Conference Session B5
Paper #2198
THE BOEING 787’S ROLE IN NEW SUSTAINABILITY IN THE
COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY
Alex Cikovic (adc73@pitt.edu), Thomas Damarodis (ted16@pitt.edu)
powered commercial airliner” [1], and is still one of the most
popular commercial airplanes in service today [1].
Another advancement in technology that helped the
commercial airline industry was the introduction of
computer aided design and engineering. This led to the
design of the Boeing 777, the first aircraft produced
completely through computer-aided design in 1995 [1]. This
made designing aircraft easier and introduced analysis of
aircraft before being built, which led to more efficient
aircraft. Though these are only a few of the biggest
advancements since the beginning of commercial aircraft,
they are some of the most important that led to the eventual
development of the Boeing 787 Dreamliner.
Abstract—. This paper describes and evaluates the role of
the newly in-serviced aircraft, the Boeing 787 Dreamliner,
and will go into detail about this plane’s contribution to the
progress and development of sustainability, specifically
involving the materials used in construction in the
commercial aircraft industry. Our paper provides a brief
background on the commercial aircraft industry and how it
has improved through specific examples. We will introduce
the Boeing 787 and go into detail on the materials used in
the construction of the plane and some of the mechanical
and propulsion systems involved with the plane, as well as
how the plane affects passengers and airport communities.
Specific aspects of the 787 affect its performance including
the composite materials used in the construction of the plane
help to create a more aerodynamic and lighter plane, which
improves fuel efficiency. We discuss how these new
technologies go into the development of new and more
efficient engines than the jet engines of the future. This
paper also touches on some other environmental and ethical
aspects of the Boeing 787 as well as discusses how the plane
affects passengers and airport communities. The main focus
of our paper is to show how airplanes have improved to
become more sustainable through different aspects. The
Boeing 787 Dreamliner is an example of how these different
improvements can come together to produce a more
sustainable and efficient plane of the future.
INTRODUCING THE BOEING 787
The Boeing 787 is the first of the second generation of
commercial airliners. The term, second generation, cannot
be simply defined, it can, however, be attributed with a
couple of aspects. The most important is for the plane to be
substantially more efficient and sustainable than planes of
the past. This is defined as the following, “High efficiency
is achieved through reduced fuel burn, lower emissions and
reduced noise” [2]. Some ways this is accomplished are
through the implementation of composite materials and more
efficient engines. This leads to less fuel consumption that is
better for cost and the environment.
The Boeing 787 has contributed to the development of
the term second-generation airliner. It has pioneered the use
of many of the aspects previously mentioned. The engines
used on the 787 are different from any other Boeing aircraft.
Both Rolls Royce and General Electric design engines for
use on the aircraft.
Key Words — Aircraft Noise Reduction, Boeing 787, Carbon
Fiber, Composites, Jetliners, Sustainability
MODERN AIRCRAFT: A BRIEF LOOK AT THE
PAST
The first modern commercial airliner was introduced in
February of 1933. It was called the Boeing 247, designed by
Boeing Inc., and held 10 passengers for regional flights. It
used some of the features that are used today in aircraft such
as propellers, easy takeoff, and retractable landing gear in
order to reduce drag [1]. The 247 introduced the world to a
kind of travel never before available to the public. As this
travel became popular, the industry needed a better form of
propulsion, which came about with the invention of the jet
engine, in 1937, by Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain. This
advancement in aircraft lead to the first jet engine powered
commercial airliner in 1949. The jet engine enabled
designers to build bigger planes, hold more people and to fly
farther distances more efficiently. Only ten years after the
introduction of the jet engine into the commercial industry,
Boeing introduced one of the most famous planes ever built,
the Boeing 747. It was the first “wide-body, turbofan-
The Engines
The new engines introduced by Rolls Royce and General
Electric are the Trent 1000 and GEnx. These engines are
designed to be better for the environment, by reducing
emissions and noise pollution, and also to use less fuel,
because of rising fuel costs and lowering supplies of fossil
fuels [3]. Some of the main pollutants that engine designers
are focuses on reducing are NOx, carbon monoxide,
unburned hydrocarbons, and CO2 . There are a number of
ways that these pollutants will be reduced, and they are by
improving specific fuel consumption, improving propulsive
efficiency, improving thermal efficiency [3].
