EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13 provides a
snapshot of the Australian illicit drug market. The report combines illicit drug data from a
variety of sources including law enforcement, health and academia. The Illicit Drug Data
Report is the only report of its type in Australia and provides the important evidence base to
assist decision makers in the development of strategies to combat the threat posed by illicit
drugs.
There were numerous record detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. The number of
amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS excluding MDMA), MDMA, cannabis, cocaine,
tryptamine, anaesthetic and performance and image enhancing drug (PIED) detections are
the highest on record, with the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and heroin detections also
at a record high. The number of ATS precursor (excluding MDMA) detections at the
Australian border is the highest reported in the last decade.
There were a record number of national illicit drug seizures and arrests reported in 2012–13.
A record 86 918 national illicit drug seizures were reported in 2012–13, a 66.4 per cent
increase on the 52 231 seizures reported in 2003–04. While the weight of illicit drugs seized
nationally decreased from the record 23.8 tonnes seized in 2011–12, the 19.6 tonnes seized
this reporting period is the second highest on record and a 75 per cent increase on the
weight of illicit drugs seized in 2003–04. The number of national illicit drug arrests has
increased 27.2 per cent over the last decade, from 80 020 in 2003–04 to a record 101 749 in
2012–13.
Cannabis continues to dominate the Australian illicit drug market, with the number of national
cannabis seizures and arrests in 2012–13 the highest reported in the last decade. While
cannabis accounts for the majority of national seizures and arrests, ATS continues to
increase in prominence in the Australian market, with record national ATS seizures (both
number and weight) and arrests reported in 2012–13.
A record number of national cocaine seizures and arrests were reported in 2012–13, with the
weight of national cocaine and heroin seizures this reporting period the highest reported in
the last decade. There were a record number of national steroid seizures and arrests this
reporting period. There were a record number of national hallucinogen arrests this reporting
period, with the number of national hallucinogen seizures in 2012–13 the highest reported in
the last decade.
While the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period
decreased from a record 809 laboratories in 2011–12, the 757 detections is the second
highest on record. The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in
residential areas, however there has been an increase in the number of detections in
commercial/industrial locations this reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
57
Key findings for 2012–13:
 the number of national illicit drug arrests and seizures are the highest on record
 the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and heroin detections at the Australian
border are the highest on record
 the number and weight of national ATS seizures are the highest on record
 profiling1 of both border and national methylamphetamine seizures indicates the
predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine
 a record number of cannabis detections were made at the Australian border, with seeds
continuing to account for the majority of detections
 the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of
seizures the highest reported in the last decade
 profiling2 of both border and national heroin seizures indicates South-East Asia as the
prominent source region
 while there was a record number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, the weight
detected almost halved
 profiling3 of cocaine border seizures indicates Colombia is the prominent source country
 while the weight of national steroid seizures decreased, the number of national seizures
and arrests continued to increase and are the highest on record
 despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the
number detected is the second highest reported in the last decade.
1
Profiling data is based on calendar years and the first six months of 2013.
ibid
3 ibid
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
2
58
The following charts provide an overview of the Australian illicit drug market in
2012–13
ARRESTS, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants (21.8%)
Cannabis (61.0%)
Heroin & other opioids (2.4%)
Cocaine (1.3%)
Other & unknown (13.5%)
SEIZURES BY NUMBER, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants (24.2%)
Cannabis (62.4%)
Heroin & other opioids (1.9%)
Cocaine (2.5%)
Other & unknown (9.0%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
59
SEIZURES BY WEIGHT, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants (32.9%)
Cannabis (47.6%)
Heroin & other opioids (2.8%)
Cocaine (5.4%)
Other & unknown (11.3%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
60
The following charts provide an overview of changes that have occurred in the illicit
drug market in the last decade.
NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
120000
100000
Number
80000
60000
40000
20000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
 The number of national ATS arrests has increased over the last decade, accounting for
21.8 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13, second only to cannabis.
 National cannabis arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national illicit
drug arrests, accounting for 61.0 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13.
 Over the last decade, national heroin and other opioid arrests have decreased by onethird.
 National cocaine arrests have accounted for less than 1.5 per cent of national illicit drug
arrests in the last decade.
 A record number of national other and unknown drug arrests this reporting period
accounted for 13.5 per cent of national illicit drug arrests in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
61
NUMBER OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
100000
90000
80000
70000
Number
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
 Cannabis continues to account for the greatest number of national illicit drug seizures,
with the 54 181 cannabis seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last
decade.
 ATS seizure numbers have remained second to cannabis over the last decade, with the
record 21 056 ATS seizures reported in 2012–13 accounting for 24.2 per cent of national
illicit drug seizures this reporting period.
 National heroin and other opioid seizures accounted for 1.9 per cent of the number of
national illicit drug seizures this reporting period, the lowest proportion reported in the last
decade.
 Over the last decade, the number of national cocaine seizures has increased by
158.3 per cent, from 839 in 2003–04 to a record 2 167 in 2012–13.
 The 7 828 national other and unknown drug seizures this reporting period is the highest
reported in the last decade, accounting for 9.0 per cent of national illicit drug seizures in
2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
62
WEIGHT OF NATIONAL ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, 2003–04 TO 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
Weight (kgs)
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
 The weight of national illicit drug seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, ranging
between 6.4 tonnes in 2005–06 and 23.8 tonnes in 2011–12.
 With the exception of 2006–07 and 2011–12, cannabis has accounted for the greatest
proportion of the weight of national illicit drug seizures, accounting for 47.6 per cent of the
weight of national seizures this reporting period.
 The 1 056 kilograms of cocaine seized nationally in 2012–13 is the highest weight
reported in the last decade.
 The 550 kilograms of heroin and other opioids seized nationally in 2012–13 is the second
highest weight reported in the last decade.
 The weight of national other and unknown drug seizures decreased this reporting period,
accounting for 11.3 per cent of the weight of national seizures in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
63
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
64
The following charts present national illicit drug arrests and seizures reported in
2012–13 by state and territory and drug type
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG ARRESTS, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL ARRESTS, BY
STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
100%
90%
80%
Proportion
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
 With the exception of Victoria, over half of all illicit drug arrests in all states and territories
related to cannabis.
 With the exception of Tasmania, the proportion of arrests related to ATS was second only
to cannabis in all states and territories.
 In the Australian Capital Territory, 3.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to
cocaine, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
 In Victoria, 6.1 per cent of illicit drug arrests were related to heroin and other opioids, the
highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
 In Western Australia, 21.0 per cent of all illicit drug arrests were related to other and
unknown drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
65
NUMBER OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL SEIZURES, BY
STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
100%
90%
Proportion
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
 Cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the number of illicit drug seizures in all
states and territories this reporting period.
 All states and territories reported ATS as the second most seized drug in 2012–13.
 In South Australia, 4.7 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to heroin and other opioids,
the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
 In New South Wales, cocaine accounted for 4.5 per cent of illicit drug seizures, the highest
proportion reported in any state or territory in 2012–13.
 In New South Wales, 11.3 per cent of illicit drug seizures related to other and unknown
drugs, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
66
WEIGHT OF ILLICIT DRUG SEIZURES, AS A PROPORTION OF TOTAL WEIGHT, BY
STATE AND TERRITORY, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin & other opioids
Cocaine
Other & unknown
100%
90%
80%
Proportion
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
 With the exception of New South Wales, Western Australia and the Northern Territory,
cannabis accounts for the greatest proportion of the weight of illicit drug seized in
2012–13.
 Cannabis continues to account for over 90 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in
South Australia, Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory.
 In New South Wales, ATS accounts for 53.0 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized
this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory 2012–13.
 In New South Wales, cocaine accounts for 12.4 per cent of the weight of illicit drugs
seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in
2012–13.
 In Queensland, heroin and other opioids account for 8.6 per cent of the weight of illicit
drugs seized this reporting period, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory
in 2012–13.
 In the Northern Territory, other and unknown drugs accounted for 75.1 per cent of the
weight of illicit drugs seized, the highest proportion reported by any state or territory in
2012–13.4 In Western Australia, the weight of other and unknown drugs accounted for the
greatest proportion of weight of illicit drugs seized in that jurisdiction, accounting for 46.1
per cent of the weight of illicit drugs seized in 2012–13.
4
In the Northern Territory, illicit kava is trafficked in kilograms amounts and is the primary driver for
the considerable weight of seizures reported as other and unknown drugs in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
67
The following chart provides an overview of self-reported illicit drug use, in the
12 months preceding interview, in an Australian detainee population, 2003–04 to
2012–13 (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
PROPORTION OF THE DETAINEES REPORTING ILLICIT DRUG USE IN THE
12 MONTHS PRECEDING INTERVIEW, 2003–04 TO 2012–13 (Source: Australian
Institute of Criminology)
Amphetamines
Cannabis
Heroin
Cocaine
100
90
80
Proportion of population (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
 Cannabis remains the most commonly reported illicit drug used by police detainees in the
12 months preceding interview. Following a decrease in 2007–08, reported use has
remained relatively stable.
 Amphetamines remain the second most commonly reported illicit drugs used by police
detainees.
 Reported heroin use in this population has decreased over the last decade, decreasing
from over 19 per cent in 2003–04 to 13 per cent in 2012–13.
 Reported cocaine use in this population has remained relatively stable over the last
decade at around 11 per cent.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
68
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS
KEY POINTS

The number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border
increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record.

The number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border increased this
reporting period, with the 4 139 detections in 2012–13 the highest number on record.

Drug profiling data indicates that the majority of analysed methylamphetamine seizures
are primarily manufactured from ephedrine / pseudoephedrine.

The number and weight of national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the
highest on record.

The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase, with the 22 189 arrests in
2012–13 the highest on record.
MAIN FORMS
Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) stimulate the central nervous system and speed up
messages travelling between the brain and the rest of the body. Made in illegal clandestine
laboratories (commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’), ATS pose a serious health risk to users
due to their unknown content and purity. Drugs within the ATS group include amphetamine,
methylamphetamine and phenethylamines (ADF 2013a; APAIC 2009). A list of common ATS
used in Australia is outlined in Table 1.
TABLE 1: ATS used in Australia
Method of
administration
Oral, intranasal,
injection, anala
Drug type
Common names
Forms
Amphetamine
Speed, whiz, uppers,
goey, louee, dexies,
pep pills
White, yellow,
pink or brown
powder, paste
Dexamphetamineb
(amphetamine dextro isomer in a
pharmaceutical preparation)
Dexies, D-amp, dex
White, round
tablets that can
have the marking
‘D5’
Oral, intranasal,
injections, anala
Methylamphetamine (general term,
frequently ‘cut’ or diluted form of
methylamphetamine hydrochloride
salt)
Meth, speed, whiz,
fast, uppers, goey,
louee, Lou Reedc,
rabbitc, tailc, pep pills;
in paste form can be
referred to as base,
pure or wax; in liquid
form can be referred
to as ox blood,
leopard’s blood, red
speed or liquid red
White, yellow or
brown powder,
paste, tablets or a
red liquid
Oral, intranasal,
injection, anala
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
69
Method of
administration
Smoking, intranasal,
injection
Drug type
Common names
Forms
Methylamphetamine hydrochloride
(crystalline form - ‘uncut’, undiluted)
Small crystal particle
size known as
‘crystal’– larger
particle sizes known
as ‘ice’; other terms
include meth, d-meth,
glass, crystal, batu,
shabu (from the
Philippines)
Crystalline—
resembles
crushed ice,
particle size
variable
3,4methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA)
XTC, X, ecstasy,
Adam, M&M, eccy, E,
go, Scooby snacks,
hug, beans
Tablet, powder,
capsule,
geltab (rare)
Oral, intranasal,
smoking, injecting
3,4methylenedioxyethylamphetamine
(MDEA)
Eve
Tablet
Oral
3,4methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA)
Love bug, crystal, P,
window pane
Tablet
Oral
N-methyl-1-(1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl)-2butanamine (MBDB)
Eden
Tablet
Oral
Paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA)d
Death, Dr Death,
Mitsubishi double
Tablet, powder
Oral, intranasal,
injecting (rare)
Paramethoxymethylamphetamine
(PMMA)
PMMA
Tablet
Oral
4-bromo-2,5dimethoxyphenethylamine
Nexus, 2-CB, bromo,
TWOs
Tablet (Nexus),
blotting paper,
powder
Oral, intranasal
4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine
(DOB)
DOB, 4-bromo-DMA,
bromo
Tablet, blotting
paper
Oral
2,5-dimethoxy-4-methylamphetamine
(DOM)
DOM, STP
Tablet, blotting
paper
Oral
4-methylthioamphetamine
(4-MTA)
Flatliner, golden
eagle
Tablet
Oral
In tablet form, the drug can be inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the user’s stomach, which commonly
occurs when taken orally (also known as ‘shafting’ or ‘shelving’).
b.
Dexamphetamine (also known as dextroamphetamine sulphate) is sold in tablet form in Australia for Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy, in accordance with state and territory laws. It is also used illicitly.
c.
Terminology noted in Queensland.
d.
PMA has stimulant and hallucinogenic properties.
a.
The most common forms of amphetamine are powder and tablets or capsules.
Methylamphetamine has four common forms—tablet, crystal, base (also referred to as
paste) and powder (also referred to as speed)—with powder the most common form used in
Australia. Crystal methylamphetamine, often referred to as ‘ice’, is a highly purified form that
is crystalline in appearance.5 Ice is generally heated and the vapours inhaled. It may also be
injected after being dissolved in water (ADF 2013b; AIC 2011).
5
While the crystal form of methylamphetamine is typically of higher purity, appearance alone is not a
reliable indicator of purity as purity levels may be influenced by a number of factors, including the
adulterants used.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
70
Due to slight structural differences, methylamphetamine produces a stronger nervous
system response than amphetamine. Short-term effects of amphetamine and
methylamphetamine use may include sweating, headaches, insomnia, anxiety and paranoia.
High doses can result in blurred vision, hallucinations, tremors and stroke. Long-term use
may result in severe dental problems, reduced immunity, high blood pressure, depression,
impaired memory and concentration, deficits in motor skills, aggressive or violent behaviour,
anxiety, cardiovascular problems and kidney failure (ADF 2013b; CAMH 2012;
Jenner 2012).
Phenethylamines refer to a class of substances with psychoactive and stimulant effects
which
include
3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
(MDMA),
3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and other similar substances. This report focuses
on MDMA, which has a chemical structure similar to that of amphetamine. MDMA is a
synthetic stimulant and is commonly referred to as ‘ecstasy’6 (EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012).
MDMA is most commonly sold in tablet form, featuring a characteristic impression or logo.
Other forms include capsule, powder and crystal. MDMA is most commonly ingested,
although it can also be snorted, inhaled or injected. Drugs purported to be MDMA may
contain other substituted amphetamine derivatives, such as MDEA, MDA or a combination of
synthetic hallucinogens and stimulants. As such, health risks associated with MDMA use are
increased as the effects of tablets sold as MDMA are unpredictable and vary due to the
unknown content (DoHA 2010; EMCDDA 2013; NIDA 2012).
Having stimulant and hallucinogenic effects, MDMA has a wide-range of physical and
psychological health impacts. Short-term effects of MDMA use may include anxiety, panic
attacks, increased blood pressure and convulsions. Long-term use may lead to long-lasting
confusion, depression and memory and cognitive impairment (DoHA 2010; NSW
Health 2012).
6
Ecstasy refers to tablets sold as MDMA, but which may contain a range of other substances and
little to no MDMA.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
71
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
The ATS market continues to evolve and grow. Globally, it remains the second most widely
used illicit drug after cannabis. In 2012, the World Customs Organization reported an
increase in border detections of ATS in North America, Western Europe and the Middle
East, with large quantities also detected in the Asia-Pacific region. During 2012, customs
agencies reported a global increase in the number and weight of methylamphetamine and
MDMA detections. The largest methylamphetamine border detections by weight were
reported by customs agencies in Asia-Pacific, Western Europe and North America
(WCO 2013).
Several South-East Asian countries have entrenched synthetic drug markets, with a number
of them reporting the ongoing detection of ATS clandestine laboratories. In 2013, the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) reported that methylamphetamine seizures in
East and South-East Asia reached record levels in 2012. In Indonesia alone, the
methylamphetamine market reportedly generates approximately US$1 billion in revenue
each year (UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c).
According to UNODC reporting, in December 2012 the Indonesian National Police
intercepted a Malaysian-led drug trafficking organisation and seized over 250 kilograms of
crystalline methylamphetamine with an estimated market value of US$39 million
(UNODC 2013b). The size of the ATS market in South-East Asia makes it an attractive
target for international organised crime groups. West African and Iranian crime groups are
active in moving ATS into South-East Asia, supplying significant quantities of
methylamphetamine and MDMA, both for domestic consumption and transhipment to other
international markets. According to open source reporting, Chinese and West African drug
traffickers are using Cambodian international airports to move illicit drugs out of Cambodia
(Phnom Penh Post 2013a). In August 2012, Cambodian Police seized more than 1 kilogram
of MDMA and approximately 85 000 tablets of methylamphetamine that were being trafficked
through Cambodia to Thailand (Phnom Penh Post 2013b).
Iran is a growing source of methylamphetamine destined for both domestic and international
markets. Iran-based methylamphetamine trafficking networks have become leading
domestic market suppliers, in addition to supplying user markets across the Middle East and
Asia-Pacific region. The Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs
(BINLEA) reported that while Iranian seizures of opium and heroin have remained stable,
seizures of methylamphetamine are increasing, with 2012 figures reportedly increasing
elevenfold from 2008 to 2011 (BINLEA 2013a).
North America remains both a transit and a source region for methylamphetamine.
According to open source reporting, in July 2012 Canada’s Ontario Police detected
three drug
laboratories
and
seized
120 kilograms
of
methylamphetamine,
110 483 methylamphetamine tablets, 14 kilograms of methylamphetamine powder and
CA$81 000 cash representing one of the largest drug seizures in Canadian history
(Criger 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
72
According to BINLEA reporting, Mexico continues to produce large quantities of
methylamphetamine, with an increasing number of clandestine laboratories detected. In
2012, the Government of Mexico seized over 30 tonnes of methylamphetamine and
dismantled 267 methylamphetamine laboratories, compared with 227 in 2011
(BINLEA 2013b). According to open source reporting, the Mexican Navy seized
614 kilograms of methylamphetamine and 72 203 psychotropic tablets in operations
targeting organised crime groups between 1 December 2012 and 31 July 2013 (Mexico
City Milenio 2013). Mexico remains the primary source for methylamphetamine in the United
States of America (US), with media reporting indicating that more than 80 per cent of the
methylamphetamine seized in the US is manufactured in Mexico (Replogle 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
73
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to detect amphetamine
and methylamphetamine at the border. Apart from a number of large detections in sea
cargo, the majority of detections in 2012–13 were in the postal stream, for amounts ranging
from less than 1 gram to 9 kilograms.
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the
Australian border increased and are the highest on record (see Figure 1). The number of
ATS (excluding MDMA) detections increased 85.6 per cent this reporting period, from
1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13. The total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA)
detections increased by 515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to
2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13.
FIGURE 1: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border,
2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Weight (kg)
Number
2500
2000
2000
1500
1500
1000
1000
500
500
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Number
Weight
2500
The increase in the weight of detected ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 is largely due to
3 large detections in sea cargo, which have a combined weight of 1 254.8 kilograms. By
comparison, the top 3 detections during 2011–12 had a combined weight of 187.2 kilograms.
Of the 1 999 detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13, 112 were over 1 kilogram
(5.6 per cent). These detections were predominantly of crystal methylamphetamine and
methylamphetamine liquid.
The number of MDMA detections increased by 329.4 per cent this reporting period, from
964 in 2011–12 to 4 139 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The total weight of
MDMA detections increased by 1 143.3 per cent, from 12.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to
149.2 kilograms in 2012–13, the largest weight detected since 2007–08 (see Figure 2).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
74
FIGURE 2: Number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Weight
Number
6000
4500
4000
5000
4000
3000
2500
3000
2000
2000
Number
Weight (kg)
3500
1500
1000
1000
500
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) in 2012–13 include:

585 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in February 2013, declared as
metabisulphite, via sea cargo from China to Sydney

363.8 kilograms7 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in April 2013, suspended in
96 bottles of carpet cleaning products, via sea cargo from China to Melbourne

306 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in July 2012, concealed in
3 200 terracotta pots, via sea cargo from Thailand to Sydney

75 kilograms of crystal methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed in sofas
and chairs, via sea cargo from China to Sydney

72.9 kilograms8 of liquid methylamphetamine detected in May 2013, concealed and
suspended in shampoo and conditioner, via sea cargo from China to Sydney.
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 1 402.7 kilograms and account for
65.1 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected at the Australian border
in 2012–13.
The final weight of the liquid seizure is in kilograms as it represents the drugs’ final weight after
being extracted from the suspension liquid and dried.
8 Ibid
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
7
75
Significant border detections of MDMA in 2012–13 include:

117 kilograms of MDMA detected in January 2013, extracted from a suspension in olive
oil, via sea cargo from Spain to Sydney

397 grams of MDMA powder detected in May 2013, concealed between the pages of a
magazine, via air cargo from Germany to Brisbane

268 grams of MDMA tablets detected in September 2012, concealed in candles, via
international mail from Germany to Sydney

