higher achieving student) who preferred fantasy books compared to the lower achieving or less
motivated students (Javier and Mariana) who preferred more realistic books and there may be a link
between this that could be investigated. Further research could be done on student book choice in
order to motivate students to read.
Figure 1:
Interview protocol #1:
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
26
1. What book are you reading now?
2. What kinds of books catch your attention?
3. How do you choose the books you read?
4. Who is your favorite author?
5. Is reading a challenge for you?
a. Which type of reading is most challenging for you?
b. Which type of reading is least challenging?
6. When you read a book, what strategies do you use?
7. Do these help you understand the book better?
8. What activities in class help you understand books/literature better?
9. How do you feel about reading?
10. Where do you read?
11. How many minutes do you spend reading per week?
12. What kinds of reading do you do out of school?
13. Do your parents read books?
a. What kind?
14. When you were little, what did your parents read to you?
15. Do you own books?
a. What is your most recent book you got at home?
b. Where do you get books if you do not have them at home?
Figure 2:
Case Study Student
Tony Criswell
Motivation Level
 Motivated to read
fantasy books
Achievement Level
 EXCEEDED on 7th grade
AIMS: 100% reading
process; 94% literary
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation


Javier Montez




Mariana Bianchi



Self-identified as a
reader
Read 40 books during
study
Motivated to read
“real” books
Disagreed about liking
to read
Felt neutral about
being a good reader
Read 2 books during
study
Motivated to read
books she can relate
to and books that
have movies
Agreed that she is a
reader
Read 10 books during
study
27





text; 84%
informational text
81st percentile on
Gates McGinitie
MET on 7th grade
AIMS: 83% reading
process; 59% literary
text; 56%
informational text
58th percentile on
Gates McGinitie
APPROACHED on 7th
grade AIMS: 58%
reading process; 35%
literary text; 60%
informational text
6th percentile on
Gates McGinitie
Reader Identities: Identity Formation Through Motivation
28
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