A turbofan is simply a type of air breathing engine that is
used on aircraft that uses a fan to create thrust and airflow
through the engine [4]. Propulsive efficiency is one of the
main focuses when designing the turbofan. The engines
University of Pittsburgh
Swanson School of Engineering
April 14, 2012
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Alex Cikovic
Thomas Damarodis
have been increased in size to increase the bypass ratio,
which means that more air flows through the engine than
goes around the engine. This produces more thrust, which in
turn will increase the fuel efficiency. The Trent 1000 has an
improved bypass ratio of 10 over its predecessor the Trent
700, which had a ratio of 6. This is done, simply by
increasing the size of the engine from 97 inches to 112
inches [3]. The GEnx also has an improved bypass ratio over
its predecessor, the CF6. The GEnx has a ratio around 9.5
with a 111-inch diameter fan versus a ratio of 5 for the CF6,
that measured 93 inches in fan diameter. Not only are these
engines more efficient because of their increased size, but
also because of the materials they are constructed from [3].
Through using new materials, the aerodynamics of the
engines themselves have increased. This is accomplished by
casing the engines in a composite shell rather than an
aluminum shell that would have been used on earlier planes.
This reduces weight and makes available new construction
techniques, which reduces the total number of parts needed.
Specifically in the GEnx, there is 30% decrease in the
number of components from the CF6 [3]. Along with new
designs and materials, new fuel nozzles are being
implemented as well.
The GEnx engine makes use of a new technology, called
twin annular pre-mixing swirlers, otherwise known as
TAPS. These are new fuel nozzles that help to improve the
mixture of fuel and air that enter the combustion zone in the
engine to help increase the performance of the engine [3]. In
the GEnx, there are 22 newly added fuel nozzles around the
outside of the circular combustor. GE says that the new
combustor “creates a stable, leaner mix of fuel and air
which, when burned, maintains a lower temperature” [3].
This is done by using the swirlers on the nozzles to create
tiny vortices that make a better fuel to air mixture that will
burn leaner [3]. This new mixture burns so much better than
mixtures in the past that “NOx emissions will be more than
30 percent below those of GE’s CF6 and about 50 percent
lower than international standards require” [3]. When the
GEnx was first tested, the emissions reduction was not as
great as previously expected. In fact after the first round of
testing the GEnx, GE had to be change the combustor in
order to have the desired NOx emission reduction [5]. Once
fixed, the improvements to the combustor helped to create a
more efficient engine that uses less fuel and reduced the
amount of emissions produced. All of the new features on
these new engines have drastically increased the overall
efficiency of both engines and the Boeing 787.
the construction of the plane. Over 50 percent of the body
on the 787 is constructed purely of carbon composites and
other composite materials. Never before has a plane of this
commercial size been built with such a high percentage of
composite materials [6]. At most, 20 percent of any
previous plane to date was constructed of composite
materials, and was mainly constructed out of aluminum
alloys [2]. Some of this aluminum construction has also
been replaced with new stronger and light titanium alloys as
well. Figure 1 below shows the distribution of materials
used to construct the Boeing 787’s body, wings and tail
sections. The blue in the figure represents the carbon
composites used the in the construction, and the red and
yellow represents the only aluminum used. However, there
are many reasons why this has never been done before,
including manufacturing limitations, safety fears, and the
cost practicality of composite materials in the aviation
industry [2].
FIGURE I
THIS IS A COLOR CODED DIAGRAM OF THE MATERIALS USED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF THE FEUSELAGE AND WINGS OF THE BOEING 787 [7]
WHAT ARE COMPOSITE MATERIALS
There is not one simple definition for composite materials.
Composites have been around for years and were even used
in the construction of the Wright Brother’s first aircraft [2].
However, the composites they used were wood and not of
the strength needed for today. In general, composites are a
combination of different materials layered on top of each
other and woven together to increase the strength and
durability over the original materials. Depending on what
materials you combine, the tensile strength, resistance to
breaking from being stretched, and the resistance to surface
pressures, cracking, and fractures is improved. One of the
most important discoveries in the field of composite
materials was the discovery of carbon fiber in 1964. This
eventually led to the first use of composite materials on
aircrafts in the late 1960s. This use was very limited to
mostly military aircraft and was only applied to minor parts
of the planes such as rudders and doors [8]. With an increase
More on the 787
Another key aspect of the 787 is the actual design of the
plane. The plane is designed to be more aerodynamic than
any other plane. Its wings are set farther back than on any
plane allowing for the air to flow around the wings.