265 grams of MDMA crystals detected in April 2013, concealed in an external hard disc,
via international mail from Germany to Sydney.
The 4 detections listed above have a combined weight of 117.9 kilograms and account for
79 per cent of the total weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the majority of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections
by number, accounting for 86.1 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 3). Detections
of ATS (excluding MDMA) in parcel post this reporting period were in crystal and powder
form.
FIGURE 3: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (9.5%)
Air passenger/crew (3.6%)
Parcel post (86.1%)
Sea cargo (0.8%)
Two sea cargo detections made between February and April 2013 accounted for
approximately 44 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detected this
reporting period. Despite being the prominent method of importation by number, the weight
of parcel post detections remains low, accounting for 5.9 per cent of the weight of detections
in 2012–13 (see Figure 4).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
76
FIGURE 4: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (10.3%)
Air passenger/crew (3.7%)
Parcel post (5.9%)
Sea cargo (80.1%)
Over the last decade, parcel post has accounted for over 80 per cent of the number of
MDMA border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 99.9 per cent of the number
of MDMA detections at the Australian border, the highest percentage reported in the last
decade (see Figure 5).
FIGURE 5: Number of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (0.1%)
Air passenger/crew (<0.1%)
Parcel post (99.9%)
Sea cargo (<0.1%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
77
MDMA parcel post detections weighed an average of 0.76 grams this reporting period, with
the number of importations through this stream accounting for 21.1 per cent of the weight of
border detections in 2012–13. Sea cargo detections accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total
weight of MDMA detected at the border this reporting period. A single detection of MDMA
this reporting period weighed 117 kilograms and accounted for 78.4 per cent of the total
weight of MDMA detected at the Australian border in 2012–13 (see Figure 6).
FIGURE 6: Weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (0.4%)
Air passenger/crew (0.1%)
Parcel post (21.1%)
Sea cargo (78.4%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 49 countries were identified as embarkation points for ATS (excluding
MDMA) detected at the Australian border, compared with 112 countries in 2011–12. China
was the most significant embarkation point by weight this reporting period, accounting for
8 detections in the sea cargo stream, weighing a total of 1 224.6 kilograms. Prominent
embarkation points by number and weight in 2012–13 were Thailand (43 detections,
weighing a total of 313.9 kilograms), Hong Kong (96 detections, weighing a total of
224.1 kilograms) and Canada (520 detections, weighing a total of 74.3 kilograms). The
combined total of these 3 embarkation points accounted for 42.5 per cent of the total number
and 88.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the Australian
border in 2012–13.
In 2012–13, a total of 33 countries were identified as embarkation points for MDMA detected
at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA, with 2 017 detections. By
weight, Spain was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA detections at the Australian
border, with 117 kilograms in 2012–13. Of the 33 embarkation points for MDMA in 2012–13,
only 6 countries reported a total detection weight of more than 1 kilogram. These were
Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium and Canada. These
6 embarkation points accounted for 96.3 per cent of the total number and 98.3 per cent of
the total weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
78
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates forensic
drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute (NMI) which enables the
identification of the synthetic route of synthesis for samples of methylamphetamine and
MDMA submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for
comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially
demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However,
only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.9
Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border
have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE). During
2012, 721 samples of methylamphetamine were submitted from 126 seizures, representing
a total bulk weight of 1 172 kilograms. This is significantly higher than the 507 samples
submitted from 99 seizures in 2011, which had a total bulk weight of 681 kilograms. This
trend has continued, with the 99 seizures submitted for analysis in the first six months of
2013 representing a total bulk weight of 1 640 kilograms of methylamphetamine. In 2011,
phenyl-2-propanone (P2P) was used in the production of approximately 236 kilograms (62.8
per cent) of the drug. In 2010, Eph/PSE was used in the production of approximately 83
kilograms (48.5per cent) of the total bulk weight, while Phenyl–2–propanone (P2P) was used
in the production of approximately 3 kilograms (1.8 per cent) (see Table 2 and 3).
TABLE 2: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of analysed
AFP border seizures classified by precursor, 2010–June 2013
Synthetic Route
Year
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
74.6
25.4
–
2012
71.8
19.1
9.1
2011
56.8
13.6
29.6
2010
80.4
5.9
13.7
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
TABLE 3: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine samples as a proportion of total bulk
weight of analysed AFP border seizures, 2010–June 2013
Synthetic Route
Year
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
83.8
16.2
–
2012
72.2
8.0
–
2011
35.6
62.8
1.6
2010
48.5
1.8
49.7
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the
routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also
9
For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures
cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law
enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples,
such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable
to chemical profiling.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
79
include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA, and more
recently cocaine10. This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different
jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends
between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border.
The period between 2010 and 2013, saw methylamphetamine ENIPID samples primarily
manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine (Eph/PSE) using phosphorus/iodine (P/I)
routes, with quantities also made through the Emde method, reductive amination or Leuckart
reaction using P2P. In 2011, 2012 and 2013, approximately 68 per cent, 86 per cent and
55 per cent respectively of profiled ENIPID samples contained methylamphetamine
manufactured from Eph/PSE, with approximately 3 per cent, 5 per cent and 17 per cent
respectively made through the reductive amination or Leuckart reaction, using P2P. This
prevalence is also reflected in the number of seizures involving the respective precursors.
This data suggests that domestically seized samples are slowly moving away from Eph/PSE
based methods and towards those using P2P. This increase was also reflected in the
number of cases involving P2P based routes (see Table 4 and 5).
TABLE 4: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of
analysed jurisdictional samples, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route
Year
Jurisdiction
Total %
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
36.4
5.9
8.8
51.1
NT
3.0
–
1.0
4.0
TAS
2.5
0.5
–
3.0
VIC
–
0.5
–
0.5
WA
13.3
9.9
18.2
41.4
55.2
16.8
28.0
100
ACT
4.7
–
–
4.7
NSW
38.2
0.6
6.2
45.0
NT
7.9
–
0.3
8.2
TAS
0.6
–
–
0.6
WA
34.4
4.4
2.7
41.5
85.8
5.0
9.2
100
13.7
0.9
2.4
17.0
NT
5.7
0.5
–
6.2
TAS
2.4
–
–
2.4
WA
46.0
1.9
26.5
74.4
67.8
3.3
28.9
100
NSW
2013
Total
2012
Total
NSW
2011
Total
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples. Due to a lack of available data, 60
samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
10
Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls
outside the reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
80
TABLE 5: Synthetic route of manufacture of methylamphetamine ENIPID samples as a proportion of
analysed jurisdictional cases, classified by precursor, 2011–2013
Synthetic Route
Year
Jurisdiction
Total %
Mixed/ Unclassified %
Eph/PSE %
P2P %
44.7
6.1
12.3
63.1
NT
3.5
–
1.8
5.3
TAS
2.7
–
0.9
3.6
VIC
–
0.9
–
0.9
WA
6.1
3.5
17.5
27.1
57.0
10.5
32.5
100
ACT
3.5
–
–
3.5
NSW
41.3
0.5
5.5
47.3
NT
11.4
–
0.5
11.9
TAS
1.0
–
–
1.0
WA
26.8
5.0
4.5
36.3
84.0
5.5
10.5
100
13.5
1.8
4.5
19.8
NT
8.1
1.0
–
9.1
TAS
4.5
–
–
4.5
WA
32.4
2.7
31.5
66.6
58.5
5.5
36.0
100
NSW
2013
Total
2012
Total
NSW
2011
Total
Note: This data set represents a total of 754 methylamphetamine samples (426 cases). Due to a lack of available
data, 60 samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
Of the 2010 and 2011 MDMA AFP border seizures amenable to profiling, the dominant
synthetic route of manufacture was observed to be the reductive amination – borohydride
method, however, due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods (15 in
both 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated with
respect to the broader market. Throughout 2012 and the first six months of 2013, a
significant increase in the number of MDMA seizures was observed, which also
corresponded with a shift towards MDMA manufactured through the reductive
amination –platinum hydrogenation method (see Table 6).
TABLE 6: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of
analysed seizures, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
Year
Mixed/
Unclassified %
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum
Hydrogenation %
Aluminium
Amalgam %
9.7
9.7
67.7
–
12.9
2012
14.0
8.0
70.0
–
8.0
2011
–
58.3
16.7
8.3
16.6
2010
–
66.7
22.2
–
11.1
Jan-Jun 2013
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
81
MDMA produced via the reductive amination – borohydride method comprised the highest
proportion of the bulk weight profiled from 2010 to 2012. In 2012, three seizures all produced
by this method accounted for approximately 96 per cent of the total bulk weight profiled for
the period. The 2013 reporting period saw the largest seizure of MDMA since 2007,
weighing approximately 117 kilograms. While profiling data on this seizure was not available
at the time of writing, of the seizures that were profiled in the first six months of 2013, the
reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation method was used to manufacture the highest
proportion of the total bulk weight, a shift from previous reporting periods (see Table 7).
TABLE 7: Synthetic route of manufacture of AFP MDMA border seizure samples as a proportion of
analysed bulk weight, 2010–June 2013
Reductive Amination
Year
Mixed/
Unclassified %
Unclassified %
Borohydride %
Platinum
Hydrogenation %
Aluminium
Amalgam %
Jan-Jun 2013
3.2
1.9
94.9
–
–
2012
0.9
96.7
2.4
–
–
2011
–
70.6
26.6
2.0
0.8
2010
–
99.9
0.1
–
<0.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
MDMA produced via reductive amination – platinum hydrogenation was the most common
synthetic route observed in ENIPID samples between 2011 and June 2013. This is the
reverse of what was observed at the border during 2011, however the number of samples
from both the ENIPID project and the border was quite small, therefore the extent to which
these represent trends in the broader market may be limited. While MDMA produced via the
reductive amination – aluminium amalgam method has only been observed in two border
samples in 2011, this method has been observed consistently—although in low
proportions—throughout ENIPID MDMA samples (see Table 8 and 9).
TABLE 8: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed
jurisdictional samples, 2011–June 2013
Year
Jan – Jun
2013
2012
2011
Jurisdiction
NSW
NT
WA
Total
ACT
NSW
NT
WA
Total
NSW
NT
WA
Total
Unclassified %
14.6
2.4
2.4
19.4
–
10.7
–
5.4
16.1
15.4
15.4
–
30.8
Reductive Amination
Aluminium
Borohydride %
Amalgam %
12.2
–
–
–
–
26.8
12.2
26.8
2.7
1.3
14.7
16.0
–
1.3
–
9.3
17.4
27.9
–
–
–
–
30.8
7.6
30.8
7.6
Platinum
Hydrogenation %
36.6
–
5.0
41.6
1.3
24.0
1.3
12.0
38.6
15.4
15.4
–
30.8
Total %
63.4
2.4
34.2
100
5.3
65.4
2.6
26.7
100
30.8
30.8
38.4
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples. Due to a lack of available data, 37 samples were
classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
82
TABLE 9: Synthetic route of manufacture of MDMA ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed
jurisdictional cases, 2011–June 2013
Reductive Amination
Year
Jurisdiction
NSW
Jan-Jun
2013
NT
Borohydride %
Platinum
Hydrogenation %
Mixed %
Total
%
16.7
13.3
–
40.1
3.3
73.4
3.3
–
–
–
–
3.3
3.3
–
13.3
6.7
–-
23.3
13.3
13.3
46.8
3.3
100
–
1.9
–
–
1.9
3.8
9.6
13.5
15.4
21.2
9.6
69.3
NT
–
–
1.9
1.9
–
3.8
WA
1.9
–
9.6
11.6
–
23.1
Total
11.5
15.4
26.9
34.7
11.5
100
NSW
25.0
–
–
25.0
–
50.0
ACT
NSW
2011
Aluminium
Amalgam %
23.3
WA
Total
2012
Unclassified
%
NT
–
–
–
12.5
12.5
25.0
WA
–
12.5
12.5
–
–
25.0
25.0
12.5
12.5
37.5
12.5
100
Total
Note: This data set represents a total of 129 MDMA samples (90 cases). Due to a lack of available data, 37
samples were classified based on the sample collection date in place of the sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
See the Clandestine Laboratories and Precursors chapter for information regarding the route
of ATS manufacture identified in detected domestic clandestine laboratories.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
83
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13, the majority were identified as
producing ATS (excluding MDMA). The number of MDMA laboratories detected this
reporting period increased, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13 (see Clandestine laboratories
and precursors chapter).
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.0 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using amphetamine/
methylamphetamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same 2010 survey, 2.1 per cent
reported recent11 amphetamine/methylamphetamine use (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting the recent12 use of any form of methylamphetamine increased, from 66 per cent in
2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Recent methylamphetamine users within this regular injecting
drug user population reported using methylamphetamine a median of 22 days in the six
months preceding interview, the highest reported since 2007. Early findings from the 2013
study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of methylamphetamine
decreased to 66 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the
six months preceding interview increasing to 24 days.
Within this user population, the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal
methylamphetamine use increased, from 45 per cent in 2011 to 54 per cent in 2012. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent crystal
methylamphetamine use increased to 55 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting
the recent use of methylamphetamine powder (speed) decreased, from 44 per cent in 2011
to 40 per cent in 2012, with early findings of the 2013 study indicating this has decreased to
34 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent use of base decreased from
21 per cent in 2011 to 18 per cent in 2012. Early findings of the 2013 study indicate this has
decreased to 13 per cent (see Figure 7) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to
reported use in the six months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
11
12
84
FIGURE 7: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of speed, base and
crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013
(Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Speed
Base
Ice
100
180
90
160
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
20
40
10
20
0
Median days use (max = 180)
Recent use (%)
Median days use
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting methylamphetamine as
their drug of choice increased, from 20 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. For any form
of methylamphetamine, injection (65 per cent) was the most common method of
administration, followed by smoking at 19 per cent and swallowing at 8 per cent (Stafford &
Burns 2013).
The prevalence of ecstasy use in the regular injecting drug user population decreased, from
14 per cent in 2011 to 12 per cent in 2012. Swallowing was the most common method of
administration reported within this user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).13
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent use of one or more forms of methylamphetamine increased, from 60 per cent in 2011
to 61 per cent in 2012, the highest reported since 2008. Powder (speed) remains the most
common form of methylamphetamine used, followed by crystal and base. For any form of
methylamphetamine, swallowing (76 per cent) was the most common method of
administration, followed by smoking at 46 per cent and snorting at 28 per cent.
Recent users of any form of methylamphetamine within this drug user population reported
using methylamphetamine a median of 6 days in the six months preceding interview, which
has remained stable since 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion
of respondents reporting recent use of any form of methylamphetamine decreased to
50 per cent, with the reported median days of methylamphetamine use in the six months
preceding interview decreasing to 4 days (see Figure 8) (NDARC 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013).
13
The IDRS is not designed to monitor trends in ecstasy and related drug use as the frequency and
prevalence of use in people who inject drugs is low.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
85
FIGURE 8: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting the recent use of speed, base and
crystal/ice compared to median days of use of any form of methylamphetamine, 2004 to 2013
(Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Speed
Base
Ice
100
180
90
160
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
20
40
10
20
0
Median days use (max = 180)
Recent use (%)
Median days use
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
In the regular ecstasy user population, the proportion of respondents reporting
methylamphetamine powder as their drug of choice decreased, from 5 per cent in 2011 to
4 per cent in 2012, followed by crystal methylamphetamine at 3 per cent and base at
<1 per cent. In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as
their drug of choice increased, from 27 per cent in 2011 to 32 per cent in 2012, however it
remains lower than the 52 per cent reported in 2003. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate the proportion of respondents who reported ecstasy as their drug of choice
increased to 33 per cent in 2013, the third lowest percentage reported in the last decade14
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Tablets remain the most common form of ecstasy used by the regular ecstasy user
population. The proportion of users reporting tablets as the most common form of ecstasy
used in the six months preceding interview decreased, from 97 per cent in 2011 to
95 per cent in 2012. The proportion of respondents reporting the use of ecstasy powder
decreased from 26 per cent in 2011 to 25 per cent in 2012, while the reported use of ecstasy
capsules remained stable at 53 per cent in 2012 (Black et al. 2008; Dunn et al. 2007;
Sindicich et al. 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013).
14
In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular
ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any
psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting
periods.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
86
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey
and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey is based on the combined reporting of
amphetamine and methylamphetamine use in the 12 months preceding interview and is
referred to as amphetamines use. In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive15
for amphetamine16 increased from 24.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 27.3 per cent in 2012–13, the
highest reported since 2006–07, but lower than figures reported between 2003–04 and
2006–07. The proportion of detainees testing positive for methylamphetamine also
increased, from 23.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 25.9 per cent in 2012–13.17 The proportion of
detainees testing positive for amphetamines is higher than the proportion of detainees
testing positive for heroin, cocaine, opiates, benzodiazepines and MDMA. Drug Use
Monitoring in Australia (DUMA) statistics indicate a high proportion of detainees testing
positive for amphetamines over the past decade, with the self-reported use of amphetamines
increasing from 37.4 per cent in 2011–12 to 39.7 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 9).
FIGURE 9: National proportion of detainees testing positivea for amphetamine/methylamphetamine
compared with self-reported use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Amphetamine urinalysis
Methylamphetamine urinalysis
Self reporting
50
Proportion (%)
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
In regards to MDMA use, the proportion of detainees testing positive for MDMA increased,
from 0.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.36 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported
since 2008–09. Self-reported use of MDMA increased from 11.06 per cent in 2011–12 to
13.39 per cent in 2012–13, the highest percentage reported since 2009–10 (see Figure 10).
15
Amphetamines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after use
(Makkai 2000).
16 Results for all amphetamine types including MDMA, methylamphetamine.
17 It should be noted that following administration, methylamphetamine is metabolised into
amphetamine, which could account for the high proportion of positive amphetamine results in urine
testing.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
87
FIGURE 10: National proportion of detainees testing positive a for MDMA compared with self-reported
use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
25
Proportion (%)
20
15
10
5
a.
b.
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Urine was collected in one site only during the fourth quarter of 2012.
Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of amphetamine remained stable in 2012–13, ranging
between $150 and $800. The Northern Territory reported the highest price for a gram of
amphetamine this reporting period, which ranged between $600 and $800.
In Australia, the price for non-crystal methylamphetamine is generally lower than crystal
methylamphetamine. There has been no change in the national price range for a gram of
non-crystal methylamphetamine, which ranged between $70 and $900 in 2012–13. New
South Wales and Victoria were the only two states to report the price of a kilogram of
non-crystal methylamphetamine this reporting period. The prices remained stable compared
to the previous reporting period in these two states, in New South Wales the price ranged
between $70 000 and $110 000, and in Victoria the price ranged between $100 000 and
$120 000.
Nationally, the price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine in 2011–12 ranged between
$300 and $2 000, compared with between $400 and $1 600 in 2012–13. The Northern
Territory reported the highest price for a gram of crystal methylamphetamine this reporting
period, ranging between $1 200 and $1 600. New South Wales and Victoria were the only
two states to report the price for one kilogram of crystal methylamphetamine. The prices
remained relatively stable, ranging between $200 000 and $320 000 in 2012–13, compared
with $200 000 and $330 000 in 2011–12.
Nationally, the price range for a single MDMA tablet remained relatively stable, ranging
between $20 and $50. New South Wales and Queensland reported the greatest price range
for a single tablet, which ranged between $20 and $50 this reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
88
PURITY
Figure 11 illustrates the annual median purity of amphetamine18 over the last decade. Since
2003–04, the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples has fluctuated greatly,
ranging between 0.4 per cent and 45.2 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity
ranged between 3.2 per cent in Queensland and 71.2 per cent in the Australian Capital
Territory. New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all reported a decrease in annual
median purity this reporting period.
FIGURE 11: Annual median purity of amphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Figure 12 illustrates the median purity of analysed amphetamine samples on a quarterly
basis in 2012–13. This reporting period, the quarterly median purity of amphetamine ranged
from 0.3 per cent in Western Australia to 73.5 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.
18
Amphetamine is a manufacturing by-product of some commonly used methods of methylamphetamine
production. This can result in two separate purity figures for a single drug sample—one as methylamphetamine
with considerable purity and another as amphetamine of low purity.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
89
FIGURE 12: Quarterly median purity of amphetamine samples, 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
q2 2013
q1 2013
q4 2012
q3 2012
0
Figure 13 illustrates the annual median purity of methylamphetamine over the last decade.
Since 2003–04, the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples has ranged
from 4.4 per cent to 76.1 per cent. In 2012–13, every state and territory reported an increase
in the median purity of methylamphetamine. Victoria reported the highest annual median
purity of 76.1 per cent this reporting period, the highest median purity reported in the last
decade.
FIGURE 13: Annual median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
TAS
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Figure 14 illustrates the median purity of analysed methylamphetamine samples on a
quarterly basis in 2012–13. During this reporting period, the median purity of
methylamphetamine samples ranged from 6.2 per cent in Tasmania to 78.8 per cent in
Victoria. Tasmania reported the greatest fluctuation in quarterly median purity this reporting
period, ranging from a low of 6.2 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 to 64.1 per cent in the
first quarter of 2013.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
90
FIGURE 14: Quarterly median purity of methylamphetamine samples, 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
TAS
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
q2 2013
q1 2013
q4 2012
q3 2012
0
Figure 15 illustrates the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples over the last
decade, the majority of which relate to MDMA. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of
analysed phenethylamine samples ranged from 6.8 per cent to 82.7 per cent. In 2012–13,
the annual median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 14.3 per cent in
South Australia to 82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory. Although minimal,
Queensland and South Australia reported a decrease in the median purity of
phenethylamine samples in 2012–13.
FIGURE 15: Annual median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
TAS
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Figure 16 illustrates the median purity of analysed phenethylamine samples on a quarterly
basis during 2012–13, the majority of which relate to MDMA. During this reporting period, the
median purity of phenethylamine samples ranged from 12.9 per cent in South Australia to
82.7 per cent in the Australian Capital Territory.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
91
FIGURE 16: Quarterly median purity of phenethylamine samples, 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
q2 2013
q1 2013
q4 2012
q3 2012
0
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment
on the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 89 per cent reported
methylamphetamine as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from 80 per cent in
2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased to 84 per cent. In the
same study, 79 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an
increase from 74 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate that this has
increased to 80 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to
obtain increased from 83 per cent in 2011 to 84 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the
2013 study indicating that this has increased to 88 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on
the availability of methylamphetamine powder (speed), 75 per cent reported powder as
being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 87 per cent reported in 2011. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to 78 per cent. In the same 2012
study, 68 per cent of respondents reported base as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase
from 61 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has increased to
95 per cent. The proportion of respondents reporting ice as easy or very easy to obtain
increased from 86 per cent in 2011 to 90 per cent in 2012, with early findings from the 2013
study indicating this has decreased to 88 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
In the same 2012 study, of the respondents able to comment on the availability of ecstasy,
89 per cent reported ecstasy as easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the
78 per cent reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate this has decreased
to 86 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).19
19
In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular
ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any
psychostimulants. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting
periods.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
92
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
Since 2009–10, both the number and weight of national ATS seizures have continued to
increase, with the number and weight of national ATS seizures in 2012–13 the highest on
record (see Figure 17).
FIGURE 17: National ATS seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
Number
7000
25000
6000
4000
15000
3000
10000
Number
Weight (kg)
20000
5000
2000
5000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
The number of national ATS seizures increased by 38.6 per cent this reporting period, from
15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13. The weight of national ATS seizures increased by
310.4 per cent, from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in 2012–13.
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number and weight
of national ATS seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent and 68.2 per cent respectively in
2012–13. Victoria reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of ATS seizures
this reporting period, while New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in
the weight of ATS seized (see Table 10).
TABLE 10: Number, weight and percentage change of national ATS seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
Weight (grams)
State/Territorya
2011–12
New South Wales
5 772
8 762
51.8
882 916
4 403 788
398.8
Victoria
1 394
2 422
73.7
580 063
1 850 879
219.1
Queensland
3 350
4 172
24.5
41 266
58 053
40.7
539
346
-35.8
14 155
53 359
277.0
152.5
South Australia
Western Australia
2012–13
% change
2011–12
2012–13
% change
3 401
4 580
34.7
29 578
74 688
Tasmania
258
241
-6.6
4 683
5 199
11.0
Northern Territory
328
350
6.7
19 450
7 032
-63.8
Australian Capital Territory
149
183
22.8
517
738
Total
15 191
21 056
38.6
1 572 628
6 453 736
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and
phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.
b. Includes seizures by state/territory police and the AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
42.7
310.4
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
93
Figure 18 illustrates the number of national ATS arrests since 2003–04. Over the last
decade, ATS arrests have increased 131.3 per cent, from 9 593 in 2003–04 to 22 189 in
2012–13, the highest number of ATS arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer offences
accounted for 75.0 per cent of national ATS arrests. However, South Australia reported more
ATS provider than consumer arrests in this reporting period.
FIGURE 18: Number of national ATS arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
25000
Number
20000
15000
10000
5000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
The number of national ATS arrests increased by 31.9 per cent, from 16 828 in 2011–12 to
22 189 in 2012–13. Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in
ATS arrests, while the Northern Territory reported the greatest percentage increase. Victoria
accounted for the greatest number of national ATS arrests, followed by New South Wales
and Queensland. These three states account for 79.4 per cent of national ATS arrests in
2012–13 (see Table 11).
TABLE 11: Number and percentage change of national ATS arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territoryab
2011–12
2012–13
% change
New South Wales
4 451
5 905
32.7
Victoria
4 494
6 762
50.5
Queensland
4 188
4 941
18.0
South Australia
1 049
1 312
25.1
Western Australia
2 347
2 870
22.3
161
125
-22.4
14
169
1 107.1
124
105
-15.3
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
16 828
22 189
a. The term amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) encompasses drugs included under both the amphetamines and
phenethylamines groupings. For further details see the Statistics chapter.
b. The arrest data for each state and territory includes Australian Federal Police data.
31.9
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
94
NATIONAL IMPACT
During the past decade, the Australian drug market has seen a shift towards the use of
synthetic substances such as ATS. Historically, the domestic methylamphetamine market
has primarily been supplied by domestic manufacture, facilitated by the domestic diversion
and importation of precursor chemicals. In addition to domestic production, the Australian
ATS market is supplemented to an unknown extent by the importation of finished product.
Between 2010 and 2013, analysed samples of methylamphetamine seized at the border
have been primarily manufactured from ephedrine/pseudoephedrine. Over this period, there
has been an increase in the proportion of samples identified as being manufactured from
phenyl-2-propanone (P2P). The predominance of methylamphetamine manufactured from
ephedrine/pseudoephedrine and an increase in the samples manufactured from P2P is also
reflected in methylamphetamine profiled as part of the ENIPID project. Between 2010 and
2013, analysed samples of MDMA seized at the border have indicated a shift from MDMA
manufactured through the borohydride method towards MDMA manufactured using the
platinum hydrogenation method. MDMA samples profiled as part of the ENIPID project since
2011 indicate the ongoing prominence of MDMA manufactured using the platinum
hydrogenation method. Due to the relatively small number of seizures during these periods
(particularly in 2010 and 2011) there are limitations to how far this data can be extrapolated
with respect to the broader market.
In 2012–13, while the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the
Australian border continued to increase, the weight of related detections decreased. Despite
this decrease, over 1.7 tonnes of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors were detected at the
Australian border this reporting period, the majority of which related to pseudoephedrine and
ephedrine detections. There were 12 detections of MDMA precursors at the Australian
border in 2012–13, the highest number of detections reported in the last decade. Of these,
7 related to safrole detections, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of the total weight of
MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border this reporting period (see Clandestine
laboratories and precursors chapter).
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) detections at the
Australian border increased and are the highest on record. The number of detections
increased from 1 077 in 2011–12 to 1 999 in 2012–13, while the weight increased
515.8 per cent, from 347.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 138.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Parcel
post continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of ATS (excluding
MDMA) detections at the Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest
proportion of the weight of detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation
points identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) decreased by 56.3 per cent this reporting period,
from 112 countries 2011–12 to 49 countries in 2012–13. In 2012–13, Canada was the
prominent embarkation point for ATS (excluding MDMA) detections by number, while China
was the prominent embarkation point by weight.
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of MDMA detections at the Australian border
increased, with the number of detections the highest on record. While the weight of MDMA
border detections also increased, from 12 kilograms in 2011–12 to 149.2 kilograms in
2012–13, it remains low compared to weights detected earlier in the decade. Parcel post
continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of MDMA detections at the
Australian border, while sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight of
detections this reporting period. The number of embarkation points identified for MDMA
increased by 153.8 per cent this reporting period, from 13 countries 2011–12 to 33 countries
in 2012–13. The Netherlands was the prominent embarkation point by number for MDMA
detections at the Australian border in 2012–13, while Spain was the prominent embarkation
point by weight.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
95
Of the 757 clandestine laboratories detected nationally this reporting period, 544 were
producing ATS (excluding MDMA), a decrease from the 552 laboratories detected in 2011–
12. While the number of laboratories identified as producing MDMA increased, from 2 in
2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13, it remains lower than the 16 detected in 2010–11 (see
Clandestine laboratories and precursors chapter).
ATS remain the second most widely used illicit drug in Australia and continue to account for
a significant proportion of illicit drug seizures and arrests. Both the number and weight of
national ATS seizures increased in 2012–13 and are the highest on record. The number of
national ATS seizures increased, from 15 191 in 2011–12 to 21 056 in 2012–13, while the
weight of ATS seized increased from 1 572.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to 6 453.7 kilograms in
2012–13. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national
seizures, accounting for 41.6 per cent of the number and 68.2 per cent of the weight of
seizures this reporting period. The number of national ATS arrests continued to increase in
2012–13, with the 22 189 arrests this reporting period the highest number on record. New
South Wales, Victoria and Queensland continue to account for the greatest proportion of
national ATS arrests, accounting for 79.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Consumer arrests
continue to account for the greatest proportion of national ATS arrests, however, in 2012–13
South Australia reported more ATS provider arrests than consumer arrests.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
96
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2013,
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Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013,
Drug Profiles: methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA or ‘Ecstasy’), EMCDDA, Lisbon,
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Jenner, L 2012, ‘Ups and downs: physical and mental health consequences of
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National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends
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National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2012, Drug facts: MDMA (Ecstasy), NIDA,
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Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
99
CANNABIS
KEY POINTS

There were a record 3 629 cannabis detections at the Australian border in 2012–13,
with cannabis seeds continuing to account for the majority of detections.

The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased, with the number of
seizures the highest reported in the last decade.

National cannabis arrests continued to increase, with the 62 120 arrests in 2012–13 the
highest number reported in the last decade.

