Medieval Europe
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The Middle Ages was a period of (roughly) 1000 years of life in Europe.
It was not called the Middle Ages during this time, but was given this named during the
Renaissance. Historians and scholars during this period were big fans of Antiquity –
ancient Greece and Rome. They called the period of history between this ancient time
and their own time the Middle Ages.
The Middle Ages encompass a very long period of history – over 1000 years.
o Fall of Rome in 476 C.E.
The discovery of America by Christopher Columbus
in 1492.
o B.C.E = B.C, C.E. = A.D.
TIMELINE
450 – 800: The fall of Rome and the beginning of the Dark Ages. Dark Ages
o People moved back to living simpler lives and smaller communities.
o Huge migrations
o Charles Magnus ‘Charlemagne’
800 – 1100: The Middle Ages get going and Europe begins to form.
o Islamic conquests of Spain
o Viking raids
o William the Conqueror
1100 – 1200: The Crusades sweep through Europe and the Middle East.
o Pope Urban II calls for a crusade
1200 – 1400: The ‘High Middle Ages’ (conflict between England and France)
o Fight for the papacy
o Black Death
1400 – 1492: The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the Renaissance.
o End of the war between England and France
o Byzantine Empire (what was left of Rome) is destroyed by the Turks
o Christopher Columbus discovers the New World.
LOCATING THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
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The countries on the map look very familiar, but they are not the same as the modern day
countries. People who lived in different parts of the region did not think of themselves as
French, German or Spanish. They identified themselves in a more localized way. For
example, a man from Florence might identify himself as a Florentine and not Italian.
People moved around a lot. Whole regions would move geographical location because of
war, disease or famine. Tracing lineage is extremely difficult because of all the migration.
LANGUAGE
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There were many languages represented on the continent of Europe. The majority of
people were illiterate, so most languages were only spoken. If you could read and write,
you were probably part of the privileged class in society. Many of the privileged
The major written language was Latin – the language of the Roman Empire and the
church.
ROME- THE DEATH OF THE EMPIRE
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Emperor Constantine (306 C.E -337 C.E.) moves capital from Rome to Constantinople
(Istanbul). Empire is formally divided in two in 395 C.E.
376 C.E – Visigoths are pushed into Western Roman
Empire by the Huns and eventually find their way to
Rome. Alaric spends a decade rampaging around
Western Empire. The Emperor is too weak and broke to
stop the Visigoths. The city of Rome is invaded in 410
C.E for the first time in 800 years!
Barbarians
In 376, the Goths, long-standing traders with and mercenaries for the Roman Empire, who were
settled in large numbers on the north bank of the Danube, came under aggressive attack from
the Huns. Their leader came to an agreement with the Emperor Valens that they would be
given lands and allowed to settle on the Mediterranean side of the Danube; however, there
was a famine, the emperor reneged on his promise and the Goths attacked, killing the emperor
at the Battle of Adrianople in 378 and decimating the Roman field army. The Goths were inside
the empire to stay, soon becoming known as the Visigoths (originally a tribal name, which
became identified as meaning 'Western Goths').
From then on, they alternately made peace with various Roman emperors and generals and
were double-crossed by them. Eventually they sacked Rome under Alaric in 410. They were
asked by Honorius to help drive the Vandals out of Spain, and settled in the Aquitaine in 418,
the nucleus of what would become, by 475, an independent Visigothic kingdom covering most
of the Iberian peninsula.
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Western Europe falls under the influence of the Visigoths (Gaul), Vandals (Spain), and
Christian Church. Local leadership replaced the influence of the emperor far away.
Regional leaders had more influence and could do more to influence the people than
the disintegrating Roman Emperor.
Map of middle ages
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Huns (Atilla: 410 C.E. – 453 C.E.)
o Fierce and fast fighters
o Honoria – Betrays emperor Valentinian III and asks Atilla to marry her.
