Society & Culture
Continuity & Change
Danielle Mossman
Continuity and change
The key concepts
Continuity: the repetition of patterns of thinking and behavior. It can also refer to social trends
that have occurred over a long period of time. In this chapter it refers to the social norms and
values of a community.
Change: an understanding that values, beliefs, culture and social norms all modify over time.
Values: a system of ideas that can be defined on both and a societal level. These vales apply to
the moral decisions a person makes.
Tradition: An activity or belief maintained in a society over a period time, implying continuity.
Cooperation: working together to achieve a common goal or purpose, could involve persons
and government, could be in regard to continuities and changes (see government and
aboriginal Australians working together to achieve better standard of living)
Social and cultural literacy: You will come across values, customs, beliefs, and behaviors that
may differ from your own but you should recognise and accept the difference without making
judgments.
Globalisation: emergence of a global culture, brought about by a variety of social and cultural
developments such as; the existence of world information systems, emergence of global
patterns on consumerism, the growth of transnational corporations, emergence of global sport,
spread of global military and economic systems.
Westernisation: Form of globalisation in which the practices and values of western countries, in
particular the United States are the basis of the changes that are occurring, this could include
the change towards capitalism or industrialisation of previously agricultural societies, or the
adoption of western food and drink like Coca Cola and McDonalds, or the acceptance of
American film and culture.
Beliefs: widespread and accepted values
Identity: can be personal or national. Are the things that influence a person
Industrialisation: The transition of methods of production to the mass production, utilizing
developing technology, has been responsible for the vastly increased wealth-creating capacity
of modern societies compared with traditional societies.
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Modernisation: Process of social change resulting from the diffusion and adoption of the
characteristics (new technology, education and ways of thinking) of expansive and apparently
more ‘advanced’ societies through apparently less advanced societies. It involves social
mobilisation, the growth of more effective and centralised apparatus of social and political
control and the adoption of new technology and thinking that will allow modern approaches.
Institutions: These are accepted and organised patterns of behavior in a society. It may also be
an organisation or established way of doing things.
Heritage: Refers to the collective past of a country. It may be a physical heritage or cultural
heritage. It has a role it plays in maintaining continuities and can provide a contrast for change
Conflict: This covers disagreements at a variety of levels within society. It may lead to social
change. Think about who is in conflict within your focus country and why that conflict exists.
Empowerment: This term is used to describe groups within a society gaining access to power
structures and being able to assert some control over their destiny.
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Danielle Mossman
The Nature of Social and Cultural Research Methodologies
Examine the nature and characteristics of primary and secondary
research
Primary Research: is conducted by you/the researcher to gain first hand information involves
going to the direct source – usually by the people involved or area under investigation. Involves
people’s interactions, knowledge and understandings e.g. interviews, observation,
questionnaires, surveys, personal reflection and content analysis
Secondary Research: is the collection and interpretation of the work of others, usually used to
supplement primary research – Ex the information in a textbook is secondary information. E.g.
books, newspapers, videos, internet and magazines. Also involves a case study and statistical
analysis
Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research
Quantitative: Research can be measured and compared to a standard; it can be turned into
graphs, tables and diagrams and is usually taken as fact. Example surveys, questionnaires.
Qualitative: Research involves research that investigates subjective information i.e. - opinions
and experiences to understand and evaluate their topic from a range of viewpoints. Example
ethnographic studies, observation, unstructured interviews, focus groups and personal
reflection
Examine the characteristics of the following social and cultural research
methodologies and techniques
Survey: can provide the researcher to reach large range of people Combines observation,
interview and/or a written list of questions about a wide range of issues combination of
closed/open-ended questions (questionnaire), observation, structured interview, and data
recording. Uses representative samples of specific populations, can be done in large numbers.