MAIN FORMS
Cannabis is derived from the Cannabis sativa and Cannabis indica plants—two species of
plants within the Cannabis genus20—and globally remains the most widely produced and
used illicit drug. Cannabis is grown outdoors in many regions of the world and is increasingly
cultivated by means of indoor hydroponic technology.
Cannabis plants are grouped into two categories: hemp and marijuana. Hemp is low in
psychoactive components with the roots, stalks and stems providing raw materials for
products including skin care and clothing. Marijuana—commonly referred to as cannabis—is
a plant high in psychoactive components and is an illicit drug (NCPIC 2011; UNODC 2013a).
There are over 500 chemical compounds in the Cannabis sativa plant, including over
70 unique compounds—referred to as cannabinoids21—some of which produce psychoactive
effects (McLaren et al. 2008). The main psychoactive component of the cannabis plant is
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is generally concentrated in the flowering heads
of the plant. Cannabidiol (CBD), which is also present in cannabis, is an antipsychotic and is
believed to have a balancing effect with THC, reducing symptomatic effects like anxiety and
paranoia (Bhattacharyya et al. 2010; Hall & Swift 2000; NCPIC 2011; Zuardi et al. 2012).
There are three main forms of cannabis: herb, resin and oil. Cannabis herb refers to the
dried flowering heads and leaves of the cannabis plant and is the least potent of all the
cannabis products. Cannabis resin (hashish) is produced from the compressed resin glands
of the cannabis plant. Cannabis oil—the most potent cannabis product in terms of THC
content—is a thick oily substance extracted from cannabis resin. The main forms of
cannabis and methods of administration are outlined in Table 12 (NCPIC 2011;
UNODC 2006).
20
The third species of plant within the Cannabis genus, Cannabis ruderalis, is rarely grown for illicit
use due to its low THC content.
21
Drug analogues and new psychoactive substances that are categorised as synthetic cannabinoids are
discussed in the Other Drugs chapter.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
100
TABLE 12: Main forms of cannabis
Form
Description
Properties
Method of administration
Herbal cannabis
The leaves and flowering
heads
Low levels of
THC
Smoked as a rolled cigarette
or inhaled through a water
pipe or ‘bong’
Cannabis resin
(hashish)
Made from the resinous
material of the cannabis plant,
dried and compressed into
balls, blocks or sheets;
colour ranges from light brown
to black
Medium levels of
THC
Crumbled and smoked in a
pipe or bong, rolled into a
cigarette with cannabis leaf or
tobacco, or cooked with food
and eaten, most notably as
‘hash cookies’
Cannabis oil
Viscous oil extracted using a
solvent such as acetone,
isopropanol or methanol;
colour ranges from amber to
dark brown
High levels of
THC
Small amounts applied to
cannabis or tobacco
cigarettes; can also be heated
and the vapour inhaled
Due to the range of effects cannabis can produce, it may be categorised as a stimulant,
depressant or hallucinogen. As a result, cannabis users may experience a sense of euphoria
and relaxation, loss of inhibition and mood changes. Short-term effects of cannabis use may
include bloodshot eyes, drowsiness, anxiety and paranoia. Long-term effects of cannabis
use may include decreased memory and learning abilities, a distorted sense of space and
time and an increased risk of respiratory disease (NCPIC 2011).
Several mental health disorders have been linked to cannabis use, such as anxiety and
depression. In some cases, cannabis use may cause psychosis—having beliefs that are not
based on reality (delusions) or seeing or hearing things that are not there (hallucinations).
Cannabis use may also exacerbate existing psychotic conditions, such as schizophrenia.
Studies have shown that the use of cannabis at a young age and heavy use of cannabis are
associated with up to six times the risk of developing schizophrenia in people with a genetic
vulnerability (NCPIC 2012).
The relationship between cannabis use and other illicit drug use is complex. Cannabis has
been identified as a potential ‘gateway’ drug to other illicit drugs. This concept is based on
the premise that users, particularly adolescents, may use cannabis as their first illicit drug;
with cannabis seen as a predictor for progression from licit drugs (such as alcohol), to illicit
drugs such as heroin, cocaine and/or MDMA (NCPIC 2009).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
101
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
The 2013 World Drug Report indicates there was only a small increase in the global number
of cannabis users. Cannabis herb is cultivated in its main user markets in the Americas and
Europe, with localised cultivation generally supplying domestic markets. In 2012, the Drug
Enforcement Administration (DEA) of the United States of America (US) announced that
cannabis cultivation in the US decreased 42 per cent from 2011, which followed a
35 per cent decrease from 2010 (Armentano 2013).
The eradication of indoor and outdoor cannabis plants continues across all regions.
Eradication programs and adverse environmental factors are impacting on established large
scale cultivation areas. In 2011, Mexico and Morocco reported the largest area of cannabis
plants eradicated, at 13 430 hectares and 8 000 hectares respectively. The US, Philippines
and Tajikistan reported the highest number of outdoor plants eradicated during 2011, while
the Netherlands, US and Belgium reported the highest number of indoor plants eradicated
(UNODC 2013a).
In Europe, the annual consumption of both herbal cannabis and cannabis resin is estimated
at 2 500 tonnes (EMCDDA 2013). Decreased seizures of cannabis resin were offset by
increased seizures of cannabis herb, which represented over half of all cannabis seizures in
Europe (EMCDDA 2013). According to media reports, Italian police seized 20 tonnes of
cannabis with an estimated street value of £250 million in a vessel off the Sicilian coast in
April 2013. The shipment originated from Morocco and was found on an Egyptian registered
vessel with a Syrian crew (Pisa 2013).
In the Americas, Mexico is the largest cultivator of herbal cannabis, primarily supplying the
increasing US market. In the US and Mexico, seizures were higher for herbal cannabis than
cannabis resin. North America accounted for 69 per cent of global cannabis herb seizures in
2011. Latin America and the Caribbean region reported the second highest number of
cannabis herb seizures in 2011—with Bolivia, Colombia and Paraguay reporting increases of
more than 100 per cent from previous years (UNODC 2013a).
Morocco remains the major source country for cannabis resin products, predominantly
supplying Western and Central European markets. Cannabis resin is trafficked into Europe
via maritime and air streams, predominantly through Spain due to its proximity to Morocco22
(EMCDDA 2013). Afghani cannabis resin production continues to fluctuate in response to
official monitoring and eradication measures combined with seasonal crop harvest yields
(UNODC 2013a). In 2012, the commercial cultivation of cannabis in Afghanistan was
reported at 10 000 hectares, a decrease from 12 000 hectares reported in 2011. Despite
this, the potential production of cannabis resin was reported at 1 400 tonnes, an increase
from 1 300 tonnes reported in 2011 (UNODC 2013b). According to media reports, Algerian
authorities seized 157 tonnes of cannabis resin in 2012, compared to 53 tonnes in 2011
(Global Post 2013). In Afghanistan, there are links between opium poppy cultivation and
cannabis cultivation, as the majority of farmers who cultivate opium poppy in the winter
cultivate cannabis in summer (UNODC 2013a).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In 2012–13, the number of cannabis detections at the Australian border increased by
36.4 per cent, from 2 660 in 2011–12 to 3 629 in 2012–13, and is the highest on record. The
22
In 2011, Spain accounted for 34 per cent of global cannabis resin seizures, followed by Pakistan
(18 per cent) and Morocco (12 per cent).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
102
weight of cannabis border detections has fluctuated over the last decade, from 5.0 kilograms
in 2004–05 to 709.0 kilograms in 2003–04. In 2012–13, the weight of cannabis detections
increased by 26.5 per cent, from 17.0 kilograms in 2011–12 to 21.5 kilograms23 in 2012–13
(see Figure 19).
FIGURE 19: Number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)24
Weight (kg)
Number
4000
700
3500
600
3000
500
2500
400
2000
300
1500
200
1000
100
500
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Number
Weight
800
Cannabis seeds continue to be the most common form of cannabis detected at the
Australian border, accounting for 89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in
2012–13.
In this reporting period, only 4 cannabis detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These
4 detections had a combined weight of 10.3 kilograms and account for 47.9 per cent of the
total weight of cannabis detected in 2012–13. Of these, 2 detections were hemp products,
weighing a total of 7.17 kilograms. The remaining 2 detections were of cannabis seed and
leaf, weighing 1.85 kilograms and 1.33 kilograms respectively.
Note that 9 cannabis border detections weighing a total of 10.7 kilograms were seized in ‘Hemp
Force’, a food product—protein supplement—containing hemp and manufactured in the US.
Excluding these hemp products, there were 3 620 cannabis border detections in 2012–13, weighing a
total of 10.8 kilograms.
24 Cannabis statistics for 2012–13 have been skewed by a number of food products containing hemp
from the US. Food products containing hemp have no traces of THC, but due to the wording of
current Australian legislation, any product containing hemp that can be ingested is prohibited because
it comes from the cannabis plant. This consideration is currently under review by Food Standards
Australia New Zealand (FSANZ).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
23
103
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections25 of cannabis in 2012–13 include:
 1.85 kilograms of cannabis seed detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Iran to
Sydney

1.33 kilograms of cannabis leaf detected in May 2013, via parcel post from Canada
to Sydney

0.33 kilograms of cannabis buds and leaf detected in January 2013, via parcel post
from the Netherlands to Melbourne.

he 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 3.51 kilograms and account for
32.5 per cent of the total weight of cannabis (excluding hemp products) detected at the
Australian border in 2012–13.
T
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of cannabis border
detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 98.8 per cent of detections (see
Figure 20).
FIGURE 20: Number of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (0.3%)
Air passenger/crew (0.9%)
Parcel post (98.8%)
Sea cargo (<0.1%)
Sea passenger/crew (<0.1%)
25
These detections exclude hemp products, such as Hemp Force.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
104
In this reporting period, parcel post accounted for 51.2 per cent of the weight of cannabis
detected at the Australian border, followed by air cargo at 38.1 per cent (see Figure 21).
FIGURE 21: Weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (38.1%)
Air passenger/crew (10.7%)
Parcel post (51.2%)
Sea cargo (<0.1%)
Sea passenger/crew (<0.1%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 43 countries were identified as embarkation points for cannabis
detected at the Australian border, compared with 32 countries in 2011–12. The United
Kingdom (UK) accounted for 59.5 per cent of the number of cannabis detections in 2012–13,
with 2 159 detections. Iran, Canada, South Africa and the Netherlands all had a total
detection weight in excess of 1 kilogram. The total number of detections from these
countries accounted for 24.4 per cent of cannabis detections in 2012–13.
In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points for cannabis (excluding hemp)
detections at the Australian border this reporting period were Iran and Canada. The
combined total of these 2 embarkation points accounted for 43.1 per cent of the total weight
of cannabis border detections in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
105
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 35.4 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cannabis at least once in
their lifetime. In the same survey, 10.3 per cent reported recent26 cannabis use, the first
increase reported since 1998 (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent27 cannabis use decreased from 79 per cent in 2011 to 76 per cent in 2012.
Recent cannabis users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using
cannabis a median of 160 days in the six months preceding interview, the lowest reported
figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent cannabis use decreased to 72 per cent, however, the reported
median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding interview increased to 170 days
(see Figure 22) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 22: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cannabis use and
median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Recent use
100
180
90
160
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
20
40
10
20
0
Median days use (max = 180)
Recent use (%)
Median days
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
In the same 2012 study, cannabis herb was the most common form of cannabis used by
recent users (hydroponic 70 per cent, bush 39 per cent28), followed by cannabis resin at
7 per cent and cannabis oil at 5 per cent (Stafford & Burns 2013).
26
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in
the six months preceding interview.
27
The distinction between hydroponic and bush cannabis is based on the respondents’ views and is
not supported by any scientific analysis.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
28
106
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent cannabis use decreased from 85 per cent in 2011 to 82 per cent in 2012. Recent
cannabis users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cannabis a median
of 60 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 48 days reported in
2011. Although this is the highest reported figure in the last decade, it remains substantially
lower than that reported by regular injecting drug users. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent cannabis use has increased to
86 per cent, while the reported median days of cannabis use in the six months preceding
interview decreased to 48 days (see Figure 23) (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 23: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cannabis use and median
days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Recent use
100
180
90
160
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
20
40
10
20
0
Median days use (max = 180)
Recent use (%)
Median days
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report
survey29 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing
positive for cannabis has decreased, from 58.0 per cent in 2003–04 to 49.0 per cent in
2012–13. Self-reported use of cannabis has also decreased, from 65.4 per cent in 2003–04
to 55.6 per cent in 2012–13. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for
cannabis use increased from 47.9 per cent in 2011–12 to 49.0 per cent in 2012–13, while
self-reported use of cannabis decreased from 57.2 per cent in 2011–12 to 55.6 per cent in
2012–13 (see Figure 24).
29
The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
107
FIGURE 24: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cannabis compared with self-reported use,
2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
70
Proportion (%)
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
The number of cannabis oil extraction
Between 2007–08 and 2011–12, there
2012–13, there were 2 cannabis oil
New South Wales and South Australia
chapter).
laboratories detected in Australia remains low.
were 3 detections in each reporting period. In
extraction laboratories detected, one each in
(see Clandestine laboratories and precursors
PRICE
Nationally, cannabis prices remained relatively stable in 2012–13. The price of a gram of
hydroponic cannabis head in 2012–13 ranged between $12 and $50. The price of an
ounce30 of hydroponic cannabis head ranged between $250 and $450, while the price for a
single mature hydroponic cannabis plant ranged between $2 000 and $5 000.
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment
on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 92 per cent reported hydroponic cannabis as
being easy or very easy to obtain, a decrease from the 94 per cent reported in 2011. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate a slight increase to 93 per cent (NDARC 2013;
Stafford & Burns 2013).
According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to
comment on the availability of hydroponic cannabis, 95 per cent reported hydroponic
cannabis as being easy or very easy to obtain, an increase from the 93 per cent reported in
2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate a small decrease to 90 per cent
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
30
An ounce equates to approximately 28 grams.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
108
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
The number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased this reporting period, with
the number of seizures the highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national
seizures was the second highest reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the number of
national cannabis seizures increased by 4.6 per cent, from 51 823 in 2011–12 to 54 181 in
2012–13. The weight of national cannabis seizures increased by 27.1 per cent, from
7 349.2 kilograms in 2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 25).
FIGURE 25: National cannabis seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
Number
10000
60000
9000
50000
7000
40000
Number
Weight (kg)
8000
6000
5000
30000
4000
20000
3000
2000
10000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Queensland continues to account for the greatest number of national cannabis seizures,
followed by New South Wales. Since 2007–08, Victoria has accounted for the greatest
proportion of the weight of national cannabis seizures, accounting for 56.9 per cent of the
weight of national seizures this reporting period. In 2012–13, the Australian Capital Territory
reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cannabis seizures, while Victoria
reported the greatest percentage increase in seizure weight (see Table 13).
TABLE 13: Number, weight and percentage change of national cannabis seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
Weight (grams)
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
% change
2011–12
2012–13
15 247
3 836
18 286
487
8 526
2 736
2 185
2012–13
16 205
4 056
18 009
370
10 294
2 796
1 685
6.3
5.7
-1.5
-24.0
20.7
2.2
-22.9
1 247 137
3 142 626
808 353
1 001 215
295 008
205,103
238 224
1 824 922
5 320 497
813 277
733 281
28 441
244 702
178 520
46.3
69.3
0.6
-26.8
-90.4
19.3
-25.1
520
51 823
766
54 181
47.3
4.6
411 587
7 349 253
200 373
9 344 013
-51.3
27.1
% change
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
109
Cannabis continues to account for the greatest proportion of illicit drug arrests in Australia.
The number of national cannabis arrests increased by 1.8 per cent, from 61 011 in 2011–12
to 62 120 in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in the last decade. Consumer arrests
accounted for 86.7 per cent of all cannabis related arrests in 2012–13 (see Figure 26).
FIGURE 26: Number of national cannabis arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
70000
60000
Number
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In the last decade, Queensland has accounted for the greatest proportion of national
cannabis arrests. In 2012–13, Queensland and New South Wales accounted for
53.4 per cent of national cannabis arrests (see Table 14).
TABLE 14: Number and percentage change of national cannabis arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
2011–12
14 004
Victoria
2012–13
14 796
% change
5.7
4.9
7 916
8 305
17 733
18 365
3.6
South Australia
2 544
2 378
-6.5
South Australia (CENs)b
8 878
8 677
-2.3
Western Australia
5 421
5 358
-1.2
Western Australia (CINs/CIRs)c
1 177
1 463
24.3
Tasmania
1 659
1 338
-19.3
617
528
-14.4
703
521
-25.9
265
277
4.5
94
114
21.3
61 011
62 120
1.8
Queensland
Northern Territory
Northern Territory
(DINs)d
Australian Capital Territory
Australian Capital Territory (SCONs)e
Total
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices.
c. Due to legislative changes effective in Western Australia as of 1 August 2011, Cannabis Infringement Notices (CINs) were
replaced by Cannabis Intervention Requirements (CIRs). The data contained in this Table combines figures for CINS and CIRs
for 2011–12. Please see ‘Jurisdictional Issues’ in the Statistics chapter for further information.
d. Drug Infringement Notices.
e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
110
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
111
NATIONAL IMPACT
Cannabis remains the dominant illicit drug in Australia in terms of arrests, seizures and use.
Due to abundant domestic cultivation, with the exception of cannabis resin, oil and seeds,
the trafficking of cannabis to Australia is unnecessary or unprofitable and remains relatively
low.
In 2012–13, the number and weight of cannabis detections at the Australian border
increased, with a record 3 629 detections this reporting period. Despite this, the weight of
cannabis detected at the Australian border remains low. In 2012–13, the postal stream
accounted for 98.8 per cent of cannabis detections by number and 51.2 per cent by weight.
Cannabis seed importations continue to account for the majority of detections, accounting for
89.2 per cent of the number of cannabis border detections in 2012–13. The number of
embarkation points identified for cannabis increased 34.4 per cent, from 32 countries in
2011–12, to 43 countries in 2012–13. By number, the UK was the primary embarkation point
this reporting period. In terms of weight, the prominent embarkation points were Iran and
Canada.
There were 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories detected in Australia in 2012–13, a
decrease from the 3 laboratories detected in each reporting period since 2007–08.
Both the number and weight of national cannabis seizures increased in 2012–13. The
number of national cannabis seizures increased from 51 823 in 2011–12 to 54 181 in
2012–13, with the weight of national cannabis seizures increasing from 7 349.2 kilograms in
2011–12 to 9 344.0 kilograms in 2012–13. Cannabis arrests continue to account for the
greatest proportion of national illicit drug arrests, with the 62 120 cannabis arrests in
2012–13 the highest number reported in the last decade.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
112
REFERENCES
Armentano, P 2013, ‘DEA: Marijuana Plant Seizures Decline to Lowest Levels in Nearly a
Decade’, NORML, Washington DC, 9 September 2013, viewed 17 October 2013,
<http://blog.norml.org/2013/09/09/dea-marijuana-plant-seizures-decline-to-lowest-levels-innearly-a-decade/>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy
Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW,
Canberra.
Bhattacharyya, S, Morrison, P, Fusar-Poli, P, Martin-Santos, R, Borgwardt, S, WintonBrown, T, Nosarti, C, O’ Carroll, CM, Seal, M, Allen, P, Mehta, M, Stone, J, Tunstall, N,
Giampietro, V, Kapur, S, Murray, RM, Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Atakan, Z & McGuire, PK
2010, ‘Opposite effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol on human brain
function and psychopathology’, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 35, no. 3, pp. 764–74, US.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug
Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon.
Global Post 2013, Algeria drug seizures skyrocket in 2012, Global Post, viewed
14 November 2013, <http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/afp/130305/algeria-drugseizures-skyrocket-2012>.
Hall, W and Swift, W 2000, ‘The THC content of cannabis in Australia: evidence and
implications’, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 503–508, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public
Health, Melbourne.
McLaren, J, Swift, W, Dillon, P & Allsop, S 2008, ‘Cannabis potency and contamination: a
review of the literature’, Addiction, vol. 103, no.7, pp. 1100–1109, Abingdon.
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2009, Polydrug use among
cannabis users, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 28 August 2013,
<http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/publications/aic-bulletins/article/polydrug-use-among-cannabisusers>.
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2011, What is cannabis: fact
sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013,
<http://ncpic.org.au/workforce/alcohol-and-other-drug-workers/cannabisinformation/factsheets/article/what-is-cannabis>.
National Cannabis Prevention and Information Centre (NCPIC) 2012, Cannabis and mental
health: fact sheet, NCPIC, Sydney, viewed 19 August 2013,
<http://ncpic.org.au/ncpic/publications/factsheets/article/cannabis-and-mental-health>.
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends
Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive
Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South
Wales, Sydney.
Pisa, N 2013, ‘Marijuana haul off Italy ‘biggest ever at sea’, Sky News, London, 18 April
2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://news.sky.com/story/1080009/marijuana-haul-off-italybiggest-ever-at-sea>.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and
Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National
Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug
Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2006, ‘Review of the world cannabis
situation’, Bulletin on Narcotics, vol. LVIII, nos. 1 & 2, UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013,
UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: survey of
commercial cannabis cultivation and production 2012, UNODC, New York.
Zuardi, AW, Crippa, JA, Hallak, JE, Bhattacharyya, S, Atakan , Z, Matin-Santos, R, McGuire,
PK, Guimaraes, FS 2012, A critical review of the antipsychotic effects of cannabidiol: 30
years of a translational investigation, Current Pharmaceutical Design, vol. 18, no. 32, pp.
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Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
114
HEROIN
KEY POINTS

The number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border increased in
2012–13, with the 513.8 kilograms detected the highest on record.

Profiling data from 2012 indicates the majority of analysed heroin seizures originated in
South-East Asia.

The weight of national heroin seizures increased to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, the
highest weight reported in the last decade.

The 2 463 national heroin and other opioid arrests reported in 2012–13 is the lowest
number reported since 2007–08.

MAIN FORMS
Heroin (diacetylmorphine) belongs to the opioid class and is synthesised from morphine, an
organic derivative of the opium poppy. In its purest form, raw opium is the dried milky juice
(latex) extracted from the unripe seed pods of opium poppy plants (Papaver somniferum).
The three primary regions producing illicit opium are South-West Asia (‘Golden Crescent’31),
South-East Asia (‘Golden Triangle’32) and Latin America (primarily Mexico) (UNODC 1998;
UNODC 2013a).
The extraction of morphine from opium involves a number of filtration processes to capture
unwanted residues and to obtain the desired clean filtrate solution. Chemicals used in this
process include calcium hydroxide, ammonium chloride and hydrochloric acid. As the
solution cools, morphine hydrochloride salt precipitates, which produces heroin of a higher
purity than if morphine base is used to produce heroin. The synthesis of heroin base from
morphine involves using acetic anhydride, sodium carbonate and collecting the heroin base
by filtration. Further purification processes are required to produce the heroin hydrochloride
salt (street heroin) (UNODC 1998).
The colour and appearance of heroin is not a definitive or reliable indicator of origin or purity.
There are four main grades of heroin, which have different utility and desirability in the
Australian market. These are:

No. 4 grade heroin, which is a product of high purity that is easily dissolved and usually
injected. It is the most common grade in developed countries.

No. 3 grade heroin, which is less refined and granular in appearance. Considered
unsuitable for injection, it is most commonly heated and the vapours inhaled.

No. 2 and No.1 grade heroin refers to heroin base, which is its form prior to conversion
to a hydrochloride salt. No.1 and No. 2 grade heroin are not commonly encountered in
Australia (Booth 1998).
31The
32The
‘Golden Crescent’ encompasses large areas of Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan.
‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
115
The two most common forms of heroin found in Australia are powder and rock, which are
usually white or off-white in colour. Unrefined heroin base is rarely found in Australia, with
‘homebake’ heroin being a crude form of heroin made from codeine (AIC 2011; Dunn 2012).
While heroin is most commonly injected, it can also be smoked, snorted/sniffed or added to
cannabis or tobacco. In Australia, the most common method of administration is intravenous
injection. The second most common practice is inhaling the fumes, which is referred to as
‘chasing the dragon’ (ADF 2013).