Valentinian makes pact with Visigoths and defeats Atilla. Atilla comes back (452
C.E.) and attacks northern Italy. Residents flee to Venetian Lagoon eventually
forming city of Venice.
o Atilla dies at the age of 47 (murdered, haemorrhage, battle wound?)
The Huns
It was the Huns who precipitated the Great Migrations into the Western Roman Empire in the
form they took in the late fourth and fifth centuries. They were a confederation of Central Asian
tribes, who came to spread out across a large area of Eurasia. They hover on the edges of our
story, because although they established control over a large area of Eastern Europe under
Attila’s rule (434-453), they never settled in large numbers within the Roman Empire itself: they
preferred to raid it and leave its government to others. Instead, they pushed first the Goths,
and then other Germanic peoples, to invade the Roman Empire to escape from them.
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Romulus Augustulus – last emperor of Western Roman Empire. Western Empire ends in
476 C.E.
BYZANTIUM
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Western Empire falls apart but the Eastern Empire thrives.
Byzantine Empire gets its name from the older port of Byzantium where the new capital
city of Constantinople was established
Eastern Empire different than the Western Empire:
o Greek culture rather than Roman culture
o Eastern Pope answers to the emperor (Not that way in the West)
o More religious debate than in the West. In the West, the pope told people what
to believe and what was acceptable.
Byzantine Emperor was the closest person to God – no one higher. Emperors lived a life
of total luxury and ceremony.
Empire lasts until 1453 C.E. when Constantinople is taken by the Ottoman Turks. (977
years longer than the Western Empire!) The siege of Constantinople, the capital of the
Byzantine Empire and one of the most heavily fortified cities in the world. Sultan
Mehmed II, ruler of the Ottoman Turks, led the assault. The city was defended by, at
most, 10,000 men. The Turks had between 100,000 and 150,000 men on their side. The
siege lasted for fifty days. The Turks employed various important war tactics in taking
over the city. They used huge cannon to destroy the walls, warships were used to the
cut the city's sea defense. They also used an extensive infantry to engulf the city.
WHAT’S GOING ON WITH ENGLAND?
In 410 C.E, Rome pulled out of Britain. The population was left to defend themselves.
 Britain broke up into smaller kingdoms, and soon a new threat appeared from across
the sea – the Saxons and the Angles
o Saxons and Angles (Anglo-Saxons) – Germanic tribes from Northern Germany.
 Some Saxons were hired by the nobility in Britain to protect them from the Picts to the
north. Some Saxons entered Southern Britain uninvited
 British nobility failed to pay the hired mercenaries and the Saxons rebelled. They were
joined by the Angles (the people of England didn’t make a distinction between them)
and local wars resulted.
 The Britons won initial battles, but the Anglo-Saxons eventually controlled England by
the late 6th century.
 In the ninth century, all the kingdoms of Britain were united under one king – Edgar I
(Edgar ‘The Peaceful’)
 In 1066, William the Conqueror brought an end to Anglo-Saxon rule in England (more
later!)
Resistance is Feudal
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The greatest impact of the Anglo-Saxons on England was the system of government –
the feudal system. (Loyalty and service for privilege or land)
Anglo-Saxons had their own laws.
o Kings made the laws and were posted for all to see.
o Accused was tried in the Assembly of Freemen. Had to state an oath that you
were innocent and had to get others to take an oath that you were innocent.
(May not convince the assembly)
o If found guilty – fines were levied
o Can’t pay the fine? – Trial by ordeal
 Tied up and thrown into a pool of water. If you sank – innocent!
 Carry a red-hot piece of iron for a specific distance. If you succeed –
innocent!
 Put your hand in boiling water and lift out a heavy stone. If your hand
heals correctly – innocent!
Charlemagne and the New Roman Empire
The leading Frankish family, the Carolingians, dominated what is
now modern-day Germany in the seventh century. By the middle
of the eighth century, the Carolingians reunited Europe for the first
time since the Roman Empire.
Much of that accomplishment was due to one man – Charles the
Great (742 C.E. – 814 C.E.) or Charlemagne as he would become
known. He became sole ruler of the Franks at the age of 29.