Study representative sample of specific population
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Advantages: able to reach large number of different people, Large sample=less bias,
Easy to calculate and compare, able to ensure anonymity = more honest answers, Quick
to answer, Provide lots of information, cheap
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Disadvantages: No assurance of honesty, No way if knowing the questions were
understood, Standardised form may restrict people and limited by the questions asked
and the knowledge of the surveyor, little flexibility
Case study: collection of info related to individual/small group. detailed investigation of a
specific social setting or event and people. That is someone else’s experience or story.
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Advantages: range of ways to collect information, relatively inexpensive, background
info for further research and flexibility in use of time
Disadvantages: can be often to general, often time consuming and can often be time
consuming depending on the persons motives
Participant Observation: allows in depth detailed information. Allows a researcher to gain a
realistic view of what they are researching. This type of research is helpful in ethnographic
study. It offers the researcher the opportunity to participate and gives opportunity to ask
questions. The participant may be self conscious however, qualitative data, subjective. The
participant must consider ethical implications: participant-as-observer method operates within
awareness of other participants
- Advantages: primary information and gives firsthand experience of topic researching,
involves personal reflection and more reliable data, behavior in action
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Disadvantages: participants my object to be watched or may change their behavior,
influenced and possible limited by the researches interpretation of events
Content Analysis: is useful in analyzing a range of written and visual material, It involves the
systematic analysis and interpretation of data, media, TV, movies, advertisements, books
journals, websites, collected with the researcher establishing a range of categories. It may
target language (written text) or visual stimulus (pictures).
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Advantages: Provides date to supplement research and provide background info, can be
used on a wide range of media and comprise of macro world opinion on the topic, may
provide qualified or non qualified data on the topic, provides insight in to alternative
interpretations of questions, involves personal reflections of material
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Disadvantages: difficult to design and limited by the researchers interpretation of
events, May be biased, not current and time consuming.
Action research: all participants are researchers. Action research is informal, collaborative,
interpretive, qualitative, reflective, and experimental. Group recognizes a shared problem;
devises, implements, evaluates a plan to counteract it. It the cycle of planning, acting,
observing, reflecting until desirable outcome is reached for everyone. Unfortunately, requires
time and resources beyond most students
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Advantages: detailed info available, researcher is involved and practical application of
research
Disadvantages: time consuming, difficult to reach conclusions and results may be
confusing as often more than one researcher involved
Focus Group: can be used to discuss a particular topic. It is sometimes difficult to select the
right participants. 3-8 people assembled for in-depth discussion on a specific topic/issue
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Advantages: Techniques similar for conducting in-depth interview. Must manage
participants, direct discussion, involve everyone, and maintain flexibility to pursue ideas
as they arise, not stray, tape recorder essential. Aims to understand opinions – used to
complement quantitative results eg. Determining the general electorate opinion before
a poll
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Disadvantages: hard to organize, cost, time and may lead to group conflict effecting
outcome
Interview: the process of investigating a topic by questioning informed or involved persons for
their expertise and or opinion on the topic. Good way to collect qualitative information, Can be
tightly structured to conversational, requires a prior knowledge and interpretation of the topic
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Advantage: It allows a greater flexibility with questions and information can bring
unexpected points, people talk more than they write, Additional info is easily asked for,
good supplement to the questionnaire, can be done over the internet, allowing the
interviewee time to think and answer questions at leisure
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Disadvantages: can be time consuming, participate unwilling to cooperate, questions
can limit the material gained, hard to compare between responders, no anonymity and
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difficult to repeat – some research ethics also need to be adhered to (like quoting
people)
Questionnaire: collection of questions related to the topic which can be administered to many
people, ensures confidentiality and comparable analysis
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Advantages: can be given to people outside to researcher’s immediate connections,
provides both qualitative and qualitative data, quick analysis of information
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Disadvantages: questions can be confusing or misinterpreted, people may not hand
them in, little flexibility of information
Observation: requires the researcher to have a complete detachment from what is being
observed. The main disadvantage is that the researcher can only interpret the event within the
framework of his or her cultural experience. It may not be as realistic. It gives the freedom of
the researcher however to observe what they’d like. Bias from these assumptions of
conclusions could reduce the reliability of these findings.