H
eroin produces a ‘rush’ minutes after administration, which may lead to a state of relaxation
and contentment. Heroin is a central nervous system depressant which slows brain
functions, in particular those related to respiration and blood pressure, and affects users’
perceptions of pain and reward. Short-term effects of heroin use may include drowsiness,
dry mouth, nausea and vomiting. Long-term effects of heroin use may include liver, heart
and lung problems, skin abscesses, memory impairment and depression. Psychological and
physical dependence are also associated with long-term heroin use. Dependent heroin users
may develop a tolerance and need higher doses to achieve the desired effect. Heroin
overdoses are often the result of suppressed respiration (AIC 2011; DoHA 2013;
NSW Health 2011).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
116
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
The global use of heroin remains stable, with some market shifts noted. According to the
2013 World Drug Report, South-West and Central Asia, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe
and North America reported a high prevalence of heroin use. Additionally, there is an
emerging trend related to the increased trafficking and non-medical use of prescription or
synthetic opioids, which mimic the effects of heroin. Conversely, in Western and Central
Europe, the heroin market continued to decline in 2012 in terms of reported use and
availability (UNODC 2013a).
Opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high in 2013. According to the
2013 Afghanistan Opium Survey, the area under cultivation amounted to 209 000 hectares,
compared to the earlier record in 2007 of 193 000 hectares. This represents a 36 per cent
increase compared to the 154 000 hectares in 2012. Opium production in Afghanistan also
increased, from 3 700 tonnes in 2012 to 5 500 tonnes in 2013. The survey reported that
opium poppy eradication in 2013 totalled 7 348 hectares, a 24 per cent decrease compared
to the 9 672 hectares in 2012. In 2013, two provinces that had previously been declared
poppy-free—Faryab and Balkh in Northern Afghanistan—were again identified as cultivating
opium. Based on 2012 opium poppy cultivation figures, Afghanistan accounted for
74 per cent of global opium cultivation (UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b).
In 2012, an estimated 300 to 500 heroin production laboratories capable of producing 380 to
400 tonnes of heroin were operating in Afghanistan. Heroin is trafficked out of Afghanistan
using a complex network of routes and intermediary countries. The ‘Northern route’ accounts
for approximately 30 per cent of opium/heroin trafficked out of Afghanistan via Iran and
Pakistan, then westwards through Iran and Turkey into Europe, or overland into Russia or
China. The ‘Southern route’ uses overland routes through Pakistan before shipments are
consigned to Africa and South-East Asia via maritime routes. From Asian ports, heroin is
trafficked predominately by land routes to China (Jane’s 2012).
Burma remains the second highest opium producing country in the world, producing
approximately a third of that produced by Afghanistan. Despite Burma reporting the second
highest ever figure for opium poppy eradication in 2013 at 12 288 hectares, opium poppy
cultivation increased for the seventh consecutive year to an estimated 57 800 hectares—the
greatest reported figure since 2003. The related potential opium production was estimated to
be 870 tonnes, representing a 26 per cent increase compared to 2012. In 2013, the UNODC
assessed that poppy cultivation in Laos was estimated to be 3 900 hectares, a decrease
from 6 800 hectares in 2012. Opium production also decreased from 41 tonnes in 2012 to
23 tonnes in 2013, but the UNODC noted that these figures reported for Laos were not
comparable for technical reasons33 (UNODC 2013c).
33
The UNODC reports that the estimate for Laos in 2013 (3 900 hectares) is not comparable with the
much higher figure (6 800 hectares) estimated in 2012. The 2013 UNODC Southeast Asia Opium
Production Survey took place in late February 2013, about two weeks later than in 2012. The report
assessed that some poppy fields were no longer identifiable as they were already harvested. Further,
the UNODC identified that in 2013 most images of poppy fields were digitised using very high
resolution satellite imagery, whereas in 2012 this was true only for some poppy fields and the
resolution of the imagery was lower. The UNODC identifies that research on illicit crop surveys in
other countries demonstrated that using higher resolution imagery leads to more accurate, but often
lower area estimates. The combination of both factors may have led to the low 2013 poppy estimate
and tonnage for Laos (UNODC 2013d).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
117
In Burma, heroin manufacturing laboratories continue to be predominantly located in the
Shan State, which borders China, Laos and Thailand. Opium harvested in the
Lao-Vietnam-China border region is trafficked to Burma for production into heroin. Burma
currently supplies two-thirds of the Chinese heroin market, with Afghanistan supplying the
remaining third. Heroin seizures in several South-East Asian and Oceanic countries indicate
trafficking through these countries continues to supply the established markets in Australia
and New Zealand, as well as the rapidly expanding Chinese market. Heroin produced in
Afghanistan may also be supplementing this market, with couriers trafficking into regional
countries such as Malaysia and Thailand (Jane’s 2013; UNODC 2013d).
In Europe, indicators suggest a downward trend in both use and availability of heroin. In
2012, some European countries reported that over the last decade heroin has been
displaced from the market by other opioid drugs. Other countries have experienced more
recent market shortages, generally followed by a partial recovery. The majority of heroin
found in Europe is thought to be manufactured in Afghanistan or, to a lesser extent, in
neighbouring Iran or Pakistan (EMCDDA 2013).
Two trafficking routes exist for transporting heroin to Europe. Historically, the more important
of these has been the ‘Balkan Route’, running west through Turkey, into Balkan countries
(Bulgaria, Romania or Albania) and on to Central, Southern and Western Europe. A more
recent trafficking route is the ‘Northern’ or ‘Silk Route’, which heads north to Russia, via the
former Soviet republics of Central Asia. However, the situation now appears to have become
more diverse, with heroin shipments from Iran and Pakistan entering Europe by air or sea,
either directly or transiting through West and East African countries. In 2012, heroin seizures
continued to decrease in Europe, notably in the amount of heroin trafficked through the
established Balkan land route. This may be as a result of law enforcement activity targeting
established trafficking routes (EMCDDA 2013; UNODC 2013a).
Unlike Europe, according to the Drug Enforcement Administration National Drug Threat
Assessment Summary 2013, the availability of heroin in the United States of America (US)
increased in 2012. This is likely due to the high levels of heroin production in Mexico, with
Mexican traffickers expanding into white powder heroin markets in the east and mid-west
US. Law enforcement and treatment officials throughout the US are also reporting that many
prescription opioid users have turned to heroin as a cheaper and/or more easily obtained
alternative to prescription drugs (DEA 2013).
All countries in the Americas, except Canada, are supplied by heroin produced in the region.
According to Government reports, the Canadian heroin market is supplied by heroin
originating in Asia, mainly Afghanistan. Mexico and Colombia remain the highest opium
producing countries supplying the US heroin market (UNODC 2013a).
In Africa, large increases in the weight of heroin seizures have been observed since
2009—especially in East Africa. The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that the amount of
heroin seized in East, West and Central Africa remains small compared with those in other
regions, but has increased over five-fold from 2009. This report also identifies that a vast
majority of these seizures occurred across maritime trafficking routes,34 which the report
suggests points to increased maritime trafficking of Afghan opiates towards Africa.
Additionally, West and Central Africa reported increased trafficking of heroin, with East Africa
emerging as a transit route for heroin from Afghanistan to European markets
(UNODC 2013a).
34
The 2013 World Drug Report describes these seizures as occurring at sea borders, ports or on the
open sea.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
118
Although Afghanistan remains the world’s largest opium producer, over the last decade the
potential production of opium in the three major source regions in the world has fluctuated. In
2013, the potential production of opium in Burma and Laos was 893 metric tonnes, the
highest combined weight reported for those countries in the last decade (see Figure 27).
FIGURE 27: Potential production of opium, 2004 to 2013 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime)
Burma & Laos
Afghanistan & Pakistan
Colombia & Mexico
9000
8000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
0
2004
Metric tonnes
7000
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
119
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER DETECTIONS
In 2012–13, the number of heroin detections at the Australian border increased by
32.4 per cent, from 179 in 2011–12 to 237 in 2012–13. The total weight of heroin detections
increased by 100.6 per cent, from 256.1 kilograms in 2011–12 to 513.8 kilograms in
2012–13, the highest on record (see Figure 28). The increase in the weight of heroin
detected in 2012–13 is primarily due to a single 252 kilogram sea cargo detection.
FIGURE 28: Number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Weight
600
Number
450
400
350
400
300
250
300
200
200
150
Number
Weight (kg)
500
100
100
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
In this reporting period, 204 of the 237 heroin detections at the Australian border weighed
less than 1 kilogram, accounting for 86.1 per cent of the total number of heroin detections in
2012–13. The 33 heroin detections weighing more than 1 kilogram totalled 486.7 kilograms
and accounted for 94.7 per cent of the total weight of heroin detections in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of heroin in 2012–13 include:

252 kilograms of heroin detected in July 2012, concealed in terracotta pots, via sea
cargo from Thailand to Sydney

69 kilograms of heroin detected in June 2013, concealed inside the rotors of water
pump electric motors, via sea cargo from Taiwan to Brisbane

58.5 kilograms of heroin detected in November 2012, concealed inside the base of
two timber altars, via sea cargo from Vietnam to Brisbane

12 kilograms of heroin detected in May 2013, concealed within an air passenger’s
suitcases, from Thailand to Sydney

10 kilograms of heroin detected in September 2012, concealed in the sides of four
cartons that contained calendars, via air cargo from Vietnam to Sydney.
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 401.5 kilograms and account for
78.1 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
120
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post was the most commonly detected method of importation by number,
accounting for 69.6 per cent of heroin detections. This was followed by air passenger/crew,
which accounted for 16.0 per cent (see Figure 29).
FIGURE 29: Number of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (13.1%)
Air passenger/crew (16.0%)
Parcel post (69.6%)
Sea Cargo (1.3%)
While only 3 detections of heroin were in the sea cargo stream in 2012–13, they accounted
for 73.9 per cent of the total weight of heroin detected at the Australian border. In 2012–13,
air passenger/crew accounted for 17.4 per cent of heroin detections by weight (see Figure
30).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
121
FIGURE 30: Weight of heroin detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (5.5%)
Air passenger/crew (17.4%)
Parcel post (3.2%)
Sea cargo (73.9%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 25 countries were identified as embarkation points for heroin detected
at the Australian border, compared with 19 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the primary embarkation points this reporting
period. In terms of weight, the primary embarkation points were Thailand, Vietnam, Taiwan
and Malaysia. Of the 25 embarkation points, 13 had a total heroin detection weight of over
one kilogram.
Figure 31 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections
by weight at the Australian border in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
122
FIGURE 31: Key source countries and embarkation points for heroin detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
123
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates a
forensic drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute which enables
the identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for samples of heroin
submitted from seizures made at the Australian border. The capability also allows for
comparisons within and between seizures to identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially
demonstrate links between groups involved in illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However,
only certain drug types are examined and not every seizure of drugs is analysed or
profiled.35
The figures presented in Table 15 reflect border seizures made by law enforcement which
are amenable to chemical profiling. The results for 2012 and the first six months of 2013 are
significant due to the prevalence of South-East Asia heroin amongst those border seizures.
Previous years have seen notable fluctuation between the contribution attributed to the two
sources, and this high proportion comes despite the reported dominance of South-West Asia
in global opium cultivation. Ongoing monitoring of this breakdown can enable inferences to
be drawn about the relative importance of the two regions to the Australian market.
The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures, by number, originating from South-East
Asia increased from 49.0 per cent in 2011 to 70.7 per cent in 2012. This proportion
continued to increase in the first six months of 2013 to 81.3 per cent. Conversely, the
proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia decreased, from
51.0 per cent in 2011 to 25.9 per cent in 2012. This proportion continued to decrease in the
first six months of 2013 to 18.7 per cent (see Table 15).
TABLE 15: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of analysed AFP border seizures,
2008–June 2013
Year
South-East
Asia %
South-West
Asia %
Unclassified
%
South-East Asia
& Unclassified %
South-West Asia
& Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
81.3
18.7
–
–
–
2012
70.7
25.9
3.4
–
–
2011
49.0
51.0
–
–
–
2010
63.8
27.5
5.8
–
2.9
2009
53.9
42.6
3.4
–
–
2008
44.1
44.1
11.8
–
–
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
35
In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005
to June 2013, and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine analysis
and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is collated
and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more recent data.
For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These figures
cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law
enforcement resources or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples,
such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable
to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers
i.e. street level seizures in Australia. The AFP is collecting samples of heroin from selected state and territory
jurisdictions for chemical profiling as part of the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID)
project.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
77
The shift in the prominent source region for analysed heroin border seizures in 2011 is also
reflected in the proportion of analysed seizures by total bulk weight (see Table 15). Five
large seizures accounted for approximately 88 per cent of the total bulk weight
(359.6 kilograms) of heroin seized in 2012, all of which were chemically profiled to be of
South-East Asia origin. During the January to June 2013 period, 3 seizures chemically
profiled to be of South-East Asia origin accounted for approximately 60 per cent of the total
bulk weight of seized heroin (126.3 kilograms).
The proportion of analysed heroin border seizures by total bulk weight originating from
South-East Asia increased from 39.4 per cent in 2011 to 90.4 per cent in 2012. This
proportion has continued to increase to 93.6 per cent in the first six months of 2013.
Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures originating from South-West Asia
decreased from 60.6 per cent in 2011 to 1.2 per cent in 2012. Figures reported in the first six
months of 2013 continue to be low at 6.4 per cent (see Table 16).
TABLE 16: Geographical origin of heroin samples as a proportion of total bulk weight of analysed AFP
border seizures, 2005–June 201336
Year
South-East Asia %
South-West Asia %
Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
93.6
6.4
–
2012
90.4
1.2
8.4
2011
39.4
60.6
–
2010
93.3
5.8
0.9
2009
48.2
40.9
10.9
2008
26.0
66.3
7.7
2007
47.9
50.6
1.5
2006
70.1
27.4
2.7
2005
78.9
18.0
3.1
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
The Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID) project extends the
routine drug profiling capabilities of law enforcement from seizures at the border to also
include state and territory seizures involving heroin, methylamphetamine, MDMA, and more
recently cocaine37. This enables detection of similarities between supply routes into different
jurisdictions; links between different criminal groups; as well as comparison of trends
between jurisdictions, including importations seized and profiled from the border.
ENIPID profiling data obtained between 2011 and 2013 shows heroin samples originating
predominately from South-East Asia. While exact proportions vary from year-to-year and are
subject to a range of variables, the predominating trend of South-East Asia heroin has
remained consistent in terms of both samples and cases. As with border figures, the market
appears to be fed through South-East Asia and South-West Asia sources, with no confirmed
detections of South American heroin among ENIPID samples (see Table 17 and 18).
36
Of note, analysed seizures in 2010 and 2011 were influenced by single large seizures from South-East Asia
and South-West Asia respectively. The significant influence of these 2 seizures on the profiling data
demonstrates that strategic assessments of the market must be made with caution.
37
Profiling of cocaine samples under the ENIPID project commenced in late 2013 and therefore falls
outside the reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
78
TABLE 17: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional
samples, 2011–June 2013
Geographical origin
Year
Jan- Jun 2013
Jurisdiction
NSW
WA
Total
2012
ACT
NSW
WA
Total
2011
NSW
WA
Total
South-East Asia %
50.0
16.7
66.7
8.5
55.3
2.1
65.9
9.8
82.3
92.1
South-West Asia %
25.0
25.0
12.8
8.5
21.3
2.0
2.0
Mixed/ Unclassified %
8.3
8.3
12.8
12.8
3.9
2.0
5.9
Total
58.3
41.7
100
8.5
80.9
10.6
100
15.7
84.3
100
Note: This data set represents a total of 110 heroin samples. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were
classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
TABLE 18: Geographical origin of heroin ENIPID samples as a proportion of analysed jurisdictional
cases, 2011–June 2013
Geographical origin
Year
Jan-Jun 2013
Jurisdiction
NSW
WA
Total
2012
ACT
NSW
WA
Total
2011
Total
NSW
WA
South-East Asia %
60.0
20.0
80.0
9.4
46.9
3.1
59.4
18.8
56.3
75.1
South-West Asia %
10.0
10.0
12.5
9.4
21.9
6.2
6.2
Mixed/ Unclassified %
10.0
10.0
18.7
18.7
12.5
6.2
18.7
Total
70.0
30.0
100
9.4
78.1
12.5
100
37.5
62.5
100
Note: This heroin data set represents a total of 58 cases. Due to a lack of available data, 14 samples were
classified based on sample collection date in place of sample seizure date.
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 1.4 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using heroin at least once in their
lifetime. In the same survey, 0.2 per cent reported recent38 heroin use (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent39 heroin use decreased from 62 per cent in 2011 to 60 per cent in 2012.
Recent heroin users within this regular injecting drug user population reported using heroin a
median of 72 days in the six months preceding interview, which has remained stable since
2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent heroin use
remained stable at 60 per cent, with the reported median days of heroin use in the six
months preceding interview decreasing to 60 days (see Figure 32) (NDARC 2013;
Stafford & Burns 2013).
38
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in
the six months preceding interview.
39
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
79
FIGURE 32: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent heroin use and
median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Recent use
100
180
90
160
80
140
70
120
60
100
50
80
40
60
30
20
40
10
20
0
Median days use (max = 180)
Recent use (%)
Median days
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
According to the 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users 54 per cent respondents
reported heroin as their drug of choice. Forms of heroin used were white/off-white powder or
rock (93 per cent) and brown powder or rock (48 per cent). There continues to be minimal
reporting of home-bake heroin use, with injection the most common reported method of
administration. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents
reporting heroin as their drug of choice decreased to 53 per cent (NDARC 2013;
Stafford & Burns 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent heroin use decreased from 7 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Recent heroin
users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using heroin a median of 5 days in
the six months preceding interview, a decrease from the 12 days reported in 2011. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent heroin
use remains relatively stable at 4 per cent.40 Injection (80 per cent) was the most common
reported method of administration, followed by smoking at 23 per cent, snorting at
13 per cent and swallowing at 3 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report
survey41 and voluntary urinalysis. The proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin has
decreased from 13.7 per cent in 2003–04 to 9.9 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of
heroin decreased from 19.6 per cent in 2003–04 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13. More recently,
the proportion of detainees testing positive for heroin use remained relatively stable between
2011–12 and 2012–13 at around 10 per cent, while self-reported heroin use decreased from
14.3 per cent in 2011–12 to 13.4 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 33).
40
Early findings from the 2013 EDRS for reported median days of heroin use were not available.
41
The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
80
FIGURE 33: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for heroin compared with self-reported use,
2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
25
Proportion (%)
20
15
10
5
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Nationally, the price for a gram of heroin in 2012–13 ranged between $220 and $1 000. The
price for an 8-ball42 of heroin ranged between $550 and $2 000.43 The price for an ounce of
heroin in Victoria, South Australia, and Western Australia was higher than prices reported in
New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory.
PURITY
Figure 34 illustrates the annual median purity of heroin in Australia since 2003–04. During
the last decade, the median purity of analysed heroin samples ranged between 12.2 per cent
and 51.0 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity of heroin ranged between
14.1 per cent in Victoria to 30.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, since 2009–10,
Western Australia has continued to report the highest annual median purity for heroin. In
2012–13, South Australia was the only jurisdiction to record an increase in annual median
purity.
42
An 8-ball equates to 3.5 grams.
This high price is attributed to the reported price of an 8-ball of heroin in Western Australia, which
ranged between $1 900 and $2 000 in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
43
81
FIGURE 34: Annual median purity of heroin samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Figure 35 illustrates the median purity of analysed heroin samples on a quarterly basis in
2012–13. The quarterly median purity of heroin ranged from 13.3 per cent in Queensland to
41.0 per cent in Western Australia. Of note, Western Australia reported the highest median
purity for analysed heroin samples for three of the four quarters in this reporting period.
FIGURE 35: Quarterly median purity of heroin samples, 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
q2 2013
q1 2013
q4 2012
q3 2012
0
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to comment
on the availability of heroin, 87 per cent reported heroin as being easy or very easy to obtain.
This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate this figure has remained relatively stable, with 85 per cent of respondents reporting
heroin as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
82
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national heroin seizures decreased by 9.9 per cent, from 1 758 in
2011–12, to 1 584 in 2012–13. Despite this decrease, the number of heroin seizures this
reporting period is the third highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin
seizures increased by 40.2 per cent, from 388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in
2012–13 and is the highest reported in the last decade (see Figure 36).
FIGURE 36: National heroin seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
Number
600
2000
1800
1600
1400
400
1200
300
1000
800
200
Number
Weight (kg)
500
600
400
100
200
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of national heroin
seizures this reporting period, accounting for 53.5 per cent of the number of national
seizures and 69.4 per cent of the weight of national seizures. In 2012–13, the Northern
Territory and the Australian Capital Territory reported increases in the number of heroin
seizures. New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, the Northern Territory and
Australian Capital Territory all reported increases in the weight of heroin seizures this
reporting period, with Queensland and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage
increases compared to 2011–12 (see Table 19).
TABLE 19: Number, weight and percentage change of national heroin seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
849
358
227
58
230
2
3
31
1 758
Weight (grams)
2012–13
848
275
194
40
173
0
8
46
1 584
% change
-0.1
-23.2
-14.5
-31.0
-24.8
-100.0
166.7
48.4
-9.9
2011–12
283 653
100 662
989
1 489
1 548
1
8
46
388 396
2012–13
% change
377 798
28 679
128 818
1 857
937
0
6 148
243
544 480
33.2
-71.5
12 925.1
24.7
-39.5
-100.0
76 750.0
428.3
40.2
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
83
Over the last decade, the number of national heroin and other opioid arrests has decreased
33.3 per cent, from 3 691 in 2003–04 to 2 463 in 2012–13. In this reporting period, national
heroin and other opioids arrests decreased by 9.2 per cent, from 2 714 in 2011–12 to
2 463 in 2012–13. Consumer arrests accounted for 68.1 per cent of national heroin and
other opioid arrests this reporting period, with South Australia reporting more heroin and
other opioid provider arrests than consumer arrests (see Figure 37).
FIGURE 37: Number of national heroin and other opioid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
4000
3500
Number
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Victoria has accounted for the greatest proportion of national heroin and other opioids
arrests over the last decade, accounting for 49.4 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. South
Australia, Tasmania and the Northern Territory all reported increases in the number of heroin
and other opioid arrests this reporting period. In 2012–13, related arrests in New South
Wales and Victoria accounted for 75.7 per cent of national heroin and other opioids arrests
(see Table 20).
TABLE 20: Number and percentage change of national heroin and other opioid arrests,
2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
668
1 425
314
85
180
13
1
28
2012–13
648
1 217
291
111
155
18
3
20
% change
-3.0
-14.6
-7.3
30.6
-13.9
38.5
200.0
-28.6
2 714
2 463
-9.2
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
84
NATIONAL IMPACT
In 2013, opium poppy cultivation in Afghanistan reached a record high, with the estimated
illicit opium production in Afghanistan increasing by 49 per cent compared with 2011.
Afghanistan remains the largest producer of illicit opium in the world, accounting for
75 per cent of global illicit production in 2012.
South-East and South-West Asia remain the key source regions for heroin seized at the
Australian border. In 2012, the majority of heroin profiled was sourced from South-East Asia,
with increases in the proportion of analysed border seizures of South-East Asian origin, for
both number and total bulk weight. This trend has continued in the first six months of 2013.
The predominance of heroin of South-East Asian origin is also reflected in heroin profiled as
part of the ENIPID project.
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of heroin detections at the Australian border
increased, with the weight the highest on record. Parcel post continues to account for the
highest proportion of the number of heroin detections at the Australian border, while sea
cargo accounted for the highest proportion of the weight of detected heroin this reporting
period. In 2012–13, the number of countries identified as embarkation points for heroin
detected at the Australian border increased by 31.6 per cent, from 19 countries in 2011–12
to 25 countries in 2012–13. By number the Netherlands, Vietnam and Thailand were the
primary embarkation points this reporting period. In terms of weight, Thailand, Vietnam and
Malaysia continue to be prominent heroin embarkation points.
The number of national heroin seizures decreased from 1 758 in 2011–12, to 1 584 in
2012–13. Despite this decrease, heroin seizures in this reporting period were the third
highest reported in the last decade. The weight of national heroin seizures increased from
388.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 544.4 kilograms in 2012–13, and is the highest reported in
the last decade. New South Wales continued to account for the greatest proportion of both
the number and weight of national heroin seizures this reporting period, with Queensland
and the Northern Territory reporting significant percentage increases in the weight of heroin
seized compared with 2011–12.
In 2012–13, heroin and other opioid arrests decreased, with the 2 463 arrests the lowest
number reported since 2007–08. Victoria continued to account for the greatest proportion of
national heroin and other opioids arrests this reporting period. While heroin and other opioid
consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national arrests, in
2012–13, South Australia reported more heroin and other opioid provider arrests than
consumer arrests.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
85
REFERENCES
Australian Drug Foundation (ADF) 2013, DrugInfo: heroin facts, ADF, viewed
21 August 2013, <http://www.druginfo.adf.org.au/drug-facts/heroin>.
Australian Institute of Criminology (AIC) 2011, Heroin, viewed 28 August 2013,
<http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types/drugs_alcohol/drug_types/heroin.html>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy
Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW,
Canberra.
Booth, M 1998, Opium: a history, St. Martins Press, New York.
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) 2013, National Drug Threat Assessment Summary
2013, US Department of Justice, Washington DC, viewed 29 November 2013,
<http://www.justice.gov/dea/resource-center/DIR-01713%20NDTA%20Summary%20final.pdf>.
Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2013, ‘Heroin or diacetylmorphine’, National
Drugs
Campaign,
DoHA,
viewed
21
August
2013,
<http://www.health.gov.au/internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/content/Heroin/$file/Heroin%20or%2
0diacetylmorphine.pdf>.
Dunn, M 2012, ‘A quick guide to drugs and alcohol’, a druginfo@your library, State Library of
New South Wales, Sydney, viewed 21 August 2013,
<http://www.druginfo.sl.nsw.gov.au/drugs/list/heroin.html pdf>.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug
Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon.
Jane’s 2012, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Northern Exposure: Afghan heroin trafficking
through Central Asia’, Jane’s Intelligence Review – July 2012, IHS Jane’s, Northampton.
Jane’s 2013, ‘Serious and Organised Crime, Orient excess: Drug production in Myanmar’,
Jane’s Intelligence Review – August 2013, IHS Jane’s, Northampton.
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends
Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive
Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South
Wales, Sydney.
New South Wales Government, Health (NSW Health) 2011, Factsheet: heroin, NSW
Government, Health, viewed 21 August 2013,
<http://www0.health.nsw.gov.au/factsheets/drugandalcohol/heroin.html>.
Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and
Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National
Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug
Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
86
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 1998, Recommended methods for
testing opium, morphine and heroin: manual for use by national drug testing laboratories,
UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013,
UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Afghanistan: Opium Survey
2013, UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Southeast Asia Opium Survey
2013, UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Transnational Organised Crime
in East Asia and the Pacific: A Threat Assessment, UNODC, New York.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
87
COCAINE
KEY POINTS

Although the weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border almost halved in
2012–13, the number of detections more than doubled and is the highest on record.

Cocaine profiling data indicates the continued prominence of Colombia as a source
country for cocaine seized at the Australian border.

There was a record number of national cocaine seizures this reporting period, with the
weight of national cocaine seizures the highest reported in the last decade.

There was a record 1 282 national cocaine arrests in 2012–13.