Soon after he assumed the throne, he went to war with the
Lombards in northern Italy at the encouragement of the Pope (Hadrian I). He also went to war
with Muslims in Spain and the Saxons to the north. Throughout his life, Charles was almost
constantly at war – winning territory, expanding his kingdom and defending it.
Charlemagne was successful at war.
 His sons (Pippin and Louis) were trusted rulers and followed their father’s orders
without question.
 Charles had an elite bodyguard (Scara) that used horses. Charles used horses to
his advantage in battle. Most of his enemies were slow infantry.
 Charles used diplomacy when he could and only resorted to war when all else
failed.
 He was also very popular with the Pope.
Charles becomes Charlemagne
In 799, Pope Leo found himself in trouble. He’d become so unpopular among the Roman
nobles that they tried to kidnap him with the intention of putting out his eyes and
cutting out his tongue. Leo ran to Charles for protection (in modern-day Germany).
Charles marched into Rome and forced the Romans to accept Leo as Pope.
On Christmas day in 800 C.E., Charles was attending mass and Leo approached him
while he was praying and placed a crown on his head, calling him Imperator Romanorum
– emperor of the Romans. After his coronation he became known as Charlemagne.
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Charles was not the same type of emperor that had ruled Rome hundreds of
years earlier. He did not have the same God-like status and billionaire
lifestyle of the original emperors. He did feel he had been given permission
by God’s representative on earth to rule over all his territory.
His rule included a strong alliance with the Church, which made it very
different than the original emperors.
The Holy Roman Empire came into being
with Charlemagne and lasted for more
than 1000 years. The last emperor Francis
II abdicated in 1806.
The Holy Roman Empire changed size
over the years, but at its largest it
included modern-day Germany, Austria,
the Czech Republic, Switzerland and
Liechtenstein, the Netherlands, Belgium,
Luxembourg, and Slovenia, northern Italy,
and western Poland.
Why the Holy Roman Empire?
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Holy: The pope gave Charlemagne his title; therefore it
came directly from God. Charlemagne was also the
protector of the pope (God’s general)
Roman: Charlemagne had been crowned in Rome, and
all the territory he controlled once belonged to the old
Roman Empire.
Empire: Charlemagne’s territory included many
kingdoms (international) – thus, an empire.
Pope Leo III set a huge precedent by making Charlemagne
emperor.
 The person holding the title King of the Franks and the
protector of the pope should be called emperor.
 The title of emperor was given by the pope. Emperors did not make themselves – they
were made by the Church. This caused conflict between would-be emperors and the
Church throughout the Middle Ages.
Achievements of Charlemagne
Charlemagne was responsible for two important changes to the lives of Europeans.
 Economic changes: Most towns had their own currency. This made trade very difficult
because the value of money varied from region to region. Charlemagne’s solution was a
brand new currency – the Carolingian Pound. The new currency was minted from silver.
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The new coinage became international across Europe. (The first real attempt at the
Euro!)
Education: Charlemagne encouraged the study of astronomy, mathematics, and
theology. He encouraged his family to be educated, and Aachen became a gathering
place for writers, artists and intellectuals who wanted a place to work.
As he added territory to his empire, he ensured that monasteries were set up to
educate the poor and copy classical texts.
Charlemagne died on January 28th, 814, at the age of 61 (not bad for this time) and left his
empire to his only remaining son, Louis.
Legacy of Charlemagne
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Beginnings of France and Germany: Charlemagne expanded his empire to include the
lands now thought of as France and Germany. Ruled by two of his sons, these areas
became two separate kingdoms that became medieval France and Germany.
Charlemagne gave a common identity to people all over his kingdom. They developed a
‘national’ identity.
Christianity spread during his reign, expanding the influence of the Catholic Church even
further.
Invading From the North: The Vikings
Between 800-1500, Europe faced a new and dangerous threat in the Vikings. They were fierce
warriors from the north of Europe that raided and plundered their way around the coastline
before moving inland to raid towns and cities.