However, the most innovative and revolutionary part of
this plane is the implementation of composite materials in
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Thomas Damarodis
in usage came improved carbon fiber composites and matrix
materials.
Carbon fiber materials are composed of hexagonal layers
that make use of strong covalent bonds and van der Waal
forces to increase strength and rigidity in the structure. The
layers consist of 5 to 6 micrometer in diameter small
crystallites of an allotrope of carbon, called turbostratic
graphite [8]. The basic forms of these fibers are brought
about in the form of rovings. Rovings are the strands or
bundles that the filaments are supplied in, which can be as
long as several kilometers. The selection of the fibers is
based on what they are being used for. For example, military
aircraft require a material that is high in strength and
modulus because of the stresses it will be under, whereas
sometimes a material that is high in flexibility is needed
because the material will be bent and twisted, and needs to
be fracture resistant [8].
After the fibers have been selected that are best suited for
the project, they are surface treated to prepare them for the
polymer matrix. There are two types of resin materials that
are used for surface treatment, thermosetting and
thermoplastic. Thermosetting resins have been more
commonly used in the past, as they were more readily
available. Thermosetting resins are epoxy composites that
fill the matrix material and are then cured at around 130
degrees Celsius and at higher pressures, around 8 bar [8].
However, the use of thermoplastics is increasing as
manufacturing technologies have improved.
Also,
thermosetting resins tend to be more brittle than
thermoplastics and are less damage tolerant than
thermoplastic materials [8]. So one may wonder why they
have not been used as often up until today.
place, and the resin is poured on top, the piece is overlaid by
a flexible membrane and is sealed shut to allow it to cure.
The use of the vacuum allows the curing of the laminate to
be performed at standard atmospheric pressures and at
temperatures that can be produced in a conventional oven,
rather than the high temperature and high-pressure
autoclaves needed to cure the thermosetting plastics [2]-[8].
These processes can also be applied at a much larger scale
than processes of the past.
Ultimately, this new
manufacturing method has, “the potential to significantly
reduce capital and tooling costs associated with composite
material fabrication” [2].
This helps meet the final
requirement for the use of composites in aircraft, and that is
the lowering the costs of acquiring the materials for the
construction of the airplanes and, “is currently considered by
the aircraft industry to be the favored low-cost
manufacturing process for the future” [8]. The development
of this manufacturing technique is also one of the main
reasons why the Boeing 787 Dreamliner has gone from
simply a dream to a reality in the use of composite materials
in the commercial airliner and transport industry.
COMPOSITES AND THE BOEING 787
The number one innovation in the Boeing 787 is the
advancement of the use of composite materials. Until the
development of the Boeing 787, the highest percentage of
composites being used in the construction of an airliner only
accounted for 25% of the Airbus A380’s structural weight
[7]. The 787 more than quadrupled that number with more
than 75% of its structural weight being contributed to
composite materials in the plane [6]. You can compare the
above Figure 1 to the Figure 2 below, which shows the use
of carbon and glass composites used in the construction of
the A380. However, weight is not the most important
contribution composites have to the efficiency of an aircraft.
Composites allow much more flexibility in where the
materials and how the materials can be used.
Why Now?
Up until today, composite materials on a large scale have
been hard to come by. Composites have been around for
years, yet were unable to meet the needs of the customers.
The Boeing Company lays out the requirements for
composites being used in commercial aeronautics as the
following: “increased structural performance, reduced
acquisition and operating costs and reduced environmental
impact” [2]. Composites have been known to increase
performance, as well as lower operating costs and
environment impacts. However, the acquisition cost has
never been low enough to make the use of them on a large
scale remotely sensible. Finally, manufacturing techniques
have caught up to the material technology, with the use of
gridded matrices and thermoplastic materials as stated earlier
[8]. By using thermoplastics, the manufacturing process can
be performed in a lower temperature and pressure than
before because the large scale curing is no longer necessary.