MAIN FORMS
Cocaine (benzoylmethyl ecgonine) is the principle psychoactive alkaloid of the coca plant. 44
The genus Erythroxylum has over 200 known species, of which at least 17 contain the
alkaloid cocaine. The two main species cultivated for the production of cocaine are
Erythroxylum Coca (E. Coca) and Erythroxylum Novogranatense (E. Novagranatense)
E. Coca has the highest cocaine content of the two species and is cultivated along the
eastern slopes of Bolivia and Peru. Erythroxylum Novogranatense is cultivated in Colombia
and countries in Central America (Freye & Levy 2009).
The extraction and production of cocaine hydrochloride from coca leaves involves a number
of chemical processes that occur in three stages—obtaining coca paste from coca leaf,
refining coca paste to cocaine base and converting cocaine base to cocaine hydrochloride.
Chemicals commonly used during this process include sulfuric acid, ammonium hydroxide,
potassium permanganate, acetone and hydrochloric acid (Freye & Levy 2009).
The most common form of cocaine available in Australia is powdered hydrochloride salt
which can be snorted, rubbed into the gums or dissolved in water and injected. Another form
of cocaine is base—or ‘crack’45—usually rock crystal in appearance, which is heated to
produce vapours that are inhaled. Crack cocaine is not commonly encountered in Australia
(NIDA 2013).
Cocaine is a strong central nervous stimulant that increases levels of the neurotransmitter
dopamine. Dopamine is associated with functions responsible for reward, motivation and the
experience of pleasure. It is the increase in dopamine levels that cause cocaine’s
characteristic ‘high’ and associated feelings of euphoria, confidence and energy
(NIDA 2013).
44
45
The coca plant is grown predominately along the Andean Ridge in South America.
The term crack refers to the crackling sound produced by the rock as it is heated.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
88
The intensity and duration of the cocaine high is influenced by the method of administration.
Injecting or smoking cocaine delivers the drug rapidly into the bloodstream, producing a
quicker and stronger, but shorter-lasting high than snorting. The effects from injecting or
smoking cocaine may last 5 to 10 minutes, while the effects from snorting may last 15 to 30
minutes. In order to sustain effects, users may administer the drug in a ‘binge-pattern’.46 This
practice can easily lead to addiction, a chronic relapsing disease caused by changes in the
brain and may be characterised by uncontrollable drug-seeking (NIDA 2013).
Short-term effects of cocaine use may include increased heart rate, nausea, tremors and
hallucinations. Long-term effects of cocaine use may include convulsions, kidney failure,
respiratory problems and increased risk of stroke. When cocaine is used in conjunction with
alcohol, the liver converts the combination into a third substance known as cocaethylene,
which may lead to liver failure or heart attack (DoHA 2010; DRS 2011).
The term ‘binge-pattern’ refers to taking the drug repeatedly within a relatively short period of time,
at increasingly higher doses.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
46
89
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 World Drug Report, the global cocaine market has declined in recent
years. This assessment was informed by figures relating to the cultivation of coca bush,
cocaine manufacture, cocaine seizures and cocaine user estimates in the major consumer
countries. This is reflected in the situation in North America, where the cocaine market
declined significantly over the period 2006 to 2012 and, to a lesser extent in Western and
Central Europe, where the cocaine market appears to have stabilised following many years
of growth.47 In contrast, over the last decade the prevalence of cocaine use appears to have
increased in several regions with large populations, notably South America and to a lesser
extent in Africa and Asia (UNODC 2013a).
South America continues to dominate global coca cultivation. Despite this, Colombia, Bolivia
and Peru all reported a decrease in coca cultivation in 2012 compared with 2011. Colombia
reported the largest decrease in coca cultivation since crop monitoring began in 2001,
decreasing from 64 000 hectares in 2011 to 48 000 hectares in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). Coca
cultivation in Bolivia decreased from 27 200 hectares in 2011 to 25 300 hectares in 2012,
with coca cultivation in Peru decreasing from 62 500 hectares in 2011 to 60 400 hectares in
2012 (UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d).
Colombia reported a decrease in the area of coca bush eradicated, decreasing from
34 170 hectares in 2011 to 30 486 hectares in 2012, while Bolivia and Peru reported
increases. In Bolivia, 11 044 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 500 in 2011
and in Peru, 14 234 hectares was eradicated in 2012 compared with 10 290 in 2011
(UNODC 2013b; UNODC 2013c; UNODC 2013d).
Colombian cocaine continues to be trafficked through Ecuador, Mexico and other South
American countries to North American markets. Shipments consigned to West and Central
Africa or European markets use maritime transit hubs in Brazil and Ecuador. According to
media reporting, in May 2013 the Aeronaval National Service of Panama reported a seizure
of 2 717 kilograms of cocaine in the Guna Yala shire, Panama, as part of Operation
Santisima Trinidad (Xinhua 2013).
The European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) reports that
organised criminal groups are diversifying their trafficking techniques and routes. Cocaine
continues to be trafficked into Europe via the traditional entry countries of Spain and
Portugal, or through maritime shipping routes into the major ports of Belgium, the
Netherlands and other West European countries. In 2012, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and
Baltic States reported increases in the weight of cocaine seizures at sea ports
(EMCDDA 2013).
The United States of America (US) continues to engage in regional capacity building and
counter-narcotics initiatives with national authorities in Mexico, West Africa and the
Caribbean. The US Customs and Border Protection regularly patrol areas in the West
Caribbean and East Pacific. According to media reporting, during 1 October 2011 to
30 September 2012, these patrols detected 59 tonnes of cocaine worth an estimated
US$8.8 billion. In a single month, they intercepted cocaine shipments estimated to be worth
US$527 million (McLaughlin 2013).
47
Despite 40 per cent decreases in the North American and European cocaine user markets, they
continue to account for almost half of the global cocaine user market (BINLEA 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
90
Among drug markets with potential for growth in the prevalence of cocaine use, the 2013
World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia present the greatest risk of
expansion (UNODC 2013a). According to media reporting, in July 2012 Hong Kong officials
acting on US Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) information seized 649 kilograms of
cocaine with an estimated street value of US$98 million, concealed in a shipping container
arriving from Guayaquil, Ecuador (CNN 2012). The Philippines has also seized large
quantities of cocaine in recent years and Thailand—a country with a large consumer market
for stimulants—identified the Philippines among the transit countries for cocaine reaching
Thailand (UNODC 2013a).
Since 2007, West Africa has been an important transhipment hub for cocaine trafficked from
South America to Europe. West African nationals remain prominent traffickers and are
involved with organised networks trafficking cocaine to various destinations. The availability
of cocaine in West Africa and along the land trafficking routes may have also contributed to
an increase in cocaine use in West and North Africa (UNODC 2013a).
In the South Pacific, ongoing joint law enforcement operations involving the Australian
Federal Police, Australian Customs and Border Protection Service, US DEA and various
island-nation police services continue to target criminal groups using the region as a transit
route or staging area for the trafficking of illegal substances. In November 2012, more than
200 kilograms of cocaine with an estimated street value of up to $116 million was located
concealed in the hull of a 13 metre yacht off the Tongan coast. The yacht had been
monitored by an international police taskforce since departing from Ecuador in August 2012.
The monitoring was part of a combined international operation targeting organised criminal
groups using the South Pacific to traffic drugs into the region (AFP 2012).
Since 2005, the potential quantity of cocaine produced in Colombia has continued to
decrease in each subsequent reporting period. In 2012, the potential quantity of cocaine
produced in Colombia was reported at 309 tonnes, a decrease from the 345 tonnes reported
in 2011 (see Figure 38) (UNODC 2013a).
FIGURE 38: Potential production of cocaine, 2003 to 2012 (Source: United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime)
Colombia
Peru
Bolivia
1200
Metric Tonnes
1000
800
600
400
200
2012a
2011a
2010a
2009a
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
0
a. Due to the ongoing review of conversion factors, estimated production figures for Peru and Bolivia are not available beyond
2008.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
91
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The number of detections of cocaine at the Australian border has continued to increase
since 2009–10. In 2012–13, the number of cocaine detections at the Australian border
increased by 104.6 per cent, from 979 in 2011–12 to 2 003 in 2012–13 and is the highest
number on record. The total weight of cocaine detected this reporting period decreased by
49.1 per cent, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 399.6 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure
39).
FIGURE 39: Number and weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Weight
Number
900
2500
800
2000
700
1500
500
400
1000
Number
Weight (kg)
600
300
200
500
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Of note, 98.3 per cent of cocaine detections this reporting period weighed less than
1 kilogram. In 2012–13, 33 cocaine detections weighed over 1 kilogram. These
33 detections had a combined total weight of 363.6 kilograms and account for 90.9 per cent
of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of cocaine in 2012–13 include:

144.4 kilograms of cocaine detected in October 2012, suspended in four pallets of
250 cases of wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney

138 kilograms of cocaine detected in September 2012, suspended in 900 cases of
wine, via sea cargo from Chile to Sydney

7.8 kilograms of cocaine detected in June 2013, via an air passenger’s suitcase
from Peru to Sydney

6.9 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, concealed within a granite
water fountain, via air cargo from Canada to Sydney
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
92



6 kilograms of cocaine detected in December 2012, via sea cargo from Canada to
Sydney.48
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 303.1 kilograms and account
for 75.8 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border in 2012–
13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
Since 2000–01, the postal stream has accounted for over 70 per cent of the number of
cocaine border detections. In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 94.1 per cent of
detections, by number (see Figure 40).
FIGURE 40: Number of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (4.5%)
Air passenger/crew (1.3%)
Parcel post (94.1%)
Sea cargo (0.1%)
In this reporting period, three sea cargo detections with a combined weight of
288.4 kilograms accounted for 72.2 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the
Australian border. Air cargo accounted for 11.3 per cent and air passenger/crew accounted
for 10.3 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected in 2012–13 (see Figure 41).
48
This border detection also included 40 kilograms of methylamphetamine concealed in table tops.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
93
FIGURE 41: Weight of cocaine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total weight, by
method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (11.3%)
Air passenger/crew (10.3%)
Parcel post (6.2%)
Sea cargo (72.2%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 56 countries were identified as embarkation points for cocaine
detected at the Australian border, compared with 39 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands
accounted for the greatest number of cocaine detections this reporting period—with
682 detections—with Canada and Germany other prominent embarkation points. In terms of
weight, the prominent embarkation point was Chile, which included 2 sea cargo detections
with a combined weight of 282.4 kilograms. Chile was followed by Canada and the US.
Figure 42 illustrates the key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections
by weight at the Australian border in 2012-13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
94
FIGURE 42: Key source countries and embarkation points for cocaine detections, by weight, at the Australian border, 2012–13
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
95
DRUG PROFILING
The Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team operates forensic
drug profiling capability through the National Measurement Institute (NMI) which enables the
identification of regions of origin and manufacturing trends for cocaine samples seized at the
Australian border. The capability also allows for comparisons within and between seizures to
identify distinct batches of drugs or potentially demonstrate links between groups involved in
illicit drug manufacture or trafficking. However, only certain drug types are examined and not
every seizure of drugs is analysed or profiled.49
The figures in Table 21 and Table 22 represent recent cocaine profiling results for border
seizures, identifying the geographic origin of the coca-leaf used in the production of the drug.
It should be noted that ‘unclassified’ figures include samples that are currently undergoing
profiling, as well as samples for which a geographic origin could not be determined through
existing profiling techniques. The presence of ‘mixed’ seizures highlights the existence of
shipments where more than one type of cocaine was present (for example, cocaine of
‘Colombian’ and ‘Peruvian’ origin within a single shipment).
The proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures, by number, with Colombian leaf-origin
remained stable between 2011 and 2012, while the proportion identified as Peruvian leaforigin decreased from 35.3 per cent in 2011 to 29.1 per cent in 2012. In the first six months
of 2013, the proportion of seizures with Colombian leaf-origin increased to 70.8 per cent,
while seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin continued to decrease to 25.0 per cent (see Table 21).
TABLE 21 Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of analysed AFP
border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year
Peruvian %
Bolivian %
Mixed %
Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
Colombian %
70.8
25.0
–
4.2
–
2012
55.3
29.1
–
5.9
9.7
2011
55.9
35.3
–
5.9
2.9
2010
55.2
30.2
1.0
6.3
7.3
2009
44.9
32.7
2.0
10.2
10.2
2008
67.3
28.6
–
–
4.1
2007
61.7
23.3
1.7
9.9
3.4
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
49
In examining profiling data, it should be noted that it relates to seizures investigated by the AFP between 2005
and June 2013 and from which samples were submitted to the National Measurement Institute for routine
analysis and profiling. Improvements in information technology have brought about changes to how the data is
collated and presented, and for this reason, care should be taken in comparing figures before 2010 to more
recent data. For all reporting years, the data represents a snapshot across the applicable reporting period. These
figures cannot reflect seizures that have not been submitted for forensic examination due to prioritisation of law
enforcement resources, or those that have passed through the border undetected. Certain seizures/samples,
such as those containing swabs or trace material, have been omitted from the analysis as they are not amenable
to chemical profiling. It is difficult to extrapolate the impact of any observed trends on drugs reaching consumers
i.e. street level seizures in Australia. For this reason, as of 2014, samples are also being sought from significant
domestic seizures.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
171
The data in Table 22 is based on the same analytical samples used as the basis for
Table 21, but is organised in terms of the total bulk weight of seizures rather than number.
Four large seizures contributed approximately 83 per cent of the total bulk weight
(978.9 kilograms) of cocaine seized and chemically profiled in 2012. Available profiling data
on 3 of these seizures indicates that they were manufactured from Peruvian coca leaves,
and the other large seizure from Colombian coca leaves. The vast majority of Peruvian
cocaine seized in 2012 consisted of 2 large seizures, which were in liquid form
(545.1 kilograms). In the first six months of 2013, 4 seizures accounted for 59 per cent of the
total bulk weight (11 kilograms) seized and profiled in that period.
In terms of total bulk weight, the proportion of analysed cocaine border seizures of
Colombian leaf-origin decreased from 51.3 per cent in 2011 to 23.7 per cent in 2012.
Conversely, the proportion of analysed border seizures of Peruvian leaf-origin increased
from 44.2 per cent in 2011 to 74.3 per cent in 2012. This trend reversed in the first six
months of 2013, with the proportion of analysed seizures with Colombian leaf-origin being
more prominent (see Table 22).
TABLE 22: Geographical origin of coca leaf used to produce cocaine as a proportion of total bulk weight
of analysed AFP border seizures, 2007–June 2013
Year
Colombian %
Peruvian %
Bolivian %
Mixed %
Unclassified %
Jan–Jun 2013
75.9
24.1
–
–
–
2012
23.7
74.3
–
1.3
0.7
2011
51.3
44.2
–
4.4
0.1
2010
96.3
3.2
<0.1
–
0.4
2009
91.3
6.8
<0.1
–
1.9
2008
95.1
4.7
–
–
0.2
2007
86.3
10.6
0.4
–
2.7
Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug Intelligence, 2013.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
172
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 7.3 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported using cocaine at least once in their
lifetime. In the same survey, 2.1 per cent reported recent50 cocaine use, the highest
proportion ever reported in this survey for recent cocaine use (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent51 cocaine use decreased from 17 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent in 2012,
the lowest proportion reported in the last decade. Reported recent use of cocaine remained
most common among participants in New South Wales (44 per cent), with the proportion of
recent users in the majority of other states and territories remaining below the national figure
of 15 per cent. Recent cocaine users within this regular injecting drug user population
reported using cocaine a median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview in 2012, the
lowest reported figure in the last decade. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the
proportion of recent cocaine users has increased to 16 per cent, with the reported median
days of cocaine use in the six months preceding interview remaining stable at 3 days (see
Figure 43) (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 43: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent cocaine use and
median days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Median days
Recent use
30
25
Recent use (%)
40
20
30
15
20
10
10
5
0
Median days use (max = 180)
50
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
In the same 2012 study, 3 per cent of respondents reported cocaine as their drug of choice.
Powder remains the most commonly used form of cocaine (78 per cent) among recent
users, with only minimal reporting of crack cocaine use. The most common method of
administration was injection (12 per cent) followed by snorting (4 per cent). Early findings
from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine was their drug
of choice decreased to 2 per cent (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
50
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
51 The
term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to reported use in
the six months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
173
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent cocaine use decreased from 46 per cent in 2011 to 40 per cent in 2012. New South
Wales and Victoria accounted for the greatest proportion of recent cocaine users in 2012.
Recent cocaine users within this regular ecstasy user population reported using cocaine a
median of 3 days in the six months preceding interview, an increase from the 2 days
reported in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent cocaine
users has decreased to 36 per cent, with the reported median days of cocaine use in the six
months preceding interview decreasing to 2 days (see Figure 44) (NDARC 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 44: Proportion of a regular ecstasy user population reporting recent cocaine use and median
days of use, 2004 to 2013 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
Median days
Recent use
30
25
Recent use (%)
40
20
30
15
20
10
10
5
0
Median days use (max = 180)
50
0
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013a
a. Note: Reported figures for 2013 are preliminary.
The proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice remained relatively
stable in 2012 at 13 per cent. The most common form of administration was snorting at
97 per cent, followed by swallowing at 31 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate the proportion of respondents reporting cocaine as their drug of choice decreased to
6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report
survey52 and voluntary urinalysis. Over the last decade, the proportion of detainees testing
positive
for cocaine has fluctuated, from a low of 0.7 per cent in 2003–04 to a high of 2.2 per cent in
2008–09. More recently, the proportion of detainees testing positive for cocaine use
decreased from 1.5 per cent in 2011–12 to 1.1 per cent in 2012–13. Self-reported use of
cocaine has remained relatively stable since 2004–05, ranging from 10.2 per cent in
2007–08 to 12.8 per cent in 2008–09. Self-reported use of cocaine increased from
10.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.2 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 45).
52
The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
174
FIGURE 45: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for cocaine compared with self-reported use,
2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
14
Proportion (%)
12
10
8
6
4
2
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Nationally, the price of a gram of cocaine in 2012–13 ranged between $250 and $1 000. The
price of a gram of cocaine in New South Wales has remained relatively stable since
2009–10 and ranged between $250 and $400 in 2012–13.The price for a gram of cocaine in
the Northern Territory doubled this reporting period, increasing from $500 in 2011–12 to
$1 000 in 2012–13.
Nationally, the price range of a kilogram of cocaine increased this reporting period, from
between $190 000 and $300 000 in 2011–12, to between $180 000 and $360 000 in
2012–13.
PURITY
Figure 46 illustrates ongoing fluctuations in the annual median purity of cocaine over the last
decade. Since 2003–04, the annual median purity of analysed cocaine samples has ranged
between 3.0 per cent and 64.3 per cent. In 2012–13, the annual median purity ranged
between 27.8 per cent in Queensland and 56.6 per cent in South Australia. Western
Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported a decrease in the annual median
purity of cocaine this reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
175
FIGURE 46: Annual median purity of cocaine samples, 2003–04 to 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
TAS
ACT
100
90
80
Purity (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Figure 47 illustrates the median purity of analysed cocaine samples on a quarterly basis for
2012–13. During the reporting period, the median purity of cocaine ranged between
20.0 per cent in Queensland and 57.5 per cent in South Australia. Queensland reported the
greatest fluctuation in median cocaine purity during the reporting period, ranging between
20.0 per cent in the third quarter of 2012 and 55.3 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2012.
FIGURE 47: Quarterly median purity of cocaine samples, 2012–13
NSW
VIC
QLD
SA
WA
ACT
100
90
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
q2 2013
q1 2013
q4 2012
0
q3 2012
Purity (%)
70
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
176
AVAILABILITY
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, only small numbers of respondents
were able to comment on the availability of cocaine in jurisdictions other than New South
Wales, therefore any assessment should be made with caution. Of those respondents who
commented on the availability of cocaine, 65 per cent described cocaine as easy or very
easy to obtain, a decrease from 68 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate an increase in availability, with 70 per cent of respondents reporting cocaine as easy
or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
According to a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to
comment on the availability of cocaine, 49 per cent reported cocaine as being easy or very
easy to obtain. This remains consistent with figures reported in 2011. Early findings from the
2013 study indicate an increase in availability, with 58 per cent of respondents reporting
cocaine as easy or very easy to obtain (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased. The
number of national cocaine seizures is the highest on record, while the weight of seizures is
the highest reported in the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures has
increased by 158.3 per cent over the last decade, from 839 in 2003–04 to 2 167 in 2012–13.
The weight of national cocaine seizures has increased 783.4 per cent over the last decade,
from 119.6 kilograms in 2003–04 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 48).
FIGURE 48: National cocaine seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
1200
Number
2500
2000
800
1500
600
1000
Number
Weight (kg)
1000
400
500
200
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
The number of national cocaine seizures increased by 62.2 per cent this reporting period,
from 1 336 in 2011–12 to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized nationally
increased by 10.5 per cent this reporting period, from 956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to
1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. Over the last decade, New South Wales has accounted for
the highest proportion of the number of national cocaine seizures, accounting for
63.8 per cent of the national total in 2012–13. In this reporting period, whole Western
Australia reported the greatest percentage increase in the number of cocaine seizures, New
South Wales accounted for 98.0 per cent of the weight of cocaine seized nationally in
2012–13 (see Table 23).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
177
TABLE 23: Number, weight and percentage change of national cocaine seizures, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
2011–12
Australian Capital Territory
Total
Weight (grams)
2012–13
896
160
171
12
63
7
4
23
1 336
1 382
298
253
21
199
0
1
13
2 167
% change
2011–12
54.2
86.3
48.0
75.0
215.9
-100.0
-75.0
-43.5
62.2
189 974
470 157
294 763
837
325
64
2
216
956 338
2012–13
% change
1 034 956
12 124
4 503
1 784
2 221
0
0
982
1 056 570
444.8
-97.4
-98.5
113.1
583.4
-100.0
-100.0
354.6
10.5
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Figure 49 illustrates the number of national cocaine arrests since 2003–04. Over the last
decade, cocaine arrests have increased by 290.9 per cent, from 328 in 2003–04 to 1 282 in
2012–13, the highest number of cocaine arrests on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests
accounted for 70.1 per cent of national cocaine arrests. However, South Australia, Western
Australia and the Australian Capital Territory all reported more cocaine provider than
consumer arrests in this reporting period.
FIGURE 49: Number of national cocaine arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
1400
1200
Number
1000
800
600
400
200
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased by 28.8 per cent, from 995 in
2011–12 to 1 282 in 2012–13. The Northern Territory was the only state or territory to report
a decrease in cocaine arrests in 2012–13. While Western Australia reported the highest
percentage increase in arrests this reporting period, New South Wales continues to account
for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests, followed by Victoria and Queensland
(see Table 24).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
178
TABLE 24: Number and percentage change of national cocaine arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
554
187
182
15
42
2
3
10
2012–13
694
235
213
30
91
2
0
17
% change
25.3
25.7
17.0
100.0
116.7
0.0
-100.0
70.0
995
1 282
28.8
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
179
NATIONAL IMPACT
South America continues to dominate global coca production. Despite this, in 2012
Colombia, Bolivia and Peru all reported decreases in coca cultivation. In 2012, the area
under coca crop cultivation in Peru was greater than that of Colombia—reported to be
60 400 hectares and 48 000 hectares respectively. While profiling data for 2012 indicates
that border seizures with Peruvian leaf-origin accounted for the greatest proportion of the
weight of analysed seizures, similar to previous years, profiling data for the first six months
of 2013 identified Colombia as the predominant country of origin, by both number and
weight, for analysed samples.
There were a record 2 003 cocaine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. However,
the weight of cocaine detected decreased, from 785.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to
399.6 kilograms in 2012–13. The number of embarkation points identified for cocaine
increased 43.6 per cent this reporting period, from 39 countries in 2011–12 to 56 countries in
2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest proportion of cocaine
border detections by number. Sea cargo accounted for the greatest proportion of the weight
of cocaine detected this reporting period, with 2 large sea cargo detections accounting for
70.7 per cent of the total weight of cocaine detected at the Australian border.
Both the number and weight of national cocaine seizures increased in 2012–13, with the
number of seizures the highest on record and the weight of seizures the highest reported in
the last decade. The number of national cocaine seizures increased from 1 336 in 2011–12
to 2 167 in 2012–13. The weight of national cocaine seizures increased from
956.3 kilograms in 2011–12 to 1 056.5 kilograms in 2012–13. The weight of cocaine seized
in Victoria and Queensland decreased significantly in 2012–13, with New South Wales
accounting for 63.8 per cent of the number and 98.0 per cent of the weight of national
cocaine seizures this reporting period.
In 2012–13, the number of national cocaine arrests increased to 1 282 and is the highest
number on record. New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of
national cocaine arrests, with 694 arrests in 2012–13. All states and territories reported an
increase in the number of cocaine arrests this reporting period, with the exception of the
Northern Territory which decreased and Tasmania, which remained stable. Cocaine
consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest proportion of national cocaine arrests,
however in 2012–13, South Australia, Western Australia and the Australian Capital Territory
reported more cocaine provider arrests than consumer arrests.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
180
REFERENCES
Australian Federal Police (AFP) 2012, ‘Media Release: Joint South Pacific law enforcement
operation results in huge cocaine haul’, AFP/ACBPS, 16 November 2012, viewed
23 October 2013, <http://www.afp.gov.au/media-centre/news/afp/2012/november/mediarelease-joint-south-pacific-law-enforcement-operation-results-in-huge-cocaine-haul.aspx>.
Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW) 2011, ‘2010 National Drug Strategy
Household Survey report’, Drug Statistics Series, no. 25, Cat. No. PHE 145, AIHW,
Canberra.
Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) 2013,
‘International Narcotics Control Strategy Report Volume 1’, Drug and Chemical Control,
March 2013, BINLEA, US Department of State, Washington.
CNN 2012, ‘Official: Hong Kong drug operation hauls $98 million worth of cocaine’, CNN,
8 July 2012, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2012/07/07/world/asia/hongkong-drug-seizure/>.
Department of Health and Ageing (DoHA) 2010, National Drugs Campaign: problems using
cocaine, DoHA, Canberra, viewed 22 August 2013,
<http://www.drugs.health.gov.au/internet/drugs/publishing.nsf/content/cocaine4>.
Drug Rehab Services (DRS) 2011, Cocaethylene: the danger of cocaine and alcohol, DRS,
Canada, viewed 30 August 2013,
<http://www.drugrehab.ca/cocaethylene-the-danger-of-cocaine-and-alcohol.html>.
European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) 2013, European Drug
Report 2013: Trends and Developments, EMCDDA, Lisbon.
Freye, E & Levy, JV 2009, Pharmacology and abuse of cocaine, amphetamines, ecstasy
and related designer drugs, Springer, Heidelberg, viewed 22 August 2013,
<http://issuu.com/hospitalemfoco/docs/pharmacology_abuse_drugs>.
McLaughlin, E 2013, ‘$527 million in cocaine intercepted en route to U.S’, CNN, 1 June
2013, viewed 17 October 2013, <http://edition.cnn.com/2013/05/30/justice/massive-cbpcocaine-seizure/index.html>.
National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC) 2013, 2013 National Drug Trends
Conference—Highs and lows of contemporary drugs in Australia: Emerging Psychoactive
Substances, pharmaceutical opioids and other drugs, NDARC, University of New South
Wales, Sydney.
National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 2013, Drugfacts: cocaine, NIDA, National Institute
of Health, Maryland, viewed 22 August 2013,
<http://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/cocaine>.
Sindicich, N & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Ecstasy and
Related Drugs Reporting System (EDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 100, National
Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Stafford, J & Burns, L 2013, ‘Australian drug trends 2012: findings from the Illicit Drug
Reporting System (IDRS)’, Australian Drug Trend Series, no. 91, National Drug and Alcohol
Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
181
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013,
UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Colombia: coca cultivation
survey 2012, UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Plurinational State of Bolivia:
coca monitoring 2012, UNODC, New York.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013d, Peru: monitoring of coca crops
in 2012, UNODC, New York.
Xinhua 2013, ‘Biggest drug seizure accomplished in Panama’, People’s Daily Online,
29
May
2013,
viewed
17
October
2013,
<http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/90777/8261797.html>.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
182
OTHER DRUGS
KEY POINTS

Over the last decade, the number of performance and image enhancing drugs detected
at the Australian border has increased 751.6 per cent, with the 10 356 detections in
2012–13 the highest number on record.