The Vikings had a massive and lasting impact on Western Europe, such as the creation of the
state of Normandy and William the Conqueror.
Vikings were ‘men from the north’ or Norsemen. They were nomadic warriors from Scandinavia
(Denmark, Norway and Sweden). They were incredible pirates and traders and dominated more
than 150 years of medieval history.
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Viking first appears in Old Norse (language of Vikings) – vikingr. (one
who travels overseas)
Age of Vikings
o 800 (coronation of Charlemagne)
1066 (the Norman
conquest of England by William the Conqueror)
The first recorded Viking raids were in Angle-Saxon
England. They raided monasteries because they
had all the wealth. Targets close to the coasts were
easily accessible. The raiders completely destroyed
their targets because they didn’t intend to return
and wanted to take as much property and one trip
would allow.
Viking raids were widespread, but they weren’t
random attacks by unorganized barbarians. They were successful traders before becoming
raiders and knew the trade routes and areas popular with merchants. Merchants changed trade
routes to avoid the Vikings, but the Vikings changed tactics to stay one step ahead.
Drakkar
The drakkar (dragon) was the traditional Viking
longship. The boats had very long and narrow hulls
that enabled them to enter shallow water and easily
land on shore for attacks. They were large and carried
up to 100 men.
The ships could be rowed or sailed, and allowed the
Vikings to travel long distances. Evidence suggests
that they made their way to Newfoundland on the coast of North America and even to
Constantinople. (Byzantine emperor Basil II hired 6,000 Vikings mercenaries to form the core of
what eventually became known as the Varangian Guard) The sail was designed to allow the
raiders to sail against the wind. Comfort was not a big concern for the Vikings on long trips.
Food was mostly dried fish, and they stayed warm by staying close together. The boats had no
cover and were exposed to the elements.
The Vikings led relatively simple lives.
The goods that they took in raids were
often used to trade. New Viking
settlements became busy medieval
trading centers.
Vikings made the slave trade very
profitable. Slaves taken by the Vikings
from northern England were sold in the
Middle East.
Vikings would have been excellent at
organized crime. Just like the Mafia,
Vikings charged for “protection” from attack. If the tribute was not paid, attacks could results.
Viking Life
Vikings
Viking society was set up much like the rest of Medieval Europe. A king ruled over all the other
people, who were divided into three distinct social groups:
1. Jarls were members of the aristocracy. Like earls in other medieval societies, jarls
owned a lot of land and were the only people other than the king permitted to have an
armed force or hind.
2. Karls were land-owning farmers and the majority of people in Viking communities. The
more wealth and connections to the nobility, the more influence you had.
3. Thralls, or slaves, were the lowest class. They worked as unpaid laborers for the karls.
Slaves were big business for the Vikings, and since they were pagan (non-Christian) they
didn’t care what the Church thought about the practice. Thralls had absolutely no rights,
and were treated like cattle by their masters. Many thralls were taken from other lands.
If you were poor and homeless, you might also end up as a thrall. Release from slavery
was very rare.
Religion
Vikings were pagans, and created a folk-religion – one that isn’t centrally organized. Vikings had
very different beliefs and worshipped in their own ways instead of through the direction of
religious leaders (like the Catholic Church).
Norse mythology was the basis of their beliefs. The stories told by the Vikings were full of gods,
heroes and legends. The most important part of this mythology is that it valued the role of
warrior and placed a huge emphasis on bravery and success in war.
According to Norse belief, a deceased person could go to three possible destinations:
1. Valhalla: Valhalla was the destination for the great heroes who died in battle or in a
heroic way. (Hall of the chosen ones)
2. Hel: Hel (covered hall) was the middle ground for people who had not done anything
great or bad. You could be reunited with loved ones there, but it was not as nice as
Valhalla.
3. Nifhel: You did not want to go here. Nifhel was the ‘dark hall’ that was reserved for
Vikings who had broken oaths or lived lives that did not live up to Viking ideals.