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Advantages: Can be used as background info for other research. Major inquiry method
used for research reflection
Disadvantages: Involvement can impact on participants behavior, interpretation based
on your values
Ethnographic study: systematic direct observation of everyday life of particular group.
Interactive researcher immersed in a different culture so they can gain understanding of
customs, beliefs, attitudes – reflected in lifestyle
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Advantages: In depth info tool for further research, Local people involved so
information is more accurate
Disadvantages: Cultural bias, Cost, Time and Language barriers
Statistical analysis: Used by researchers to show in mathematical form how many people fit into
certain categories. Quantitative, can be used simply in graphic form from a large number of
responses. Interpret meaning, make generalisations, and extrapolate trends
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Advantages: Easy to present large amounts of info, provides background info for further
research. Provides answers to research questions
Disadvantages: Tables can be difficult to understand, stats not always accurate and stats
may be biased
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Nature of Continuity and Change
Identify the Nature of Social and Cultural Continuity and Change
Social and cultural change consists of any modification in to the organisation of a society
brought about by changes to social structures and processes.
-- Change: is the alteration in patterns of culture, social structures and behaviors over
time. It can affect/be represented through many factors like the environmental, cultural
and social, technological, economic, political, spiritual and the personal aspects of our
lives.
-- Continuity: refers to those social and cultural factors that are retained and unchanged
within a society, creating stability and longevity of the culture.
One factor that can contribute to social and cultural change is technology, the knowledge and
tools used to manipulate an environment, is often seen as inevitable. This can often accelerate
social change such as the discovery and development of the contraceptive pill contributed to
the trend towards sexual permissiveness. The change in sexual permissiveness has also had a
negative impact on some groups in society, as it could be tied to sexually transmitted diseases,
as female persons weren’t scared of becoming pregnant; this decreased the likelihood of using
condoms- a protective barrier from STD’s. The contraceptive pill also allowed women to take
control of their fertility in a much more effective way; which permitted them to choose when
they wanted to have children, which allowed them to lead their own careers, thus take on far
more responsible roles in the working life of society.
Social continuity cannot simply be defined as the absence of social change, that is, things
remaining the same, because social change is a continual process in all societies. Nothing
"remains the same". However, within societies there are structures which are inherently
resistant to change. Individuals within societies need social continuities to a lesser or greater
extent, depending on significant factors like age, gender, education, access to power, wealth,
vested interest, etc. Even "rock-solid" institutions like the family, the law, and religions are
subject to change, even though they represent social continuity. There has always been 'family'
and it is still the foundational institution for society and the primary agent of socialisation,
however the composition of 'family' has changed in recent years, leading to different kinds of
families and different socialisation experiences for their members.
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Technology has a central role in all cultures in all societies. In modern, Westernized societies
such as Australia, there is a vision (perpetuated by the marketing ploys of influential social
institutions such as transnational corporations) that the right technological device or
application can fix any problem. Technology has been fully enculturated into Australian society;
both males and females readily utilize it.
Examining the impact of continuity and change upon the lives of people
in the micro and macro worlds
-- Micro world: Change in the micro world is effected by all these factors as my experiences and
socialization your world of family, peers and school work. The world you know through
personal experience. Can be based on both the past and present personal culture. It occurs as
result of macro world change i.e. laws, technology, fashion but also result of age as time goes
by, you will respond and interpret the micro and macro words differently as you yourself
changes
Micro world (change): a change in physical and the role of personal experience has been
influenced by public knowledge. (Society, media).
Micro world (continuity): ANZAC day, school, Family
-- Macro world: continuities are usually referred to as traditions, many cases it may be a
generalisation but they are recognised as an aspect of life that has continued across
generations and include values, beliefs and customs.
Things like Technology have impact the way I access media and consume popular culture.
Television, the internet, the radio, newspapers and magazines have all affected the way I see
the world and my place in it. The emergence of a global culture means that Australia is less
isolated and has increased the influence of the US and Europe, which on the micro world level
means changes in culture Ex; the Celebration of Halloween.