The number of national steroid seizures and arrests continued to increase in 2012–13
and are the highest number on record.

There was a record 509 tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.

There was a record 277 anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13.

The 565 national hallucinogen arrests reported in 2012–13 is the highest number on
record.
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND other SELECTED HORMONES
Other drugs and substances—collectively referred to in this report as ‘other drugs’—are
being increasingly recognised as part of Australia’s illicit drug market. This chapter focuses
on the main drugs and substances in this category: anabolic agents and other selected
hormones, tryptamines, anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals, drug analogues and new
psychoactive substances and other drugs not elsewhere classified.
MAIN FORMS
Anabolic agents and selected hormones are commonly referred to as performance and
image enhancing drugs (PIEDs). The Australian Standard Classification of Drugs of Concern
distinguishes four classes of substances as anabolic agents and selected hormones:




anabolic androgenic steroids (AAS)
beta-2-agonists
other anabolic agents and selected hormones
peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues (ABS 2011).
ANABOLIC-ANDROGENIC STEROIDS (AAS), BETA-2-AGONISTS AND OTHER
ANABOLIC AGENTS AND SELECTED HORMONES
AAS, commonly referred to as steroids, are synthetic variants of the male sex hormone
testosterone. ‘Anabolic’ refers to the muscle-building effects of the drug, while ‘androgenic’
refers to their masculinising effects. AAS may be derived from natural sources, but can also
be synthetically manufactured for therapeutic use in human and veterinary treatment. AAS
are used in the treatment of diseases that reduce lean muscle mass, including cancer and
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and conditions of steroid deficiency, such as
delayed puberty. In addition to use in treatment, AAS are also used to enhance image and
sports performance (NIDA 2012).
The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) categorises anabolic agents as either AAS or other
anabolic agents. Both AAS and other anabolic agents are prohibited substances under the
World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited List (WADA 2012).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
183
AAS are commonly administered by injection, orally, or via cream, gel or skin patches. Side
effects of AAS use may include extreme mood swings, mania, depression, paranoia,
delusions, impaired judgement, organ damage—including cardiovascular damage—high
blood pressure and blood clots. Male-specific effects of use may include shrinkage of the
testicles, reduced sperm-count or infertility, development of breasts and increased risk of
prostate cancer. Female-specific effects of use may include the growth of facial hair,
menstrual problems and baldness (Ip et al. 2012; NIDA 2012).
The use of beta-2-agonists is prohibited under the World Anti-Doping Code 2013 Prohibited
List, with the exception of specific asthma treatments and related doses administered via
inhalation. Beta-2-agonists in aerosol form are commonly used in the treatment of asthma to
relax muscles in the airway. However, when taken into the bloodstream, they may have
anabolic effects. Beta-2-agonists, such as clenbuterol, may be used either alone or in
conjunction with other substances to promote muscle definition and growth (anabolic effect)
and decrease body fat (catabolic effect). The most frequently reported side effects
associated with the use of beta-2-agonists include increased body temperature, nausea,
headaches, insomnia, tremors and cardiovascular conditions. The misuse of beta-2-agonists
may also lead to muscle cramps, palpitations and nervousness (NDARC 2005;
NDARC 2006; USADA 2013; WADA 2012).
AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia are outlined in Table 25.
TABLE 25: AAS and other anabolic agents commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
AAS—Anabolic
Used to increase muscle
mass through increased
retention of protein
Deca-durabolin, Anadrol-50,
Oxandrin
Ampoule, vial, prepacked
syringe, tablet
AAS—Androgenic
Used to increase muscle
mass by increasing male sex
hormone levels
Depo-testosterone,
Sustanon, Androil
Testocaps
Vial, ampoule, prepacked
syringe, capsule
Beta-2-agonists (including
clenbuterol)
Commonly used to treat
asthma, however when
taken into the blood-stream
increases muscle mass by
mimicking the effects of
adrenaline and nonadrenaline
Bricanyl, Ventolin, Spiropent
(clenbuterol) and
Ventipulmin (clenbuterol)
Ampoule, rotacap, inhaler,
nebuliser, tablet
PEPTIDE HORMONES, MIMETICS AND ANALOGUES
While AAS remain widely used, the PIEDs market has evolved to include an ever-expanding
range of substances which manipulate the body’s hormonal system. These substances,
which include peptide hormones, mimetics53 and analogues, may provide similar effects to
AAS and are considered by users to be new generation PIEDs.
Hormones are vital for the effective functioning of the human body and are naturally
produced. Synthetic mimetics and analogues of these naturally occurring hormones have
been developed to assist in the treatment of a number of medical conditions, with some
diverted for non-medical use as a consequence of their performance enhancing effects.
While peptides can be used on their own to promote muscle growth, these substances are
also used in combination with anabolic steroids to maintain muscle gains.
53
Substances that are chemically different, but which mimic the pharmacological effects of a
particular substance.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
184
Peptide hormones which have potential performance enhancing properties are listed in the
World Anti-Doping Code 2013. These include erythropoietin (EPO), human growth hormone
(hGH), insulin-like growth factors (IGF-1), gonadotrophins (such as luteinising hormone [LH]
and human chorionic gonadotrophin [hCG]), insulins and other growth factors affecting
muscle, tendon or ligament proteins (ASADA 2013).54
EPO is a synthetic hormone, which stimulates bone marrow to produce more red blood cells
and increases oxygen-absorption, thereby improving endurance and increasing metabolism
and muscular healing. Side effects of EPO use may include increased risk of thrombosis in
the heart, lungs and/or brain. Users of hCG may seek to decrease their body fat and improve
brain activity. The use of hCG may boost natural testosterone production after a long AAScycle and may serve as a masking agent to avoid testing positive to other substances. Side
effects of hCG use may include gynaecomastia, depression, irritability and headaches. Side
effects of hGH use may include increases in the size of the jaw, chin, fingers, hands, toes,
feet, nose, cheekbone and internal organs (NADA 2012; NDS 2006; NSW Health 2013;
USADA 2013).
Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues are generally administered via injection, nasal
spray or orally. Despite potentially serious side effects, individuals continue the non-medical
use of both natural and synthetic hormones. Side effects of hormone use vary and may be
particular to the hormone used. For example, effects of EPO use may include increased
blood pressure, convulsions, influenza-like symptoms, skin reactions, thrombosis, heart
attack and stroke. Effects of hGH use may include low blood sugar, fluid retention,
inadequate thyroid function, heart damage, impotence, premature ageing and death. Effects
of hCG use may include over-stimulation of the hormonal system, acne, tiredness, mood
changes, fluid retention, hair loss, enlargement of the prostate, heart disease, liver disease
and infertility (Kanayama & Pope 2012; NDS 2006; Stenman 2009; UNODC 2013a).
Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia are listed in
Table 26.
TABLE 26: Peptide hormones, mimetics and analogues commonly used in Australia
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Increases endurance and recovery
from anaerobic exercise
Eprex, Aranesp
Ampoule, pre-packed
syringe
Human chorionic
gonadotrophin (hCG)
Used to manage the side effects of
AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa
and shrinking testicles
APL, Pregnyl, Profasi,
Novarel, Repronex
Vial, ampoule
Human growth hormone
(hGH)
Used to increase muscle size and
strength
Norditropin, NorditropinSimpleXx, Genotropin,
Humatrope, Saizen,
Scitropi
Penset, vial, auto
injector cartridge
Insulin
Used because of the perception that
it contributes to increased muscle
bulkb
NovoRapid, Apidra,
Humalog, Hypurin
Neutral, Actrapid,
Humulin R, Protaphane,
NovoMix 30
Vial, penset,
pre-packed syringe
Pituitary and synthetic
gonadotrophins
Used to overcome the side effects of
AAS use or as a masking agent
Clomid, Bravelle
Ampoule, tablet
54
For a substance or method to be prohibited, it must meet at least two of the following three conditions: potential
to enhance or does enhance performance in sport, potential to risk the athlete’s health and/or the World AntiDoping Agency has determined that the substance or method violates the spirit of sport (ASADA 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
185
a.
b.
Drug name
Potential effects
Brand name
Forms
Insulin-like Growth Factor
Used to increase muscle bulk and
reduce body fat
Increlex
Vial
Corticotrophins
Used because of its antiinflammatory properties and for mood
elevating effects
Synacthen Depot
Ampoule
Anti-oesterones
Used to manage the side effects of
AAS use such as gynaecomastiaa
Nolvadex
Tablet
The development of breast-like tissue in males.
There is no scientific evidence of this.
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
There is no regulation on the production and trafficking of PIEDs in some parts of the world.
Pharmaceuticals diverted from the licit market to the illicit market, combined with the growing
number of unregulated online pharmacies, continue to ensure direct supply and unlimited
access to PIEDs (Paoli 2012).
International open source reports indicate that countries such as China, India, Pakistan,
Thailand and some Eastern European countries are primary source countries for PIEDs, with
numerous production sites and well-established trafficking routes. According to open source
reporting, China and India are the fastest growing suppliers of PIEDs to the international
market (ACMD 2010; SMH 2012).
In 2012, the European Journal of Crime reported that networks of producers and traders—
which includes athletes’ support personnel and representatives of national sport federations
and governing bodies—may supply PIEDs to some athletes and non-competitive users, such
as fitness centres and dietary supplements shops (Paoli 2012).
The global PIEDs market is supplied by a range of methods, including legal and illegal
importation and domestic diversion from the legitimate market (Marcley et al. 2013). Due to
the varying legal status of PIEDs internationally, producers can manufacture and stockpile
PIEDs in countries where they are unregulated and utilise online websites to reach the
global market (Paoli 2012). In the United States of America (US), anabolic steroids are
primarily imported illegally, but are also diverted from legitimate sources, either through theft
or inappropriate prescribing (US DEA 2011).
Increased intelligence sharing and collaboration between international law enforcement
agencies and other government bodies will continue to support WADA in their efforts to
detect and deter the use of PIEDs by professional athletes (ADF 2013a; Paoli 2012;
WADA 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service continues to disrupt the movement of
PIEDs55 into Australia.
55
PIEDs detected by the Australian Customs and Border Protection Service includes the following:
anabol, dianabol, androstenedione, norandrostenedione, chronic gonadotrophins, clomiphenes,
dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), prasterone, erythropoietin, GH releasing hormones, somatorelines,
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
186
The number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border has continued to increase since
2004–05. The total number of PIEDs detected at the Australian border increased by
18.7 per cent this reporting period, from 8 726 in 2011–12 to 10 356 in 2012–13, with the
10 356 detections the highest number on record (see Figure 50). In this reporting period,
there were 1 054 detections of clenbuterol, a common beta-2-agonist.
FIGURE 50: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border,
2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
12000
10000
Number
8000
6000
4000
2000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Despite a 42.2 per cent decrease in the number of steroid detections this reporting period,
from 6 126 in 2011–12 to 3 543 in 2012–13, the 3 543 steroid detections in 2012–13 is the
third highest number reported in the last decade (see Figure 51). Hormone detections
increased 162.0 per cent, from 2 600 in 2011–12 to 6 813 in 2012–13, the highest number
reported in the last decade (see Figure 51).
methandienone, methandrostenelone, nandrolone, oxymetholone, stanozolol, hGH, somatropin/s and
testosterone.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
187
FIGURE 51: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections, by category, at the Australian
border, 2003–04 to 2012–1356 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Hormones
Steroids
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
56
From 2011–12, DHEA detections have been incorporated into steroid detection numbers. All the
data contained in Figure 51 has been updated to reflect this change to enable direct comparison
across the decade.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
188
IMPORTATION METHODS
Similar to previous reporting periods, parcel post was the most commonly detected method
of importation by number, accounting for 88.2 per cent of PIED detections at the Australian
border in 2012–13 (see Figure 52). There were 973 detections of clenbuterol this reporting
period, which were primarily detected in the postal stream.
FIGURE 52: Number of performance and image enhancing drug detections at the Australian border, as a
proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and
Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (7.2%)
Air passenger/crew (4.6%)
Parcel post (88.2%)
Sea Cargo (<0.1%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 70 countries were identified as embarkation points for PIEDs detected
at the Australian border, compared with 63 in 2011–12. The prominent embarkation points
for PIEDs this reporting period were the US, China and Thailand, accounting for
62.9 per cent of the total number of PIED detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation
points this reporting period include Hong Kong, United Kingdom (UK), Canada, India,
Turkey, Greece and Moldova. There were a total of 24 embarkation points identified for
clenbuterol in 2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS), 0.1 per cent of
the Australian population aged 14 years or older reported recent57 non-medical steroid use
(AIHW 2011). According to the Australian Needle and Syringe Program Survey (ANSPS),
the prevalence of respondents reporting PIEDs as the drug last injected increased, from
5 per cent in 2011 to 7 per cent in 2012. In 2012, of the respondents who recently initiated58
injecting drug use, 55 per cent reported PIEDs as the last drug injected. Among males who
were new initiates to injecting, the proportion of those reporting PIEDs as the last drug
injected increased, from 53 per cent in 2011 to 68 per cent in 2012. Reported figures of use
specific to the states and territories varied, with the prevalence of injecting PIEDs increasing
57
58
In the NDSHS, ‘recent use’ refers to reported use in the 12 months preceding interview.
Less than 3 years since first injection.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
189
in New South Wales and Queensland. In those states, prevalence increased from 2 per cent
in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012 and from 1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012
respectively. The reported prevalence of injecting PIEDs was stable at 2 per cent or less in
all other states and territories (Iversen and Maher 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to
6 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent59 use
remained stable at 2 per cent. In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the
proportion of respondents reporting steroid use at some stage in their lifetime decreased,
from 4 per cent in 2011 to 2 per cent. In the same study, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent steroid use also decreased, from 2 per cent in 2011 to 1 per cent in 2012.
Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of recent steroid users has
decreased to less than 1 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns
2013).
PRICE
National law enforcement data on the price of PIEDs is limited. In 2012–13, the price for a
single 10 millilitre vial of testosterone ranged between $120 and $250, with a per vial price of
between $140 and $190 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per vial in
Queensland for larger quantities ranged between $130 and $180 for 20 vials and between
$110 and $160 for 50 vials.
In 2012–13, the price for a 10 millilitre vial of anabolic steroids ranged between $230 and
$300, with a per vial price of $140 for 10 vials reported in Queensland. Prices reported per
vial in Queensland for larger quantities were $180 for 20 vials and $160 for 50 vials.
AVAILABILITY
Access to PIEDs is facilitated by purchases on the internet. According to the 2010 NDSHS,
1.0 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or older was offered or had the
opportunity to use steroids in the 12 months preceding interview, compared to 1.3 per cent in
2007. The 20–29-year-old age group reported the highest proportion at 2.0 per cent (AIHW
2011).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national steroid seizures increased by 59.1 per cent, from 208 in
2011–12 to 331 in 2012–13, with the 331 seizures this reporting period the highest number
on record. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased 44.2 per cent this
reporting period, from 33.7 kilograms in 2011–12 to 18.8 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the
second highest weight reported in the last decade (see Figure 53).
The term ‘recent use’ in the regular injecting drug user and regular ecstasy user studies refers to
reported use in the 6 months preceding interview.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
59
190
FIGURE 53: National steroid seizures, by number and weight 2003–04 to 2012–13
40
Weight
350
Number
35
300
250
25
200
20
150
15
Number
Weight (kg)
30
100
10
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
0
2005–06
0
2004–05
50
2003–04
5
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of national steroid
seizures, accounting for 47.4 per cent of the number and 31.9 per cent of the weight national
steroid seizures this reporting period. South Australia reported the highest percentage
change in both the number and weight of steroid seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 27).
TABLE 27: Number, weight and percentage change of national steroid seizures, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
2011–12
144
8
28
1
5
0
12
10
208
Weight (grams)
2012–13
157
18
57
31
13
0
14
41
331
% change
2011–12
2012–13
% change
9.0
125.0
103.6
3 000.0
160.0
26 898
5 985
216
31
236
0
315
60
6 020
2 677
4 618
3 373
102
0
816
1 280
18 886
-77.6
-55.3
2 038.0
10 780.6
-56.8
0
159.0
2 033.3
-44.0
0
16.7
310.0
59.1
Total
33 741
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
National steroid arrests have been increasing since 2005–06. This reporting period, national
steroid arrests increased 29.4 per cent, from 511 in 2011–12 to 661 in 2012–13, the highest
number on record. Consumer arrests accounted for 77.0 per cent of national steroid arrests
this reporting period, with Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory reporting more
provider than consumer arrests (see Figure 54).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
191
FIGURE 54: Number of national steroid arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
700
600
Number
500
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, New South Wales, South Australia and the Australian Capital Territory reported
a decrease in steroid arrests (see Table 28). Over the last decade, Queensland has
continued to account for the highest proportion of national steroid arrests, accounting for
59.3 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in
steroid arrests this reporting period, however, the number of arrests remains low.
TABLE 28: Number and percentage change of national steroid arrests, 2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
a
State/Territory
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
41
62
296
10
65
8
11
18
2012–13
39
88
392
8
101
13
14
6
% change
-4.9
41.9
32.4
-20.0
55.4
62.5
27.3
-66.7
511
661
29.4
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
192
TRYPTAMINES
MAIN FORMS
Tryptamines are hallucinogenic substances that act upon the central nervous system,
distorting mood, thought and perception. Some are found naturally in a variety of flowering
plants, leaves, seeds and in spore-forming plants such as psilocybin-containing mushrooms,
while others, such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and diethyltryptamine, are
synthetically manufactured (EMCDDA 2013a; UNODC 2011a).
Tryptamine use may cause hallucinations—seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting or touching
non-existent objects or existing ones in a distorted way. Other short-term effects of use may
include decreased ability to make sensible judgements and recognise common danger, thus
making users susceptible to accidents and injury. Long-term use may lead to dissociative
experiences—a psychiatric disorder characterised by a reversible amnesia relating to
personal identity (AIC 2011; NIDA 2009; UNODC 2013a).
The following section will cover the two common tryptamines illicitly used in Australia:
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)—a synthetic drug—and psilocybin, a substance found in
various species of mushrooms.
LYSERGIC ACID DIETHYLAMIDE (LSD)
LSD is manufactured from lysergic acid, which is found in ergot, a fungus that grows on rye
and other grains. Often referred to as ‘acid’, LSD is among the most potent mood-changing
chemicals, with only a small amount needed to cause visual hallucinations and distortions,
known as ‘trips’. LSD is normally produced as a tartrate salt, which is colourless, odourless
and water soluble. LSD is available in paper squares, sugar cubes, tablets and liquid form.
LSD is most commonly sold on impregnated, single dose squares of blotting paper called
tabs. Usually taken orally, other methods of LSD administration include snorting, injecting,
smoking and shelving60 (NIDA 2009; Sindicich & Burns 2012).
Short-term effects of LSD use may include extreme emotional swings, fear, panic and
paranoia. Long-term effects of LSD use may include ‘flashbacks’,61 impaired memory and
concentration and increased potential risk of mental illness62 (ADF 2013b).
PSILOCYBIN-CONTAINING MUSHROOMS
Psilocybin is a chemical with hallucinogenic properties that is found in certain species of
mushrooms, often referred to as ‘magic mushrooms’, which affect the central nervous
system and alters a person’s mood, thinking and behaviour. Grown in the forests of Victoria,
New South Wales and some areas of Queensland and Western Australia, the most
commonly consumed varieties of psilocybin-containing mushrooms in Australia are
psilocybe cubensis (‘gold tops’), psilocybe subaeruginosa and copelandia cyanescens
(‘blue meanies’) and psilocybe semilanceata (‘liberty caps’) (Cunningham 2008;
WA DAO 2005).
Also known as ‘shafting’, the drug is inserted into the anus or the vagina to avoid irritation to the
user’s stomach.
61 Users may experience recurrences of certain aspects of drug experiences, referred to as
flashbacks. Flashbacks can persist in some users and lead to a condition known as hallucinogen
persisting perceptual disorder.
62 Mental illness may include prolonged psychosis, depression and personality disruption in users with
a predisposition to the condition.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
60
193
Hallucinogenic mushrooms are available fresh, treated or preserved, or in powder or capsule
form. Usually sold as dried mushrooms, they can be eaten raw, brewed as a tea or
combined with other foods to mask their bitter taste. The potency of hallucinogenic
mushrooms varies and is dependant on species, growing conditions, harvest period and
form (EMCDDA 2013a).
Visually distinguishing between psilocybin-containing mushrooms and poisonous varieties is
difficult. Therefore, accidental consumption of poisonous mushrooms may occur and result
in permanent liver damage or death. Short-term effects of psilocybin-containing mushroom
use may include drowsiness, paranoia and panic attacks. Long-term effects may include
impaired memory and increased risk of mental illness (NDARC 2012; NIDA 2009).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
According to the 2013 United Nations report on the challenge of new psychoactive
substances, psilocin, psilocybin, diethyltryptamine hydrochloride (DET), dimethyltryptamine
(DMT) and etryptamine are the only tryptamines under international control (listed in
Schedule I of the 1971 Convention). While psilocybin-containing mushrooms continue to be
harvested, tryptamines are also synthesised to mimic the effects of psilocybin
(UNODC 2013a; UNODC 2013b).
According to the 2013 European Drug Report, the prevalence of LSD and hallucinogenic
mushroom use in Europe has remained relatively low and stable for a number of years
(EMCDDA 2013b). According to the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health,
23 million people in the US population aged 12 years and older had used LSD in their
lifetime (DEA 2013).
Key findings on adolescent drug use in the US in 2012 reported that LSD use has decreased
considerably and no longer accounts for the greatest proportion of reported hallucinogen
use, with increases in the reported use of psilocybin. Of the students in years 8, 10 and
12 involved in the study, the year 12 students reported the highest proportion of hallucinogen
use, both within their lifetime and in the past year, with reported use exceeding that reported
for other illicit drugs including MDMA, methylamphetamine, cocaine and heroin (Johnston et
al. 2013).
Internationally, there is limited reporting available on the scale of cultivation of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms. According to media reporting, in September 2012,
approximately 62 kilograms of psychedelic mushrooms was seized in Ohio. Believed to be
the largest mushroom seizure in the state, the seizure had an estimated value of
US$3.1 million (Dungjen 2012).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
LSD and psilocybin-containing mushrooms are the most common tryptamines detected at
the Australian border. This reporting period the number of tryptamine detections at the
Australian border increased by 258.5 per cent, from 142 in 2011–12 to 509 in 2012–13, the
highest number on record. Detections in this reporting period include—but is not limited to—
344 LSD detections and 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections (see Figure 55).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
194
FIGURE 55: Number of tryptamine detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
600
500
Number
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHOD
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of tryptamine detections at
the Australian border. In 2012–13, of the 509 tryptamine border detections, 505 detections
were in the postal stream. Of these, 489 detections weighed less than 100 grams each. All
of the psilocybin mushroom detections this reporting period occurred in the postal stream. Of
the 344 LSD detections in 2012–13, all but 4 were in the postal stream.
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 19 countries were identified as embarkation points for tryptamines
detected at the Australian border, compared with 8 countries in 2011–12. The Netherlands
accounted for 73.9 per cent of the number of tryptamine detections this reporting period.
Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US, Spain, the UK, Canada,
Germany, Brazil, China, Israel and Poland.
Canada accounted for 35.2 per cent of LSD detections in 2012–13, with 121 detections. Of
the 123 psilocybin-containing mushroom detections, 63 were from the Netherlands and
38 from Canada, which accounted for 82.1 per cent of psilocybin-containing mushroom
detections this reporting period. Other major embarkation points in 2012–13 include the US,
Germany, the UK and Israel.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 8.8 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years
or older reported using hallucinogens at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey,
1.4 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, the first increase reported since 1998
(AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported
having used hallucinogens at some stage in their lifetime, which remained consistent with
figures reported in 2011. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent
use of hallucinogens decreased, from 8 per cent in 2011 to 6 per cent in 2012. LSD and
mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used (Stafford & Burns 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
195
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the
use of mushrooms at some stage in their lifetime increased marginally, from 70 per cent in
2011 to 71 per cent in 2012. In the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent LSD use decreased, from 46 per cent in 2011 to 34 per cent in 2012. This is the
lowest percentage reported since 2003. The proportion of respondents reporting the recent
use of mushrooms also decreased, from 29 per cent in 2011 to 27 per cent in 2012. Early
findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent
mushroom use remained unchanged at 27 per cent, while the proportion of respondents
reporting recent LSD use increased to 43 per cent. This is the second highest proportion
reported since 2003 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).63
PRICE
In 2012–13, law enforcement data on the price of psilocybin-containing mushrooms was
unavailable. Nationally, the price per tab of LSD ranged between $10 and $50 in 2012–13.
In a 2012 study of regular ecstasy users, respondents reported the median price per tab of
LSD ranged between $15 and $22.50 nationally. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate
a price range of between $15 and $32.50 (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).64
AVAILABILITY
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 3.7 per cent of the population had been offered or given the
opportunity to use hallucinogens in the 12 months preceding interview. The proportion was
higher in the 18–19 year (11.7 per cent) and 20–29 year age groups (11.0 per cent)
(AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, 65 per cent of respondents reported
using hallucinogens in their lifetime, which remained consistent with figures reported in 2011.
However, only 6 per cent reported recent use of hallucinogens, a decrease from 8 per cent
in 2011. LSD and mushrooms were the most common hallucinogens used
(Stafford & Burns 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, of the respondents able to comment on
the availability of LSD in Australia, 63 per cent reported LSD as being easy or very easy to
obtain, compared with 73 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate there
has been an increase in availability of LSD, with 67 per cent of respondents reporting LSD
as easy or very easy to obtain. There are no figures on the availability of
psilocybin-containing mushrooms (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES AND ARRESTS
In 2012–13, the number of national hallucinogen seizures increased by 11.9 per cent, from
285 in 2011–12 to 319 in 2012–13, the highest number reported in the last decade. The
weight of national hallucinogen seizures decreased by 84.7 per cent, from 23.5 kilograms in
2011–12 to 3.6 in 2012–13 and is the lowest weight reported since
2008–09 (see Figure 56).
63
In response to the difficulties experienced by smaller states and territories in recruiting regular
ecstasy users, the recruitment criteria was broadened in 2012 to include recent use of any
psychostimulant. As such, caution should be exercised when comparing to previous reporting periods.
64 Due to the small numbers of respondents providing price comment in the study (n<10), these
findings should be interpreted with caution.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
196
FIGURE 56: National hallucinogen seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
25
Weight
350
Number
300
250
15
200
150
10
Number
Weight (kg)
20
100
5
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Since 2005–06, New South Wales has accounted for the greatest proportion of national
hallucinogen seizures, accounting for 62.4 per cent of the number and 66.5 per cent of the
weight of national seizures in 2012–13. New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania and the
Australian Capital Territory reported an increase in the number of hallucinogen seizures this
reporting period, while Queensland and Tasmania were the only states or territories to report
an increase in seizure weight, increasing from 224 grams in 2011–12 to 278 grams, and 0
grams to 31 grams respectively in 2012–13 (see Table 29).
TABLE 29: Number, weight and percentage change of national hallucinogen seizures, 2011–12 to
2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
163
41
21
3
50
0
7
0
285
Weight (grams)
2012–13
199
52
20
2
36
2
7
1
319
% change
2011–12
2012–13
22.1
26.8
-4.8
-33.3
-28.0
–
0.0
–
11.9
7 492
5 338
224
365
10 137
0
2
0
23 558
2 444
524
278
32
364
31
2
0
3 675
% change
-67.4
-90.2
24.1
-91.2
-96.4
–
0.0
–
-84.4
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Figure 57 illustrates the number of national hallucinogen arrests since 2003–04. Over the
last decade, hallucinogen arrests have increased 355.6 per cent, from 124 in 2003–04 to
565 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. In 2012–13, consumer arrests accounted for
78.2 per cent of national hallucinogen arrests. However, South Australia and Tasmania
reported more hallucinogen provider than consumer arrests this reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
197
FIGURE 57: Number of national hallucinogen arrests, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
600
Number
500
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, the number of hallucinogen arrests increased 16.7 per cent, from 484 in
2011–12 to 565 in 2012–13 (see Table 30). Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, accounting for 35.9 per cent of national
arrests in 2012–13.
TABLE 30: Number and percentage change of national hallucinogen arrests, 2011–12 to 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
127
56
192
11
91
3
3
1
2012–13
157
70
203
16
111
3
4
1
% change
23.6
25.0
5.7
45.5
22.0
0.0
33.3
0.0
484
565
16.7
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
198
ANAESTHETICS
MAIN FORMS
Originally developed for medical and veterinary use, a number of anaesthetics are diverted
for illicit use. The following section will cover ketamine hydrochloride (ketamine) and
gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), two common illicitly used anaesthetics.
KETAMINE
Ketamine hydrochloride, commonly referred to as K, Super K, Special K and Vitamin K, is a
white crystalline powder, structurally and pharmacologically similar to phencyclidine (PCP).
Used as an anaesthetic by veterinarians and medical professionals, it is used illicitly for its
sedative and hallucinogenic effects. Classed as a dissociative anaesthetic, it induces
feelings of detachment and ‘out of body experiences’, with higher doses producing full
anaesthesia. Ketamine is commonly sold in three forms—powder, tablet and liquid—and is
often swallowed, snorted or injected. It can also be combined with other substances, such as
cannabis or tobacco and smoked (DEA 2012; NSW Health 2012).
Short-term effects of ketamine use may include general aches and pains, poor coordination,
amnesia, impaired judgement and disorientation. Long-term effects of ketamine use may
include reduced ability to concentrate, personality and mood changes, depression and
bladder conditions.65 Use of ketamine in combination with depressant drugs such as alcohol,
heroin or tranquillisers, may result in vital organ-failure (ADF 2013c; Curcio 2012;
DoHA 2010).
GAMMA-HYDROXYBUTYRATE (GHB) AND RELATED SUBSTANCES
GHB—also known as fantasy, grievous bodily harm or GBH, liquid ecstasy and blue nitro—is
found naturally in the body in small quantities and may be synthetically produced. First
synthesised in 1960, GHB was originally developed as an anaesthetic due to its ability to
rapidly permeate the blood–brain barrier and cause sleepiness. GHB acts as a central
nervous system depressant, slowing messages travelling between the brain and the rest of
the body (ADF 2013d; NSW Health 2006; Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012).
GHB is readily manufactured from its precursors, gamma-butyrolactone (GBL) and
1,4-butanediol (1,4-BD). Both GBL and 1,4-BD metabolise into GHB in the body and are
used as industrial solvents in industrial chemical processes, including the production of
polymers. GHB use may promote growth hormone production, as such GHB may be used by
some individuals to aid in fat reduction and muscle-building. GHB use may also enhance
euphoria and facilitate sexual assault. High doses and regular use of GHB can lead to
tolerance and—if discontinued—withdrawal symptoms. Users of stimulants such as
amphetamines and ecstasy may use GHB to alleviate the effects of these stimulants. The
competing effects of stimulant and depressant drugs may lead to a cycle of dependence
(ADF 2013b; WHO 2012).
GHB may appear as a colourless or bright blue liquid— which is bitter or salty-tasting—less
commonly a crystal powder, and is usually sold in small bottles or vials. GHB is typically
administered orally (swallowed) or intravenously (injected) (ADF 2013b; WHO 2012).
65
Ketamine use has been linked to cystitis, which can lead to blood in urine, incontinence, severe
pain and kidney failure.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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The effects of GHB use appear to vary greatly according to the amount used, with increased
risk of overdose as a consequence of the small dosage units. Effects may include
hallucinations, tremors, decreased body temperature, blackouts, memory lapses, seizures,
respiratory failure, coma or death. The possible presence of solvents or heavy-metal
contaminants in GHB also pose additional health risks to users (NSW Health 2006;
Roll et al. 2012; WHO 2012).
The risk of overdose increases when GHB is mixed with alcohol. Overdose may result in
respiratory depression, rapid onset of drowsiness, muscle spasms, movement and speech
impairments, memory loss and vomiting (NSW Health 2006).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
Global seizures of ketamine remained stable in 2012. According to UNODC reporting, many
of the seized tablets sold as 3,4-methylenedioxymethylamphetamine (MDMA, commonly
referred to as ‘ecstasy’) in East and South-East Asia contain a variety of other psychoactive
substances such as ketamine. According to media reporting, India remains a large
manufacturer of ketamine, which is smuggled to the expanding South-East Asia market in
liquid, powder and capsule form (Tan 2012). According to a health report the number of
users of ‘club drugs’—including ketamine, methylamphetamine, GBL and mephedrone—
seeking treatment increased, from 4 656 in 2005–06 to 6 486 in 2011 (NTA 2012). According
to UNODC reporting, in New Zealand, GHB/GBL is often sold with methylamphetamine and
marketed to assist with the come-down effects related to amphetamine-type-stimulants
(ATS) use (UNODC 2012; UNODC 2013c).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
Anaesthetic detections at the Australian border include only GHB, GBL and ketamine
detections.
In 2012–13, the number of anaesthetics detected at the Australian border increased by
161.3 per cent, from 106 in 2011–12 to 277 in 2012–13, the highest number on record. The
total number of GHB and GBL detections increased by 66.0 per cent, from 47 in 2011–12 to
78 in 2012–13, which consisted of 4 GHB detections and 74 GBL detections. The total
number of ketamine detections increased 237.3 per cent this reporting period, from 59 in
2011–12 to 199 in 2012–13 (see Figure 58).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
200
FIGURE 58: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
300
250
Number
200
150
100
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of anaesthetic border
detections, accounting for 90.2 per cent of detections in 2012–13 (see Figure 59).
FIGURE 59: Number of anaesthetic detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (8.7%)
Air passenger/crew (1.1%)
Parcel post (90.2%)
In 2012–13, 98.5 per cent of the number of ketamine detections at the Australian border
occurred in the postal stream. Of these, 99.4 per cent weighed less than 100 grams (see
Figure 60).
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FIGURE 60: Number of ketamine detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total detections,
by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air passenger/crew (1.5%)
Parcel post (98.5%)
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 68.9 per cent of the number of border detections of
GHB and GBL, followed by air cargo with 31.1 per cent (see Figure 61).
FIGURE 61: Number of GHB and GBL detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (31.1%)
Parcel post (68.9%)
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EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 21 countries were identified as embarkation points for anaesthetics
detected at the Australian border, compared with 17 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
primary embarkation point was the UK, which accounted for 32.1 per cent of the number of
anaesthetic detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other prominent embarkation
points by number this reporting period were the Netherlands, Poland, Canada, Germany,
Thailand, India, Lithuania, Belgium and Ireland.
By number, Poland was the primary embarkation point for GHB and GBL with 21 detections,
which accounted for 26.9 per cent of the number of detections. Other major embarkation
points identified for GHB and GBL detections this reporting period by number were Thailand,
the UK, China, Lithuania, the Netherlands, Singapore and Germany.
In 2012–13, a total of 18 countries were identified as embarkation points for ketamine
detected at the Australian border, compared with 13 countries in 2011–12. By number, the
UK was the primary embarkation point, accounting for 39.2 per cent of ketamine detections
at the Australian border in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points by number for ketamine
detections this reporting period included the Netherlands, Canada, Germany, India, Belgium,
Ireland, Spain, Taiwan and the US.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.4 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or
older reported using ketamine at least once in their lifetime. In the same survey, 0.8 per cent
reported using GHB at least once in their lifetime. The proportion of the population aged
14 years or older reporting recent use of ketamine and GHB was 0.2 per cent and
0.1 per cent respectively (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
ketamine use in their lifetime decreased, from 42 per cent in 2011 to 39 per cent in 2012.
The proportion of respondents reporting recent ketamine use decreased, from 16 per cent
in 2011 to 14 per cent in 2012. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent ketamine use has increased to 19 per cent
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting GHB use in their lifetime
decreased from 22 per cent in 2011 to 21 per cent in 2012. In 2012, reported recent GHB
use remained low at 7 per cent. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of
respondents reporting recent GHB use has decreased to 6 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich
& Burns 2013; Stafford & Burns 2013).
PRICE
Law enforcement price data for ketamine is limited. Consistent with prices reported in
2011–12, the price for a gram of ketamine in New South Wales ranged between $50 and
$180 in 2012–13 and between $150 and $200 in Queensland. The price of a single ketamine
tablet this reporting period ranged between $25 and $50 in Queensland, with
$50 per tablet reported in the Northern Territory. Nationally, the price for 1–1.5 millilitres of
GHB/GBL ranged between $3 and $25 in 2012–13, with the price per litre ranging between
$2 000 and $5 000.
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PURITY
According to a study of regular ecstasy users, the perceived purity of ketamine is reported as
high. In 2012, 6 per cent of respondents were able to comment on the perceived purity of
ketamine, of which 60 per cent reported the purity of ketamine as high, compared with
63 per cent in 2011 (Sindicich & Burns 2013).66
AVAILABILITY
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 1.1 per cent of the population had been offered or given the
opportunity to use ketamine and 1.0 per cent GHB in the 12 months preceding interview.
These figures are consistent with those reported in the 2007 survey (AIHW 2011).
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, 6 per cent of respondents were able to
comment on the availability of ketamine. Of these, 45 per cent reported ketamine as easy to
very easy to obtain, a decrease from 52 per cent in 2011. Early findings from the 2013 study
indicate this has increased to 69 per cent, however, the number of respondents able to
comment remains low and findings should be interpreted with caution. In the same 2012
study, 27 respondents were able to comment on the availability of GHB. Of these,
59 per cent reported GHB as easy to very easy to obtain, an increase from 47 per cent in
2011. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting the
availability of GHB as easy to very easy to obtain increased to 75 per cent (NDARC 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013).
66
As very small numbers (n=27) of the national sample commented on characteristics of the ketamine
market, results should be interpreted with caution.
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PHARMACEUTICALS
MAIN FORMS
Produced for legitimate medical use, many pharmaceutical drugs are diverted to the illicit
market. The illicit pharmaceutical market encompasses the use of prescription
pharmaceuticals that is inconsistent with their intended use or directions—including, but not
limited to intentional misuse and overuse (also referred to as non-medical use)—and
diversion from the legitimate market. Opioid analgesics and benzodiazepines are the most
commonly misused pharmaceuticals in Australia (PHAA 2010; Sweeney 2007).
Pharmaceuticals are obtained for illicit personal use through various methods including:
 family and friends with legitimate access