The Sayings of Odin (King of the Norse gods)
Be a friend to your friend; match gift with gift. Meet smiles with smiles, and lies with
dissimulation…Generous and brave men get the best out of life; they seldom bring
harassments on themselves. But a coward fears everything, and a miser groans at a gift.
Viking Warfare
Viking warfare changed very little over the years. Any “free” Viking was required to own
weapons. The better the weapons were owned by those with higher social status.
Axes are the weapons for which the Vikings are most
famous. Battle axes were true weapons with long handles
and large axe heads measuring up to 20 inches. Axes were
not that effective in close combat because it was hard to
maneuver in tight quarters.
Swords were the most expensive weapon that the Vikings
used, so owning a nice sword was a status symbol.
Typically only around 30 inches long, Viking swords were
quite short. The sword was much more useful in battle
and in tight spaces.
Knives were quite large weapons, almost the size of
small swords. They were usually used in battle as a
secondary weapon.
Vikings protected themselves with shields made of wood and
they wore armor made of thick leather. Like with all medieval
warriors, the quality of the weapons and armor depended on
how wealthy you were and your status in society.
Viking Myths
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Horned Helmets
Lack of Hygiene
Skull cups
The Blood Eagle
The Age of the Vikings
Most historians agree that the age of the Vikings lasted to about the middle of the eleventh
century (1066 C.E.). The Vikings didn’t go away, they just ceased to be such a large threat to the
surrounding societies.
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Part of the reason that the Vikings became less of a threat was that they had effectively
integrated themselves into other societies, living peaceful lives in places like France and
Russia.
Religion also played a role in the decline of the Vikings. With the spread of Christianity
into Scandinavia, many Vikings developed a passion for the religion. As a result, the old
pagan religion became less popular. Leaders of the Vikings force the conversion of
members of the society. If the king converted, so did you!
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o Olaf Haralddson, the king of Norway from 1015-1028, force the conversion of his
kingdom the same way he punished his enemies. The “persuasive” tactics
worked, and after his death he was made a saint by the Catholic Church.
The spread of Christianity also stopped the Viking slave trade. In the twelfth century the
Church banned slavery in all Christian countries.
Raiding became more difficult because medieval kingdoms became more settled and
organized and were better able to defend themselves. If raiding isn’t profitable, it
doesn’t pay to keep it going. When the Vikings joined the crusades in the 1200’s and
began to create medieval trading guilds, the Viking age came to an official end.
Impact of the Vikings
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The Vikings that settled into Northern France founded the Norman civilization. The
Normans helped William of Normandy (William the Conqueror) to invade England in
1066 C.E.
The Vikings settled all over the known world – from Newfoundland to Kiev. They
integrated their ways into other societies. Scientist have looked at the DNA of from
around the world and found large groups of descendents in America and Europe.
Normandy
When most people think of Normandy, they think
of the area in France famous for the D-Day invasion
during WWII.
In the early 900’s, a group of Vikings found their way down the Seine river in
northwestern France.
The Franks along the river were not happy about the new visitors because of the
reputation they had. They usually took what they wanted and sold Christians into
slavery.
However, the Vikings coming here had different goals in mind. The Viking leader, King
Rollo, met with the Frankish King Charles in 911 C.E. Charles wanted to come to an
arrangement with King Rollo because he was very worried about what would happen if
he failed to come to an agreement. He offered Rollo his daughter as a wife and gave him
a large portion of land in northern France (modern day Normandy). In exchange, Rollo
agreed not to attack or cause trouble and convert to Christianity. Rollo agreed.
The Vikings that settled in Normandy were a small group of Scandinavians. They needed
more people to come for the community to grow. They absorbed many of the native
people and more Vikings came to the new community.
After King Rollo died in 932 C.E., his son, William Longsword became the ruler.
Longsword became more Frankish as he developed his own currency and became more
involved in the politics of the region. He conducted raids into neighboring kingdoms and
tried to expand his territory using the old Viking strategies. It didn’t go over well, and he
was assassinated in 942 by the Count of Flanders. After his assassination, things began
to calm down, and rulers that came after became less “Viking” and more like their
European neighbors.