Smaller, premanufactured, thermoplastic pieces are laid into
the matrix formed by the fibers and are then infused with
resin by the assistance of a method called vacuum assisted
resin transfer molding. After the laminate materials are in
What and Where
There are multiple different composites used on the Boeing
787. The three main composites used on the 787 are the
carbon laminate, carbon sandwich and fiberglass. These
three composites have different properties, which determine
where they are used on the plane. The carbon laminate is the
most used composite on the 787 as it composes most of the
fuselage and wings. The carbon sandwich is located on the
edges of the wings and around the casing of the turbine
engines. Fiberglass is used mainly on the major junction
between the wings and the fuselage.
Carbon laminate is used over almost all of the fuselage of
the plane. This is because of the ease to apply it over large
areas and because it is easy to shape. It can also withstand
high-tension loads that are associated with the forces that the
fuselage and wings are exposed to. Since the laminate is
built to shape, there is no need for rivets on the wings and
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Thomas Damarodis
of the wings, so that it requires less speed and power to get
the plane off of the tarmac and keep it in the air. The
decrease in need for power is also improved because of the
flexibility of the wings. During takeoff, the wings are able
to flex upwards, up more than 25 feet from their neutral, out
of flight position. This helps pull the plane up into the air,
rather than the wings having to carry the entire weight of the
plane as a whole. This flexibility of the wings can be seen in
the image of the 787 in Figure 3.
FIGURE 2
A DIAGRAM OF THE MATERIALS USED IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
AIRBUS A380. CARBON COMPOSITES ARE REPRESENTED BY THE DARKER
SHADE OF BLUE [9]
fuselage. This reduces parts, which then reduces the amount
of materials needed and reduces weight of the plane. This
makes it easier for building the plane and repairing the plane
because there are less parts to worry about.
Carbon sandwich material is made up of three
components. The first of these three is the core, which is
made up of honeycomb shaped tubes that are perpendicular
to the surface. This core provides excellent compression
strength. Carbon fiber sheets are then laid on top of the core
to add more strength to material. These layers are added on
top of each other using an organic adhesive [10]. Carbon
sandwich material is used on the casings of the turbines
because it is resistant to compression forces that occur in the
turbines. Also, the carbon sandwich material is very resistant
to heat, which makes it great for casing the turbines because
of the heat the engines give off. It is also used at the tips of
the wings because that is where there is a great amount of air
friction occurs. This creates higher temperatures and
pressures, which the carbon sandwich is suited to handle [6][10].
FIGURE 3
THIS SIMULATED IMAGE OF THE BOEING 787 SHOWS THE FLEX OF THE
WINGS DURING FLIGHT, ON THE GROUND, AND AT 150% OF THE MAX LOAD
CAPACITY [11]
Other than being formed, composites are also very strong
when cut to shapes and formed to shapes after the
manufacturing point of the composite. This ability is
demonstrated in the newly designed back-ends of the
engines, which are shaped in a serrated pattern called
chevrons. This shape ultimately lowers the noise produced
by the plane [12]. We will go into more detail on this in a
later section of our paper. However, not all is perfect with
new composite materials’ use in aeronautics and many
critics have concerns about the long-term use of composites
in airplanes.
CONCERNS AND ISSUES WITH COMPOSITES
Shaping
Although the future of the aircraft industry lies in the usage
of composite materials, there are some problems that come
with using composites. One of the main issues with
composites is the cost of the disposal of hazardous materials
used in the manufacturing process [2]. However, the new,
even cheaper methods of manufacturing, and the lowering of
future operating costs, cancel out this increase of disposal
costs. Also, there are concerns involved with the repairing,
maintenance and fault detection in the materials [2].
Detecting damage in a composite material is more difficult
than in a metal structure because of subsurface microcracks,
which cannot be seen by the human eye. These microcracks
can be detrimental to the performance and lifespan of the
material, increasing the probability of larger fractures and
breakage on the surface of the material [2].
Specifically, the use of composites in the wings and engines
of the aircraft has even further improved the aircraft. The
wings of the 787 look like no other wings in the commercial
aircraft industry. The have been set back at a steeper angle
and are curved upwards as the wings get farther away from
the fuselage. This is made possible due to the shape holding
properties of carbon composites. During manufacturing,
they are set and cured in this shape [8]. This was not
possible with metal construction in the past. In aluminum
and other metal construction, the frames of the planes are
built and then the metal sheeting is riveted around the frame.