stolen, altered or forged prescriptions

feigning symptoms

theft from surgeries or pharmacies

doctor-shopping67

threatening general practitioners

purchases over the internet

poor prescription practices, such as prescribing larger than required quantities

health practitioners self-prescribing or otherwise misappropriating through their work
(ADF 2013e; DCPC 2007).
The Australian Government subsidises numerous pharmaceuticals through the
Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS).68 With the increased availability of pharmaceuticals
comes an increase in the potential for their misuse. The use of pharmaceutical drugs for
non-medical purposes can have potentially dangerous effects and may lead to addiction,
poisoning, disease and death (PHAA 2010).
Dependence on the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals may occur following medical
treatment for a physical or emotional trauma, or as a consequence of self-medication. Other
reasons for the non-medical use of pharmaceuticals include being for the treatment of an
underlying drug dependency problem, dealing with withdrawal symptoms, illicit drug
substitution and/or for the enhancement of other drugs (AIC 2009).
This section will focus on the pharmaceutical drugs most commonly used for non-medical
purposes in Australia: benzodiazepines and opioids.
‘Doctor-shopping’ refers to presenting to numerous doctors for the purpose of obtaining multiple
prescriptions to deal with non-existent or exaggerated symptoms.
67
68
The PBS is a federally funded government program which subsidises the cost of a broad range of medicines
for most medical conditions and was established to ensure Australians have affordable access to pharmaceutical
medicines.
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BENZODIAZEPINES
Benzodiazepines slow the activity of the central nervous system and the messages sent and
received by the brain. Most commonly prescribed to relieve insomnia, anxiety and panic
attacks, the desired effects of benzodiazepine use include relaxation, calmness and relief
from anxiety. The use of benzodiazepines—even when its use is consistent with the
intended directions at therapeutic level—may cause a range of harms to the user, such as
cognitive impairment, dependence and depression. Benzodiazepines may be misused to
'come down' from the effects of stimulants, such as amphetamines or cocaine, to enhance
the effects of other depressant drugs, or as a substitute for drugs of choice when they are
unavailable (ADF 2013f; Nielsen & Thompson 2008).
Benzodiazepines are among the most prescribed drugs in Australia. The most common
forms of benzodiazepines are tablets and capsules, which are stamped with their proprietary
name. Benzodiazepines can also be injected, which increases injection-related harms and
mortality (Nielsen & Thompson 2008; PBAC 2007).
Use of low to moderate doses of benzodiazepines may lead to confusion, impaired motor
coordination, loss of appetite and nausea. Higher doses may result in impaired judgement,
difficulty in thinking clearly, memory loss, mood swings and aggressive behaviour. Shortterm effects of use may include drowsiness, memory loss and confusion. Long-term effects
of benzodiazepine use may include developing a tolerance to the drug, vomiting, panic
attacks and paranoia during withdrawal from dependent use. The combined effects of
benzodiazepines and other depressant drugs, such as alcohol or heroin, increase the risk of
overdose and fatalities (ADF 2013f; AIC 2009; Bradvik et al. 2007; DCPC 2007;
Partanen et al. 2009).
The main forms of benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 31.
TABLE 31: Main forms of commonly used benzodiazepine pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical
type
Trade name
User names
Alprazolam
Zanax, Alprazolam, Tafil, Farmapram, Asolan,
Traxil, Niravam
Zanies, Zans, Blues, Quad Bars, Totem Poles,
Z Bars
Bromazepam
Lexotan
Clonazepam
Rivotril
Diazepam
Valium, Ducene, Antenex, Propam
Flunitrazepam
Rohypnol, Hypnodorm
Rohies, Roofies
Nitrazepam
Mogadon, Alodorm, Dormican, Nitepam
Moggies
Oxazepam
Serepax, Murelax, Alepam, Benzotran
Sarahs
Temazepam
Normison, Temaze, Euhypnos
Footballs, Normies
OPIOIDS
The term ‘opioids’ describes a class of drugs derived from the opium poppy and includes
synthetic substances with similar pain relieving properties. Opioid pharmaceuticals are
commonly prescribed for pain management and the treatment of heroin and other opioid
addiction.
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The most common opioids used to treat pain include codeine, morphine and oxycodone. The
misuse of opioids may result in tolerance and dependence69 and instances of psychiatric
conditions. Indicators of dependence include a strong desire to take the substance, limited
control over its use and the need to increase dosage quantities to achieve the desired effect.
Opioid withdrawal symptoms may include joint and muscle pain, nausea and vomiting,
abdominal cramps and irritability (Degenhardt 2013; SA Health 2011).
Available in tablet, capsule and liquid form, side effects of opioid use include drowsiness,
nausea and depressed respiration. The injection of opioids may be linked to the transmission
of blood-borne viruses, such as hepatitis B and C and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
and other injection-related infections, such as collapsed veins and abscesses. Opioid
overdose is more likely to occur when it is combined with other central nervous system
depressants, when the method of administration is injection, or if the user is experiencing a
change in tolerance levels. Methadone and buprenorphine are the two main pharmaceuticals
used in the treatment of opioid dependence (ADF 2011; ADF 2013e).
Common opioid pharmaceuticals are listed in Table 32.
TABLE 32: Main forms and effects of commonly used opioid pharmaceuticals
Pharmaceutical
type
Trade name
User names
Comments
Morphine
MS Contin, Anamorph,
Kapanol, Morphalgin
M, monkey, morph, Miss
Emma, dreamer, hard
stuff, greys
Main component of opium; powerful
narcotic analgesic
Codeine
Panadine Forte, Codral Forte,
Dymadon Forte, Codalgin
Forte, Mersyndol Forte
An extract of opium which is not as strong
as morphine
Oxycodone
Oxycontin, Endone, Wxynorm, Oxy, oxies, O.Cs,
Percocet, Roxidcodone, Tylox, oxycottons, oxy 80s,
Percodan
hillbilly heroin, roxies,
percs
A semi-synthetic opioid analgesic similar
to morphine
Fentanyl
Durogesic, Actiq (lozenge),
Fenpatch, Denpax
An opioid analgesic more potent than
morphine, with a rapid onset and short
duration
Pethidine
Peth
Synthetic narcotic analgesic, similar to
morphine but shorter lasting
Methadone
(or physeptone when
in tablet form)
Meth, Done, Metho
Synthetic narcotic analgesic used in the
treatment of opioid dependence;
predominantly provided in syrup form to
patients
Beup, mud
Used to treat withdrawal from heroin and
employed in maintenance treatment to
block the effects of other opioids
Buprenorphine
Subutex, Temgesic
69
Drug dependence is defined by the International Classification of Diseases 10th Revision (ICD-10)
as the presence of three or more indicators of dependence for at least a month within the previous
year (Degenhardt et al. 2013).
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207
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
All regions in the world continue to report high levels of the non-medical use of tranquillisers,
sedatives and non-prescription pharmaceutical opioids. Poly drug users may use single-use
tranquillisers, such as benzodiazepines, to enhance the effects of heroin. According to the
UNODC, the non-medical use of codeine-containing cough medicines and suppressants
continues unabated (UNODC 2013c).
According to US reporting, the non-medical use of prescription drugs is increasing at a
greater rate than that of other illicit drugs (Clinton Foundation 2013). The National Drug
Intelligence Centre assesses that the non-medical use of controlled prescription and overthe-counter pharmaceutical drugs ranks second only to that of cannabis. Prescription drugs
commonly used for non-medical purposes include opioid pain relievers, stimulants for
treating Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder and medication for treating anxiety disorders.
Across all age groups (14 years and over) within the US, the number of deaths associated
with prescription painkillers exceeds that of all other illicit drugs (NIDA 2013).
According to the International Narcotic Control Board, Central American countries have
reported the non-medical use of pharmaceutical preparations that contain stimulants, as well
as of prescription stimulants. East and South-East Asian countries have also reported the
trafficking in and non-medical use of prescription drugs and over-the-counter pharmaceutical
preparations containing internationally controlled substances of concern. South Africa has
reported high levels of non-medical use of prescription drugs (mainly benzodiazepines,
analgesics, codeine preparations and sedative-hypnotics) (INCB 2013).
The 2011 European School Project on Alcohol and Other Drugs survey found that the
lifetime prevalence of non-prescription use of tranquillizers or sedatives among students
remained relatively stable between 1995 and 2011, at about 7 to 8 per cent (INCB 2013).
Licensed internet pharmacies provide accessible, convenient and private services to
consumers. However, there are also illegal internet pharmacies that typically sell a variety of
medications, which may pose health and safety risks to the user. These include access to
unapproved drugs, legal prescription drugs dispensed without a valid prescription, products
that are marketed with fraudulent health claims, or counterfeit pharmaceuticals.
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
Prescription pharmaceuticals are primarily imported by individuals without criminal intent.
Pharmaceuticals continue to be purchased over the internet due to the anonymity afforded to
purchasers without a prescription and the lower cost. Pharmaceutical border detections in
2012–13 include benzodiazepines and opioids.
While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased by
13.9 per cent this reporting period, from 1 337 in 2011–12 to 1 151 in 2012–13, it is the third
highest number on record. The majority of these were benzodiazepines. The number of
benzodiazepine detections decreased this reporting period, from 1 298 in 2011–12 to
1 056 in 2012–13. The total number of pharmaceutical opioid detections doubled this
reporting period, increasing from 39 in 2011–12 to 79 in 2012–13. Oxycodone was the
primary pharmaceutical opioid detected at the Australian border in 2012–13, accounting for
60.7 per cent of the total number of detections. Other pharmaceutical opioids detected this
reporting period were morphine, buprenorphine and methadone (see Figure 62).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
208
FIGURE 62: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, 2003–04 to 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
1600
1400
Number
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
IMPORTATION METHODS
The postal stream continues to account for the greatest number of pharmaceutical
detections. In 2012–13, the postal stream accounted for 57.1 per cent of the number
pharmaceutical detections, followed by air passenger/crew at 36.3 per cent (see Figure 63).
FIGURE 63: Number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection
Service)
Air cargo (3.7%)
Air passenger/crew (36.3%)
Parcel post (57.1%)
Sea cargo (2.9%)
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
209
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, a total of 60 countries were identified as embarkation points for pharmaceuticals
detected at the Australian border, compared with 55 countries in 2011–12. Thailand was the
prominent embarkation point, accounting for 19.5 per cent of the number of pharmaceutical
detections in 2012–13. Other major embarkation points this reporting period by number were
India, Singapore, Malaysia, the UK, Romania, South Africa, Indonesia, the US and Pakistan.
In 2012–13, a total of 58 countries were identified as embarkation points for
benzodiazepines detected at the Australian border. Thailand was the prominent embarkation
point, accounting for 20.2 per cent of the number of benzodiazepine detections in 2012–13.
Pakistan was the prominent embarkation point by number for opioid detections at the
Australian border this reporting period, accounting for 13.9 per cent of detections in
2012–13.
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
According to the 2010 NDSHS, 4.2 per cent of the Australian population aged 14 years or
older reported recent non-medical70 use of any pharmaceuticals, the first increase reported
since 199871 (AIHW 2011). According to the ANSPS, pharmaceutical opioids (including
morphine and oxycodone) were the third most commonly reported class of drug last injected
nationally over the period 2008 to 2012. The prevalence of PIEDs injection increased in
New South Wales, from 2 per cent in 2008 to 12 per cent in 2012, and in Queensland, from
1 per cent in 2008 to 11 per cent in 2012, and was stable at 2 per cent or less in all other
jurisdictions. Consistent with previous years, pharmaceutical opioids were the drug most
commonly injected in the Northern Territory (70 per cent) and Tasmania (40 per cent) in
2012. In the same study, methadone was reported as the last drug injected by less than
10 per cent of the ANSPS respondents over the period 2008 to 2012, with a decline in
prevalence observed over this period (Iversen 2013).
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the proportion of respondents
reporting recent use of any of benzodiazepine decreased, from 69 per cent in 2011 to
64 per cent 2012, with 62 per cent of respondents reporting swallowing as the main route of
administration. In the same study, 50 per cent of respondents reported recent use of any
form of illicit benzodiazepine.72 The proportion of respondents reporting recent illicit
morphine use decreased, from 39 per cent in 2011 to 38 per cent in 2012 and remained the
most commonly injected pharmaceutical opioid (NDARC 2013).
The same 2012 study showed variation between states and territories, with the
Northern Territory and Tasmania reporting the highest illicit use of morphine—locations
where heroin is traditionally reported as being difficult to obtain. In 2012, the proportion of
respondents reporting recent illicit use of oxycodone increased, from 32 per cent in 2011 to
35 per cent in 2012. Figure 64 shows the reported recent use of various pharmaceutical
drugs in 2012 by a regular injecting drug user population (Stafford & Burns 2013).
The NDSHS relates use for non-medical purposes to ‘ways that induced or enhanced a drug
experience, enhanced performance or were for cosmetic purposes’.
71 According to the NDSHS, pharmaceuticals include: pain-killers/analgesics, tranquillisers, steroids,
methadone or buprenorphine and/or other opioids.
72 Refers to/includes sublingual administration of buprenorphine (trade name Subutex) and
buprenorphine-naloxone (trade name Suboxone).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
70
210
FIGURE 64: Proportion of a regular injecting drug user population reporting recent use of illicit
pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceuticals, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
100
90
Recent use (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Pharm. stimulants
Oxycodone
Morphine
Methadone
Buprenorphine
Benzodiazepines
0
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting the
recent illicit use of benzodiazepines decreased, from 34 per cent in 2011 to 26 per cent. In
the same study, the proportion of respondents reporting the recent illicit use of opiates also
decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 9 per cent in 2012. Figure 65 shows the recent
reported illicit use of various pharmaceuticals in 2012 by a regular ecstasy drug user
population (Sindicich & Burns 2013).
FIGURE 65: Proportion of a regular ecstasy drug user population reporting recent use of illicit
pharmaceuticals, by type of pharmaceutical, 2012 (Source: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre)
100
90
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Pharm. stimulants
Other opiates
Methadone
Buprenorphine
0
Benzodiazepines
Recent use (%)
80
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
211
Research on drug use among police detainees in Australia incorporates a self-report survey
and voluntary urinalysis. The self-report survey indicates drug use in the 12 months
preceding interview. In contrast to other illicit drugs, the proportion of detainees testing
positive for opiates or benzodiazepines exceeds that for self reported use.
In 2012–13, the proportion of detainees testing positive73 for benzodiazepine use decreased,
from 22.6 per cent in 2011–12 to 20.0 per cent in 2012–13, as did the self-reported use of
benzodiazepines, which decreased, from 13.1 per cent in 2011–12 to 12.2 per cent in
2012–13 (see Figure 66).
FIGURE 66: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for benzodiazepines compared with self-reported
use, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
25
Proportion (%)
20
15
10
5
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
The proportion of detainees testing positive74 for opiate use decreased this reporting period,
from 15.0 per cent in 2011–12 to 14.0 per cent in 2012–13. The self-reported use of
methadone also decreased, from 9.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 7.8 per cent in 2012–13 (see
Figure 67).75
73
Benzodiazepines and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 14 days after
administration (Makkai 2000).
74 Opiates and their metabolites can be detected in urine on average 2 to 3 days after administration
(Makkai 2000).
75 The self-report DUMA survey does not differentiate between use of opiates and methadone, with
the
self-report question includes use of ‘illegal morphine/street/methadone/homebake or other illegal
opiates’
(AIC 2012–13).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
212
FIGURE 67: Proportion of detainees testing positivea for opiates compared with self-reported use of
methadone, 2003–04 to 2012–13b (Source: Australian Institute of Criminology)
Urinalysis
Self reporting
20
18
Proportion (%)
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
a. Urine was collected in only two sites during the fourth quarter of 2012.
b. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflect data collected in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only.
PRICE
Law enforcement price data for pharmaceuticals obtained for non-medical use is limited. In
2012–13, the price for a 60 milligram tablet of Oxycontin was $60.
In a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, the median price for 40 milligrams of
oxycodone was $30, an increase from $22.50 in 2011 and ranged between $20 in New
South Wales and $40 in Tasmania (Stafford & Burns 2013).76
AVAILABILITY
According to a 2012 national study of regular injecting drug users, of the respondents able to
comment on the availability of illicit oxycodone, 68 per cent reported it as easy or very easy
to obtain, compared with 61 per cent in 2011. The proportion of respondents reporting illicit
morphine as easy or very easy to obtain in 2012 remained stable at 72 per cent
(Stafford & Burns 2012; Stafford & Burns 2013).
SEIZURES
Following decreases in the number of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11 and
2011–12, the number of seizures increased 24.1 per cent this reporting period, from 83 in
2011–12 to 103 in 2012–13.
Following a spike in the weight of national other opioid seizures in 2010–11, the weight of
national other opioid seizures has continued to decrease, from 26.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to
6.1 kilograms in 2012–13 (see Figure 68).
76
South Australia, Queensland, the Australian Capital Territory and the Northern Territory had small
numbers reporting (n<10).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
213
FIGURE 68: National other opioid seizures, by number and weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
250
Weight
350
Number
300
250
150
200
150
100
Number
Weight (kg)
200
100
50
50
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Despite reporting a decrease in the number and weight of other opioid seizures in 2012–13,
New South Wales continues to account for the majority of national other opioid seizures,
accounting for 46.6 per cent of the number and 62.2 per cent of the weight of seizures this
reporting period. In 2012–13, Tasmania reported the greatest percentage increase in the
number of other opioid seizures, while Queensland reported the greatest percentage
increase in weight (see Table 33).
TABLE 33: Number, weight and percentage change of national other opioid seizures, 2011–12 and
2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
42
10
6
6
7
1
0
11
83
Weight (grams)
2012–13
48
13
16
0
4
17
0
5
103
% change
2011–12
14.3
30.0
166.7
-100.0
-42.9
1 600.0
0
-54.5
24.1
2012–13
18 004
7 809
5
772
19
0
0
8
26 617
3 823
1 672
385
0
8
244
0
15
6 147
% change
-78.8
-78.6
7 600.0
-100.0
-57.9
–
0
87.5
-76.9
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
214
DRUG ANALOGUES AND NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES (DANPS)
MAIN FORMS
Drug analogues and new77 psychoactive substances (DANPS), is an umbrella term referring
to substances that mimic, or are intended to mimic, the effects of illegal drugs and which are
marketed as alternatives to controlled drugs. DANPS have been present in Australia and
overseas since at least the mid-2000s and are often referred to as novel substances, novel
psychotropic substances, emerging psychoactive substances, analogues, mimetics, legal
highs, new synthetics, herbal highs or designer drugs (UNODC 2011b; UNODC 2013b).
A wide range of DANPS are available to users. According to the UNODC, the number of
potential synthetic drug derivatives is technically unlimited. Three United Nations
Conventions provide a framework for controlling the production, trade and possession of
over 240 psychoactive substances, with the number of DANPS exceeding that of other illicit
drugs regulated by these conventions or treaties. These so-called ‘legal highs’78 or mimetics
have become the drug of choice for some illicit drug users (EMCDDA 2013b; Lancet 2013;
UNODC 2013b).
The marketing of DANPS as legal alternatives to controlled substances—including
methylamphetamine, MDMA and cannabis—may be interpreted by prospective users as
being safe to consume or less harmful than illicit drugs. As many of these substances are
novel, there is limited research or knowledge about the short or long-term health
consequences of DANPS use, the risk of dependence, possible effects of use in combination
with other drugs, or potential fatal dosage levels. Some identified short-term effects
associated with DANPS use include dilated pupils, hypertension, hyperventilation, paranoia,
agitation, hyperthermia, tremors and seizures (Arnold 2013; UNODC 2013a).
Two groups of DANPS that receive considerable public attention are synthetic cannabinoids
and cathinones, in particular 4-methylmethcathinone (4-MMC). This section will cover these
two groups in more detail.
SYNTHETIC CANNABINOIDS
Many synthetic cannabinoids79 were synthesised with the aim of using them in laboratory
research as potential treatments for conditions such as nausea and glaucoma, or for their
anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. In 2012, the European Union’s Early Warning
System (EWS) was notified of 73 new psychoactive substances, of which 30 were synthetic
cannabinoids. Synthetic cannabinoids mimic the effects of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