Things didn’t stay calm for long. When Duke Richard II died, his oldest son, Richard,
took the throne. His brother, Robert, took it away after 10 months. The brothers fought
each other for control and Robert eventually became ruler after Richard died. (He was
most likely poisoned.)
Robert had trouble as a ruler because of the way he took power
from his brother. He had to make deals as a ruler and was not very
effective as king. He decided to go on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem to
find spiritual guidance. In 1035, in the city of Nicaea, he died on his
way back from Jerusalem. (Some sources say that he was
poisoned.)
Robert didn’t have a legitimate heir to the throne, so he named
his son William as his heir before he died. William was his
illegitimate seven-year-old son. There is not a lot of information
about his mother. She had not married William, but relationships
between nobility and women from more common class were not
out of the ordinary. Because William was seven, and the
illegitimate son of the king, his life was in danger.
William had support from Barons that were loyal to the old king
and they protected the young king. That came in handy because
William was under constant threat of revolt. Eventually the king grew older and through
a marriage and strong relationships with nobles in the south, William stopped worrying
about threats to his kingdom and began to look to the north, across the channel
towards England.
Move Or Die!
Medieval rulers had a strategy to remain in power. If you didn’t stay on the move and
increase your territory, you were seen as weak and vulnerable. If you were a threat, you
commanded respect. William was in a great position in 1065. He was young (30) and
had one on the best armies in Europe. The fierce Viking traditions were still alive in his
army, and they were feared by most of Europe.
Looking towards England
William had his eye on England for a reason. He believed he had a right to rule England.
His great-aunt Emma had been the wife of the English king Ethelred. Their son Edward,
who had grown up in Normandy, inherited the throne in 1042. Edward didn’t have a
fond affection for his country, even though he was king. He liked living with cousin
William. Edward fell ill in 1064 and named William heir to the throne on England.
Unfortunately, two others also claimed to be the heir to the throne. When Edward died
in 1066, Harold Godwinson was crowned as the new king of England. Then things went
really sour.
Across the Channel to England
William was furious. He contacted the Pope, who gave him
his support and a papal banner to take with him in battle. He
gathered a large force of 7,000 of his own men, mercenaries,
allies and a number of foreign knights. He also put together a
fleet of 600 ships to carry them across the channel.
Harold made a tragic mistake that proved lucky for William. He had to go north to fight a
Viking king that had also been promised the throne of England. While Harold was up
north, William crossed the channel and landed in Hastings. He quickly built a wooden
castle as a base of operations and moved his forces ten miles north (town of Battle)
where he met the forces of King Harold who had returned after his victory of the
Vikings.
The Battle in Battle
The armies of Harold and William met on the 14th of October six miles north of Hastings.
William had 8,500 troops, and Harold had 7,500. However, the Normans had two big
advantages:
1. William’s army was faster and more mobile. He had 2,200 cavalry troops and
moved much faster than Harold who had all of his troops on foot.
2. William’s army was in much better condition. Harold’s army had just fought a
huge battle in York and had to march back south. They were exhausted!
The battle lasted several hours, with William’s cavalry breaking apart the English lines and his
archers finishing off the English. King Harold took one of the arrows in the eye and died on the
field. William I of Normandy became the next king of England. 5,000 English and 3,000 Normans
were killed.
Much of what is known about known about the battle
comes from the Bayeux Tapestry in France. The
embroidery is 266 feet long! (Almost a football field.) It
shows in detail the events of the battle.
After William’s coronation at Westminster Abby in London, William
began the work of changing England
into a Norman state.
The first thing the new king did was
to begin construction on new castles
all over England. The most
impressive was the Tower of London
in 1078. The castle is the current
location of the Crown Jewels
belonging to the royal family in England.
Changes came
quickly. French became the language of choice
for the new nobles and stayed that way for the
next 300 years.