Micro world (continuity): continuity in identity, personality, family heritage and traditions.
Macro world (change): technology has made things easier compared back in the 70’s and 80’s
these days there has been a change in more terrism around the world, less personal safety.
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Danielle Mossman
Distinguish between public and personal knowledge
Personal experience refers to those experiences you have as you grow and develop as a human
being. That personal experience is unique to you as an individual, and can be referred as
knowledge gained from things you have actually done. To properly use personal experience,
one must engage in personal reflection. This requires you to think about who you are, what you
do and why you are living, that nature of the culture you are experiencing and the specific
environment you experience.
Public knowledge refers to the collection of knowledge assembled through research and
analysis of a wide range of personal experiences. It includes knowledge found in books, lectures
and documentaries and using computer technology. Public knowledge is knowledge you have
learned from consulting sources.
Examining the role of power and authority in social and cultural
continuity and change
Power is to influence others to a point of view or action to which they would not normally
allow. (force or control over individuals)
Authority involves the right to determine or settle issues and disputes in society.
Governments can have the power to introduce and manage change from the authority from the
people. For example, the Whitlam Government win was the first labour win since 1949 and this
change gave them the authority to introduce a program of change (Its time to Change”) that
was a break from the 20 years of conservative government.
Introduced theories of social change and evaluate their role in
explaining continuities and changes in society
Theories of social change have been developed to help explain why changes have occurred in
the world.
There are three theories of social are Socio-cultural evolutionary theory, Conflict theory and
Functionalist theory.
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-- Conflict theory. (Karl Marx and Engels, Weber)
The Conflict theory is based on the idea that change in society is usually due to inequalities.
These inequalities seem to cause conflicts within the dominant group who are in charge of
maintaining values and norms through their economic and social power. Karl Marx, the main
originator of this theory believed that this ensured that they retain prestige and power. The
basic idea of this theory is that change occurs when the people with no or very little power
challenge the people that do have power and as the conflict occurs, so does social change.
-- Functionalist theory (Talcott Parsons, Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton)
are based on the idea that social change isn’t a cycle, or pattern; rather it is a “gradual and
infrequent” system as the cultural norms and values of a society change at a slow & gradual
rate. Functionalists believe that social change occurs as a result of factors such as; Population
growth, Changes in technology, Inequalities among classes and status groups and The efforts by
different groups to meet their needs in a world of scarce resources.
Functionalist theorist, Talcott Parsons explains, “Social behaviour is structured insofar as it
conforms to norms, ranging from general ideas of right and wrong (values) to specific rules of
behaviour in specific situations.
Functionalism also assumes that “as societies develop they become increasingly complex and
interdependent” as well as that forces outside the society influence changes in the society,
meaning that social change is unpredictable. Rather than emphasising social change, this theory
emphasises social order and systemisation. It also considers social conflict unhealthy and an
abnormal social characteristic, as society is likened to a machine; if there is conflict it means
that an aspect of society has become out of synch with the others and this has created the
problem.
-- Evolutionary theory
Darwin’s theory of biological evolution in the 19th century was also used to interpret and
develop concepts of social change. According to the evolutionary theory, the process of social
change was natural and constant and over time. This explained that all societies began as small
and simple scales to increasingly large and “complex” scales. This change was considered
necessary and was due to uniform causes. Social evolutionists made two important
assumptions that argued all change represents progress and that all societies will eventually
represent those of western societies in their cultural values, ideologies and institutions. This
represented a very ethnocentric view of change and explained how the terms gemeinschaft and
gesellschaft was adopted. Ferdinand Tonnies adopted these terms to differentiate between
pre-industrial (traditional and simple) societies and the new industrial (complex) societies.
Gemeinschaft societies where ones in which social life was governed by personal, informal
considerations, with traditions and customs prevailing while gesellschaft were those societies
characterised by specialisation, individualism, rationality and impersonality. This theory goes
some way to explain the rapid changes that have occurred following industrialisation and
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globalisation of the world economy. However, it also suggests that these developments are
both inevitable and desirable since it links the process of modernisation in a positive way with
western notions of “progress” and “individual liberation”.