This limits the shaping possibilities of the body of the
aircraft because they must de designed to hold up not only
the actual frame, but also the aluminum shell. By using
composites, the weight of the rivets has been completely
removed [2]. All of these aspects help the wings keep their
shape, improving overall aerodynamics and the aspect ratio
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Alex Cikovic
Thomas Damarodis
and Future Research Direction,” Stickler describes how
these microcapsules work. “These microcapsules rupture
during crack propagation, releasing a healing agent that
reacts with an embedded catalyst repairing the composite
material” [2]. These on-the-go repairs provide structural
support and performance around the world that would
otherwise not be available with overly expensive, trained
technicians being dispatched at every airport where planes
made with composites fly through. Now planes with selfhealing can safely make it back to an airport with staff
capable of performing permanent repairs to areas of impact.
However, faults in the composites are not the only concerns
critics have.
Damage Detection
The first issue is detecting faults that arise during the
manufacturing and extended use of the materials. During
manufacturing, there are processes in place, which are
constantly searching for imperfections, and if there is an
issue, the layer is removed, and a new layer of laminate
replaces the previously flawed layer [2]. On the other hand,
detecting material damage during service is much more
difficult. Microcracks are cracks within the laminate layers
of the carbon composites caused by either impacts or just
stress over a period of time. As we said before, the human
eye cannot detect these cracks; therefore, traditional methods
of inspection of the body and of the structure of the plane are
no longer effective.
Also, the use of microscopes on an
object such as a plane is just not practical [2]. Therefore,
entirely new methods of inspection have been developed.
This came in the form of smart layers infused into the
laminated materials, including piezoelectric transducers.
These layers are connected to a computer on-board the plane
and constantly transmit signals throughout the materials and
report any impact events, when they occur, and where on the
surface they occur [2]. This narrows down where the
inspectors need to focus their efforts during routine
inspections and what repairs could possibly be needed.
Critical Areas
Many critical areas in and on airplanes rely on the
conductive and other properties of aluminum and other
metals used in the construction of planes. Because planes
operate in the atmosphere of earth and often fly through
storms and other weather systems, they are more susceptible
to lighting strikes. In planes constructed of metal, the
electricity would be conducted through the body of the
plane, however, in the case of composites, they are much
more resistance to electrical shocks. This resistivity would
not provide the protection required for areas of the body
adjacent to fuel bays and critical electrical systems. In order
to protect these areas of the body, metal meshes have been
incorporated into the outer layer of the composite materials.
This metal mesh distributes the charge, protecting the
systems inside the body of the plane [2].
Even with these issues, solutions are now available in
order to make planes constructed of composites just as safe
and reliable as those constructed of metal. Not only do they
match the ability of planes today but they improve upon the
effects on other aspects of flying such as environmental
effects.
Repairing Aeronautic Composites
The next issue is with the repairs of the damaged materials.
There are five basic requirements for repairs performed on
composite materials in the commercial aeronautics industry
as defined by the Boeing Company [2]:
1. Matching the original structural stiffness
2. Restoring original strength
3. Providing adequate compression stability
4. Maintaining operational temperatures
5. Restoring the original service life
6. Providing adequate aerodynamic smoothness in
critical areas [2]
A great amount of research has been put into the field of
repairing the materials, and multiple methods provide all of
these properties. First, specialists are needed and must be
trained in the use of these repair techniques, which include
targeted heat treatment to small areas needing repairs. Also,
vacuum treatments using thin laminate patches are
reinforced by adding another layer, strengthening where the
damage was [2].
However, with new methods of repairs come new worries
about the repairs with the nature of the aeronautics industry.
Since most damage cannot not be predicted, repairs must be
available at any time, and in this specific case, anywhere in
the world. Researchers in the development of the materials
have come up with a solution to cracks in the materials on
the go through automatic healing. This is done by
incorporating microcapsules of carbon nanotubes in the
fibrous matrix layers of the composite. In his paper,
“Composite Materials for Commercial Transport – Issues
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN FOR THE REST OF US?
All of the new technology implemented in the Boeing 787
makes it a very sustainable aircraft. The new use of
composite material reduces the need for metals and metal
alloys. In doing this, there are less parts needed which
makes it easier for construction because there are less pieces
to keep track of. As a result of this, maintenance is also a
less complicated process. With fewer parts to worry about,
there are less areas to fix. Also, with the composite
materials, there are new, better ways to fix them. This helps
out the airline because it is less of a problem to fix the
composites no matter where the plane is in the world.
Another benefit of the new composites used is in weight
reduction.