The old Anglo-Saxon nobility was virtually
eliminated. Their land was taken by the Normans,
as well as all important positions in the new kingdom. Within a few years, the majority of land
was in control of the new Norman aristocracy.
William also changed English law and brought in Norman law to replace it. The Anglo-Saxon
feudal system was changed, and most of the kingdom was brought under central control. To
help with this task, William ordered the Domesday Book. The book, which took a year to
compile, was an accounting of all the wealth in the kingdom. The information allowed William
to know what taxes were due to him and wealth from Crown lands (areas owned by the king).
The book was a huge success for William and gave him the financial freedom to build castles
and employ more knights for more control.
Castles Everywhere
Castles were an important invention in the Middle Ages. If you wanted to protect and defend
your territory, a secure position to live and work was a must!
The word castle comes from the Latin word castellum, meaning a fortified place. Castles were
both offensive and defensive. You could secure yourself from attack, or launch an attack from
your castle.
Castles were also living and working spaces. It was the residence for the king or nobles. It held
the local court and jail, it was the site of feasts and celebrations, and it was a symbol to the
population of the power and authority of the ruler who called it home.
The earliest structures were called motte and bailey castles, but they eventually became
sophisticated, mammoth structures of stone. As siege techniques improved, so did the design
of the castle.
Castles always had these important features:
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The Keep, or donjon, was the largest tower and the
central feature of the castle. This was the home of
the ruler and his family. It was also used for storage.
The Keep was the most secure place in the castle.
The curtain walls surrounded the keep and the
surrounding buildings. They were the second layer
of defense.
The gatehouse provided the entrance to the castle
and was heavily fortified. It needed to be well
protected because it was the weakest point in the
castle.
The moat was a deep ditch around the castle. It was
filled with water or sharp sticks to slow down an
attacker. It was the first line of defense.
Arrow loops, also known as arrow slits or bow loops,
allowed defenders to fire their arrows from cover.
The battlements, or crenellations, provided a walk on the wall summit, a fighting
platform and a defense against escalade (scaling the walls). They are
also the distinguishing feature of a castle.
Almost all stone castles had towers. Some were flanking towers in the
curtain wall, gatehouse towers, smaller stair, or mural towers. Towers
provided access to the wall walks, lookout points and sleeping
quarters for the castle garrison. Towers could be square, D-shaped, or
round. They were important defensive features.
Black Death
Between 1346-1353, Europe was utterly devastated by a horrible disease- the plague.
 30 to 60 percent of the population was killed. That is between 75 to 200 million people.
During the 13th century, trade routes became more numerous and trade became faster and
more efficient. Cargo could get from one place to another in less time. This allowed the plaque
to spread quickly throughout Europe.
The Beginning
Most historians agree that the plague started with the Mongols. Their
capital in the 13th century was in Sarai, on the northwest shore of the
Caspian Sea. The belief is that the plague started in a colony of
squirrels around the Volga River. The Mongols traded the fur with
merchants in Genoa, Italy.
The disease was caused by a bacteria that was carried by lice
and fleas. When an animal died, the lice and fleas found
another host, and eventually made their way to humans. Rats
became the favorite host of the lice and fleas, and the disease
soon became unstoppable.
All Mediterranean ports were full of rats feeding off of garbage
tossed by the large costal populations. These rats found their way into cargo that sailed
throughout the sea to other ports of call. Port cities such as Alexandria, Venice, and Genoa
were some of the first places in Europe hit by the plague.
After the disease arrived in Europe, it spread very quickly. The spread was helped by the trade
and travel routes throughout Europe. Many people fled the disease but were already infected.
They spread the disease to other areas yet untouched by the disease. Rats the hitched a ride in
cargo holds spread the disease to other port cities throughout the Mediterranean.
Within 2 years the plague was everywhere. By 1348, it was throughout Italy, France and Spain.
It crossed the channel to Britain and Ireland, and found its way to Egypt, Syria, and Palestine.