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Explore Continuity and Change through these questions
Is change necessarily progress
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Progress implies movement to a higher level and socially, notes improvement in people’s lives.
The subjective nature of ‘progress’ means ‘progress’ to one person is exploitation to another
and is dependent on their involvement in the process
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Yes whether it is bad or good it is needed
- Sometimes sudden change like war, can stimulate economic growth in the long term
which leads to higher standards of living in the country as well as after the war is over
- Change can improve work and educational outcomes when more opportunities are
created
- Change from outside a traditional society can also motivate gemeinschaft communities
to maintain their culture
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No it is not progress in every situation
- Changes can bring about social and environmental devastation E.G. war ravaging the
environment and disrupting social, family and political living
- Sudden change brought about by the death of a significant person can lead to chaos
- Change that requires abandonment of traditions is not always beneficial E.G. loss of
spirituality and traditional skills
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Which groups benefit from change? Which do not?
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There are many groups that benefit from change these include
- The wealthy: they have the financial means to absorb the cost of change
- The young: sometimes they can handle change better than the elderly
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But there are just as many people and groups that don’t benefit from change
- The poor: sometimes cannot afford change in the economic cycle
- The elderly: change can affect the elderly as they are not as satiable to change as most
other people
- Minority groups: tends to benefit majority instead
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Danielle Mossman
Are Westernisation, Modernisation, Globalisation and industrialisation
inevitable?
-- Modernisation: a process of social change resulting from diffusion and adoption of
characteristics of more modern societies by societies said to be less advanced
-- Westernisation: the process of countries adopting the practices and values of western
countries, especially USA E.G. fast food, TV, music etc
-- Industrialisation: the process of moving from a society based on agriculture to a
society based on industry as the main means of production.
The macro world reflects a move towards these three processes (westernization,
industrialization and modernization) in the system of organisation called globalisation.
Globalisation, at its most basic, means the long-term, secular trend towards ever-greater
interpenetration and interdependence of the world's economies which is subject to
homogeneous and uniform processes of cultural unification. And this is indeed inevitable.
Over the centuries, as production processes have developed and grown more sophisticated,
their linkages have increased. For example McDonalds is an internationally recognizable and
accessible popular culture whose corporate logo of the golden arches is a symbol which
manifests the extent of its global influence. Therefore as a result of the four powerful processes
working in conjunction with each other it may seem presumably inevitable that societies and
cultures will not be able to resist the change and maintain a unique identity.
Some countries, however, are economically and culturally strong enough to maintain their
independence from globalisation. For example Cuba is still an independent country despite its
proximity to the US. There are also strong movements to preserve local traditions for example;
in Italy the “pasta police” check the quality of past and local produce. France has banned the
worldwide use of the word “champagne”.
Nevertheless the inevitably of westernization, modernization and industrialization occurring
increases significantly when considering the power, the control and the freedom of maneuvers
of the transnational corporation. While the volume of international trade trebled between 1982
and 1999, the sales of TNCs' foreign affiliates increased six fold. Forty-nine of the 100
wealthiest and most powerful institutions are now corporations rather than governments and
they control 70% of the macro world's trade and 80% of the macro world's foreign investment.
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Social and Cultural Continuity and Change in a Selected Country
Through the selection of a country for detailed study, students will:
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apply the fundamental course concepts to that country
examine the nature of traditional society and culture in that country
evaluate the nature of power and authority in that country
apply one theory of social change appropriate to the selected country
make a detailed study of ONE of the following features that demonstrates both
continuity and change in the selected country:
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education
beliefs, values and lifestyles
social welfare and health
gender roles and the status of women and men
laws and the legal system
government institutions
family life and population changes
develop hypotheses for thinking about the future of the selected country, using
techniques, such as:
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simulation games
feasibility studies
scenario writing
analysing trends and making projections into the near future (forecasting).
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