The composite materials are much lighter than the metals
used in the past, which helps to reduce the amount of fuel
consumed. Specifically, the 787 uses more than 20% less
fuel than any other jetliner of comparable size [6]. When
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Alex Cikovic
Thomas Damarodis
less fuel is used, airlines do not have to spend as much
money on fuel, so they can save money on overhead costs.
Also, as less fuel is used, less harmful emissions are being
put out by the engine, which helps the environment. On the
other hand, less fuel usage makes the cost to fly lower,
which helps out the customers who are flying on the plane.
As much as paying less for a flight will help customers,
there is something else that the Boeing 787 has implemented
that will also be beneficial for the passengers on the plane,
which is reduced noise.
The engines that the Boeing 787 uses have ‘crenellation’
or ‘chevrons’ on the trailing edge of the nacelles that helps
to reduce the amount of noise that is produced [3]. This is
because the chevrons premix the core air and the bypass air
before it leaves the turbine to help reduce the amount of
turbulent air [3]-[12]. Another use of composites regards the
landing gear of the plane. The designers of the plane have
designed toboggan fairings which encase much of the
landing gear devices. This makes the airflow around the
gear much smoother, and less turbulence means less noise
[12].
This overall reduction in noise is great because now
passengers will be less disturbed by the amount of noise
while on the plane. It is also helpful for people who live or
work by airports, because they will not have as much noise
around their homes or workplaces. These new chevrons are
expected to reduce the noise footprint compared to previous
engines by 50% [3]. A 50% increase means this footprint
does not reach outside of the perimeters of airports,
therefore, not even reaching the citizen areas of airport
communities [3].
All of these improvements represent the beginnings of
solutions to the many ethical issues that have been
associated with the commercial airliner industry. However,
this is only the beginning of the second generation of large
transport and passenger jetliners.
The first company worth mentioning, Airbus, is
constantly in a race with Boeing to create the next big thing
for commercial airliners. They are currently holding test
flight simulations of their own super efficient airliner, the
A350-XWB. Rolls Royce is once again joining the race,
with their newest efficient engines successfully taking flight
on an A380 test plane. The A350 is supposed to surpass the
787 in percentage of the planes weight, which is composed
of advanced composites. The 787, as we said, is made of
50% composites, and the A350 will be constructed with an
astounding 53% of its weight being produced by carbon
composites [6]-[14]. However, these designs are still only
modifications to the current designs of planes in the air.
Other companies, such as NASA are looking even more into
the realms of possibilities now open through the use of
composites. These include extra-wide body aircraft, aircraft
that can fly at higher altitudes, reducing the time in the air,
and even aircraft that are called wing-body aircraft [13].
These aircraft look nothing like what we are used to today.
They look much more like a bird, with the wings extending
almost the entire length of the body. This is only made
possible by use of composites as their strength can withstand
the new forces involved in a plane designed as such.
However, all of these planes are still only designs and
dreams [13]. The Boeing 787, is a safe, reliable and
efficient stepping stone available now for the use of the
commercial airliners which is set to change the face of the
commercial aircraft industry.
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THE FUTURE
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner has set many high standards and
precedents for planes of the future. From the use of new
engines, new shaping techniques and the never before done,
large-scale use of composites, the Boeing 787 is a one of a
kind plane. The GEnx engine from GE and the Trent 1000
from Rolls-Royce are the most efficient engines for the
thrust they produce that have ever been made for aircraft.
New manufacturing processes have opened the doors to new
shapes and uses for composites. These systems come
together to be the most efficient and sustainable airplane
ever made. With air travel predicted to double in the next 15
years, and the current fleet becoming outdated, the new
generations of planes must be available now and be reliable
for years to come [13]. The bar for future second generation
airplanes has been set and multiple companies already have
plans and projects in place to surpass the Boeing 787
Dreamliner.
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Alex Cikovic
Thomas Damarodis
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.
[13] B. Sandilands. (2009, September). “The Shape of Jets to Come,
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[14] “The Future of Airtravel.” Airbus.com [Online Article] Available:
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ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
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(2010) “FAA Aerospace Forecast Fiscal Years 2011-2031.” Federal
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[Online].
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to thank Scott Meyers, the chair of our paper
group, for his helpful input on our paper. We would also
like to thank Pramod, our co-chair for his double checking of
our formatting and other technical aspects of our paper.
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