Take a bath
Cleanliness - or the lack of it – was a major issue in the Middle Ages. Bathing on a regular basis
was only practiced by the wealthy and was considered a luxury. Some thought that bathing
actually caused the plague to spread, and that the water was the reason for the spread of the
disease. People in Medieval Europe did not know the science behind the spread of disease or
the nature of bacterial infection. People actually started to wash less due to their lack of
knowledge, causing the disease to spread even quicker.
Living in your bathroom
Poor people spent a lot of time in the close proximity to their own and other people’s human
waste. Proper drainage systems were very rare, and the most common way to get rid of waste
was to make piles of it in the street or dump in near water supplies. Many people drank water
from contaminated sources that was full of bacteria and disease.
Rotting meat was always a major problem. The most common way to store meat was to use
salt, but people often ate meat that was rotten and decayed. Meat was hard to get, and people
weren’t picky.
The perfect breeding ground
Because people lived in close proximity of each other, bathed infrequently, had horrible
sanitation, and created the perfect breeding ground for rats infected with the plague, the
disease spread like wildfire!
How do you know you have it?
Several different forms of the plague developed
during the Middle Ages because the disease mutated.
The most common form was the bubonic plague.
The first stage of the disease was a high fever that
forced up the victim’s temperatures and caused them
to spit up blood. These symptoms commonly caused
death in three days. Some people went to bed with a
fever and woke up several days later after the fever
broke. They were the lucky ones.
The second stage of the diseased resulted in large black growths known as buboes which
developed in the armpits, neck, and groin – the location of lymph nodes. The growths were
incredibly painful and lingered for up to five days.
Treating the plague
What did you do if you had the plague? You died quickly and painfully. Medieval medicine could
not do much for you.
People usually could not afford to be treated, and treatment was limited. Forced vomiting and
bloodletting were common techniques, but did little to ease pain or stop the disease.
Who’s to blame
Across Europe, people returned to attending church during the plague years to ask God for
protection and to figure out whether this devastating illness was a judgement from God.
One of the most popular ideas was that the plague was a miasma (my-asma) caused by
something unpleasant in the air. Some believed it was like Noah and the great flood – a
punishment from God for corrupt and immoral lives.
In the panic and confusion that resulted from the
plague, people were anxious to find a way to stop it.
Jewish communities were the first targets for
persecution as many believed Jews were responsible for
the spread of the disease. Jewish tradition required
washing on a daily basis, which was uncommon for
others at the time. Jewish communities did not use
water from public wells for their washing. As a result,
rumors spread that the Jews had poisoned the public
wells and started the plague. In Germany, many Jews were arrested and burned alive. Around
350 purges took place across Europe during 1351, wiping out more than 50 large communities.
Jews were not the only ones to face blame. Leper colonies across Europe were rooted out
because of fears that anyone with visible sores on their bodies might be a sign of the plague.
Anyone who traveled had to be careful. There was a lot of suspicion of people who came from
other parts of Europe because they might be bringing the disease with them. Merchants and
travelers were sometimes run out of town or killed.
Impact of the plague
The vast majority of victims of the plague were from the working
class who performed most of the jobs in agriculture. By 1349 too
few people were available to work the land and a labor shortage
resulted. Many people left areas hit by the plague and moved to
disease free areas where they were paid more for their labor. The
incredible number of deaths also reduced the number of priests,
and many were afraid they would die without the opportunity to
give a confession to a priest.
Europe felt relief by 1353 when the plague ended just a few miles
from where it started on the Volga River. But the plague popped up for years after:
 Germany in 1357
 Paris in 1466 (40,000 dead)
 England in 1644 (“Great plague of London” – lasted over two years)
 China and India in the 1800’s (10 million dead)
 Last reported case in 1995
The big impact of the huge depopulation of Europe was mostly economic. Goods and services
became scarce and people had less money to spend. High prices and lower spending sent
Europe into the first big recession. Huge numbers of people changed locations, and some may
have improved their position in life by moving and finding a better job, leaving their position as
a serf behind.
Much of the art during this period of history focused on the morbid and death.
“Young man meets death”