(THC), the main psychoactive substance in cannabis. While some synthetic cannabinoids
share a chemical structure similar to THC, the vast majority identified to date have no
structural relationship to THC. With the exception of a small number of substances which
have very limited legitimate uses, the vast majority of identified substances have no
legitimate industrial, scientific or medicinal application (ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al.
2013; EMCDDA 2013c; TGA 2011).
Synthetic cannabinoids are typically dissolved in a solvent and sprayed onto dried plant
material for use. As a consequence of the way in which synthetic cannabinoids are
Use of the term ‘new’ does not necessarily refer to a new invention—as many DANPS may have
been synthesised years or decades ago—rather that they have recently emerged on the market.
78 Use of the term ’legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under
Australian legislation.
79 Scientifically, these are known as cannabimimetics due to the way the compounds mimic cannabis
like behaviour. The commonly used term ‘synthetic cannabinoids’ has been used to avoid confusion
and remain consistent with existing public terminology.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
77
215
produced, there may be great variation both within and between the finished products.
Synthetic cannabinoids are primarily smoked (via a pipe, in a cigarette or joint or blunt, or by
using a hookah or water pipe or bong). Administration via vaporisation, in addition to oral
and rectal ingestion has also been reported. Synthetic cannabinoids are sold on the internet
or in various specialised shops and typically contain 1–3 grams of dried plant matter in a foil
sachet, often labelled as a smoking mixture, herbal blend or incense. Synthetic cannabinoids
are marketed under various brand names, which include Kronic, Spice, K2 and Northern
Lights. Although a number of plant-based ingredients may be listed on the packaging,
scientific testing has found that many of these are not actually present (ADF 2013g;
Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; NCPIC 2013; NSW Health 2011).
Users of synthetic cannabinoids may experience elevated mood, relaxation and altered
perceptions. Short-term effects of synthetic cannabinoid use may include fatigue,
headaches, disorientation, hallucinations, tachycardia, hypertension, agitation, panic attacks,
anxiety and depression. Long-term effects use may include an increased risk of heart attack
(as a consequence of high blood pressure and reduced blood supply to the heart). Synthetic
cannabinoids also have carcinogenic potential, which may put users at risk of developing
chronic bronchitis and lung cancer, and may precipitate the development of psychosis in
patients with a history of mental illness. According to UNODC reporting, several cases of
severe toxicity and deaths have been associated with synthetic cannabinoid use
(ADF 2013h; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013; TGA 2011; UNODC 2013a).
Synthetic cannabinoids form part of the illicit drug market in Australia. Since 2011, some
Australian states and territories have introduced new regulations to ban synthetic
cannabinoids. From 1 May 2012, nine groups of synthetic cannabinoids were included within
Schedule 9 (Prohibited Substance) in the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines
and Poisons (SUSMP) (Poison Standard) (ADF 2013h, AG 2012).80 On 29 May 2013, the
Commonwealth prescribed eight synthetic cannabinoids as border controlled drugs under
the Criminal Code Act 1995.81 The list of border controlled drugs is found in the Criminal
Code Regulations 2002.
4-MMC (4-METHYLMETHCATHINONE)
Developed as an antidepressant, 4-MMC was first synthesised in 1929, however its strong
addictive potential stopped it from being used for medical purposes. An illicit drug market for
4-MMC was established in the last decade after it was ‘rediscovered’ in 2003
(Bretteville-Jensen 2013; UNODC 2013a).
4-MMC, also known as mephedrone, is an analogue designed to mimic cathinone, which is a
controlled drug. 4-MMC is a central nervous system stimulant, which increases the
synaptic82 concentrations of neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, and
norepinephrine.83 Common street names for 4-MMC include ‘meph’, ‘meow’, ‘miaow-miaow’,
‘m-cat’, ‘drone’, ‘bubbles’ or ‘kitty cat’. 4-MMC is commonly marketed or mislabelled as bath
salts, plant food or hoover freshener (ADF 2013i; Bretteville-Jensen et al. 2013;
Sindicich & Burns 2013; Wood & Dargan 2012).
80
See the Initiatives chapter for further information.
Many synthetic cannabinoids (including the eight added to the border controlled drug list) also
appear on the Customs (Prohibited Import) Regulations 1956, and are therefore subject to a range of
licensing and permit requirements for import/export of these substances.
82 A synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical
signal to another cell (neural or otherwise).
83 Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
81
216
Powder is the most common form of 4-MMC. It is available in tablet or capsule form. It can
be snorted, swallowed, or dissolved for oral/rectal use or intramuscular/intravenous injection.
The most common route of administration of 4-MMC is snorting (Sindicich & Burns 2013).
Users report that 4-MMC produces a similar experience to amphetamines, MDMA or
cocaine. Reported short term effects of 4-MMC use include dilated pupils, tremors or
convulsions, insomnia, anxiety, paranoia, hypertension and breathing difficulties. Long-term
effects of use may lead to memory deterioration, hallucinations, delusions, erratic behaviour,
anxiety, paranoia and depression (Brunt et al. 2011; UNODC 2013a; Winstock et al. 2010).
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
DANPS are a global phenomenon, with all regions of the world virtually reporting
simultaneous activity related to this market. Over the past few years, there has been
unprecedented growth in the number, type and availability of DANPS, however reliable data
on the scope and nature of this market is limited to some extent. Between 2005 and 2011,
the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) EWS reported
one new substance per week, with two-thirds of all reported DANPS either synthetic
cannabinoids or synthetic cathinones (EMCDDA 2013b; Forensic Science Review 2013).
Studies report numerous sales occur via the internet, with suppliers using the internet to
promote their products. Both users and sellers value the impersonal and implied low-risk
transaction method stemming from online purchases. The low price of synthetic
cannabinoids and cathinones—compared to some other illicit drugs—and the ease of
transaction, for both users and sellers, creates potential for market expansion
(Forensic Science Review 2013).
In Europe, clandestine laboratories producing DANPS sell direct to users via the internet, or
through legitimate stores. In order to avoid detection by law enforcement or other regulatory
bodies, suppliers may also deceptively label these substances as not for human
consumption and market the substances in a variety of packaging, purporting them to be
bath salts, plant food, research chemicals or fertiliser (Forensic Science Review 2013).
According to the International Narcotics Control Board, many DANPS suppliers are based in
China or India, with domestic manufacture also reported by countries in Europe, the
Americas and other parts of Asia (INCB 2013). The UNODC reported the number of
synthetic cathinones seizures remained stable in 2012 (UNODC 2013b). In June 2013, the
US DEA announced a 1 500 kilogram seizure of synthetic cannabinoids and cathinones
manufactured in India and China, intended for the US and Australian markets (Knight 2013).
The United Arab Emirates seized 126 parcel consignments, totalling 23.5 kilograms of
synthetic cannabinoids (Spice) over an eight month period in 2012 (UNODC 2013c). In
January 2013, Egypt reported increasing seizures of synthetic cannabinoids (Voodoo)
originating in Europe and trafficked through Libya (UNODC 2013c).
There is no standard national or international approach to addressing the issue of DANPS.
Many countries have adopted broad legislative approaches for controlling DANPS through
the use of analogue and generic terms, temporary and emergency procedures and
alternative non-drug specific legislation, such as consumer protection legislation. The US
has enacted laws to target analogue compounds. Although not making synthetic drugs
illegal, Sweden can seize them under the Destruction Act and the UK uses Temporary Drug
Class Orders to ban new substances—usually effective within a month—while formal
legislative change is enacted (Policing and Practice Journal 2013).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
217
In 2013, New Zealand introduced the Psychoactive Substances Act 2013, making it illegal to
import, manufacture, sell or supply psychoactive substances without a licence. The burden
of proof is now placed on the manufacturers and distributors to prove that their products
present low risk for human use before they can be granted a licence (NZG 2013).
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SEIZURES
DANPS comprise synthetic cannabinoids, substituted cathinones, analogues of
amphetamine type-stimulants, as well as novel and obscure research chemicals. The main
characteristic of these drugs is the diversity and large number of substances involved.
DANPS are sourced from within large groups of chemical compounds, which complicate
their regulation and may enable vendors to evade regulatory mechanisms by adjusting the
chemical composition of their products. DANPS are increasingly seized at the Australian
border, mainly in air cargo parcels and the international mail stream.
Border regulation of DANPS is complex due to many new and emerging substances not
being covered under current legislation. Their presumptive identification also poses
challenges as current trace detection tools may not currently be calibrated to detect the
thousands of drugs which potentially fall under this category. Shipments encountered at the
Australian border are either personal use quantities that are purchased online and delivered
by mail, or larger shipments intended for resale. Shipments intended for resale comprise
either a large number of retail doses, mostly of synthetic cannabinoids, packaged as
ready-to-use smoking mixtures, or bulk active agents in kilogram quantities, mainly from
China. DANPS have low active dose thresholds such as 3–6 mg for synthetic cannabinoids,
and 0.1–0.4 mg for the exceptionally dangerous NBOMe group compounds, which have
been associated with fatalities in Australia and other countries. DANPS, which are sold in
Australia at low prices per dose, have the potential to generate criminal profits in excess of
those obtained from trafficking more established illicit drugs, such as heroin and cocaine,
although at present the DANPS market does not compare in size with more traditional illicit
drug markets.
Although the breadth of new substances appearing on the market is very large, and some
appear only sporadically, the Australian Federal Police (AFP) Forensic Drug Intelligence
(FDI) team, in consultation with the National Measurement Institute (NMI), has identified the
following categories of DANPS:
 amphetamine-type substances

cathinone-type substances

synthetic cannabinoids

tryptamine-type substances

others.
Among the many different compounds detected and reported since 2006–07, some have
been more common than others in terms of the weight of material seized and/or the overall
number of seizures. These have included 4-MMC, N,N-dimethylamphetamine (DMA),
1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 3-trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
218
Over the reporting periods, analysis of DANPS has included amphetamine-type substances,
novel cathinone-type substances, synthetic cannabinoids, novel tryptamine-type substances,
novel 2C-type substances and novel piperazine-type substances. Analysis of border
seizures containing DANPS indicates that while the number of seizures decreased in
2012–13, the weight of seizures containing DANPS more than doubled (see Figure 69).84
FIGURE 69: Number and weight of seizures selected for further analysis and found to contain novel
substances and drug analogues, 2006–07 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Federal Police, Forensic Drug
Intelligence)
80
150
60
100
40
50
20
0
0
2012–13
200
2011–12
100
2010–11
250
2009–10
120
2008–09
300
2007–08
140
Number
Number
350
2006–07
Weight (kg)
Weight
Since 2008–09, novel cathinone-type substances have accounted for the highest proportion
of the number of seizures in this subset. In 2012–13, novel cathinone-type substances
accounted for 44.6 per cent of analysed seizures containing novel substances, followed by
novel amphetamine-type substances (17.9 per cent), novel 2C-type substances
(16.1 per cent), novel piperazine-type substances (10.7 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids
(8.9 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (1.8 per cent).
Following a spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–1185 and the notable decrease in
the weight of DANPS seized in 2011–12, the weight of analysed seizures increased by
139.3 per cent in 2012–13. Novel piperazine-type substances accounted for 41.8 per cent of
the weight of novel substance seizures, followed by novel cathinone-type substances
(35.1 per cent), novel amphetamine-type substances (19.6 per cent), synthetic cannabinoids
(3.4 per cent) and novel tryptamine-type substances (<0.1 per cent).
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
In a 2012 national study of regular ecstasy users, the proportion of respondents reporting
recent 4-MMC use decreased, from 14 per cent in 2011 to 5 per cent in 2012. Swallowing
(62 per cent), followed by snorting (48 per cent), were the most common methods of
administration, with minimal reporting of injecting. Early findings from the 2013 study indicate
84
The data in Figure 69 refers only to seizures made by the AFP, examined by AFP crime scene
teams, sampled and subsequently confirmed to contain a novel substance by the NMI. Seizure data
does not represent all AFP seizures of DANPS during these periods.
85
The spike in the weight of DANPS seized in 2010–11 was due to 3 large seizures containing novel
amphetamine-type substances, which accounted for approximately 82 per cent of the weight of novel substances
seized in that reporting period.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
219
the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has increased to 6 per cent
(NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
In the same 2012 study, the proportion of respondents reporting recent use of synthetic
cannabinoids increased, from 6 per cent in 2011 to 15 per cent of in 2012. Early findings
from the 2013 study indicate the proportion of respondents reporting recent use has
increased to 16 per cent (NDARC 2013; Sindicich & Burns 2013).
PRICE
National law enforcement price data for DANPS, including 4-MMC and synthetic
cannabinoids is limited.
In 2012–13, the price of a tablet/capsule of 4-MMC in Tasmania the price was $30, with the
price in Queensland ranging between $20 and $50. Nationally, the price for 3 grams of
synthetic cannabinoids in 2012–13 ranged between $50 and $95.
DOMESTIC SEIZURES
Technical challenges exist for law enforcement agencies in identifying DANPS. Due to the
dynamic nature of this market, data systems have limited capacity to accurately record and
readily extract seizure and arrest data, with many of these drugs reported as ‘other drugs’.
As a result, monitoring and reporting on national trends of these drugs is limited.
Since 2007–08, jurisdictions have indicated an increase in the number and weight of DANPS
seized. Key categories of seized substances include amphetamine-type substances,
cathinone-type substances and synthetic cannabinoids.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
220
OTHER AND UNKNOWN NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED (NEC) drugs
Data of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests and seizures capture drugs and
substances outside the other specific drug categories contained in the Illicit Drug Data
Report (IDDR). This category covers a range of substances including precursors,
anaesthetics, DANPS, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Substances in
this category are likely to change between reporting periods. Data limitations are further
discussed in the Statistics chapter.
Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures
increased 425.0 per cent, from 1 367 in 2003–04 to 7 177 in 2012–13. By comparison, the
weight of seizures has fluctuated over the last decade, increasing 1 089.2 per cent, from
185 kilograms in 2003–04 to 2 200 kilograms in 2012–13.
This reporting period the number of other and unknown NEC drug seizures increased
32.9 per cent, from 5 399 in 2011–12 to 7 177 in 2012–13, while the weight of seizures
decreased 83.6 per cent, from 13 451.5 kilograms in 2011–12 to 2 200.0 kilograms in
2012–13. The significant decrease in the weight of related seizures between the 2011–12
and 2012–13 reporting periods is a direct consequence of a single 11–tonne seizure of
hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12, a reagent chemical used in the manufacture of
methylamphetamine (see Figure 70).
FIGURE 70: National ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug seizures, by number and
weight, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Weight
8000
Number
7000
12000
6000
Weight (kg)
14000
10000
5000
8000
4000
6000
3000
4000
2000
2000
1000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
Number
16000
New South Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC
drug seizures this reporting period, accounting for 43.5 per cent of the number and
29.8 per cent of the weight. Queensland, Western Australia and Northern Territory reported
notable increases in the weight of other and unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting
period, with their combined seizure weight accounting for 52.6 per cent of the weight of
national seizures in 2012–13 (see Table 34).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
221
TABLE 34: Number, weight and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures,
2011–12 and 2012–13
Number
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
2011–12
Weight (grams)
2012–13
% change
2011–12
2012–13
3 122
32.4
12 687 524
655 050
461
663
43.8
338 274
371 678
9.9
1 192
1 258
5.5
135 277
486 917
259.9
2 358
Australian Capital Territory
% change
-94.8
21
32
52.4
15 532
13 926
-10.3
996
1 704
71.1
36 484
90 523
148.1
132
158
19.7
3 651
1 807
-50.5
209
211
1.0
233 264
578 715
148.1
30
29
-3.3
1 585
1 444
-8.9
Total
5 399
7 177
32.9
13 451 591
2 200 060
-83.6
a. Includes seizures by state/territory police and AFP for which a valid seizure weight was recorded.
b. Please note that kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the number and weight of
other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting period. As such, care should be taken when interpreting these
results.
Over the last decade, the number of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests has
increased 47.7 per cent, from 8 444 in 2003–04 to 12 469 in 2012–13, the highest number
reported in the last decade. Since 2003–04, consumer arrests have accounted for over
70 per cent of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, accounting for 72.9 per cent of
arrests in this reporting period (see Figure 71).
FIGURE 71: Number of national ‘Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified’ drug arrests, 2003–04 to
2012–13
Total
Consumer
Provider
14000
12000
Number
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of national other and unknown
NEC drug arrests, accounting for 31.6 per cent of arrests in 2012–13. This reporting period
South Australia reported the highest percentage increase in other and unknown NEC drug
arrests (see Table 35).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
222
TABLE 35: Number and percentage change of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests,
2011–12 and 2012–13
Arrests
State/Territorya
New South Wales
Victoria
Queensland
South Australia
Western Australia
Tasmania
Northern Territory
Australian Capital Territory
Total
2011–12
1 714
2 417
3 558
154
2 104
477
178
3
2012–13
1 706
3 182
3 945
801
2 439
345
51
0
% change
-0.5
31.7
10.9
420.1
15.9
-27.7
-71.3
-100.0
10 605
12 469
17.6
a. The arrest data for each state and territory includes AFP data.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
223
NATIONAL IMPACT
The other drugs category includes a wide range of drugs and substances. In 2012–13, there
was a record 10 356 detections of PIEDs at the Australian border. The number of
embarkation points identified for PIED detections increased 11.1 per cent this reporting
period, from 63 countries in 2011–12 to 70 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream
continues to account for the greatest proportion of the number of detected PIEDs, with China
and Thailand the prominent embarkation points for the number of PIEDs detected at the
Australian border in 2012–13. While the weight of national steroid seizures decreased this
reporting period, it is the second highest weight reported in the last decade. In 2012–13, the
number of national steroid seizures and arrests increased and are the highest on record.
New South Wales continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and
weight of national steroid seizures, while Queensland continues to account for the greatest
proportion of national steroid arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the
greatest proportion of national steroid arrests, in 2012–13, Tasmania and the Australian
Capital Territory reported more provider arrests than consumer arrests.
There was a record 509 detections of tryptamines at the Australian border in 2012–13, the
majority of which relate to LSD detections. The number of embarkation points identified for
tryptamines detections increased 137.5 per cent this reporting period, from 8 countries in
2011–12 to 19 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account for the greatest
proportion of the number of tryptamine detections, with the Netherlands the prominent
embarkation point for tryptamine detections at the Australian border in 2012–13. Nationally,
the weight of hallucinogen seizures decreased to 3.6 kilograms, the lowest weight reported
since 2008–09. Despite this decrease, the number of national hallucinogen seizures
continued to increase and is the highest reported in the last decade. New South Wales
continues to account for the greatest proportion of both the number and weight of national
hallucinogen seizures, with Queensland continuing to account for the greatest proportion of
national hallucinogen arrests. While consumer arrests continue to account for the greatest
proportion of national hallucinogen arrests, South Australia and Tasmania reported more
provider arrests than consumer arrests.
There was a record 277 detections of anaesthetics at the Australian border in 2012–13, the
majority of which relate to ketamine detections. The number of embarkation points identified
for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border increased 23.5 per cent, from
17 countries in 2011–12 to 21 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account
for the greatest proportion of the number of anaesthetic detections, with the UK the
prominent embarkation point by number for anaesthetic detections at the Australian border
in 2012–13.
While the number of pharmaceutical detections at the Australian border decreased in
2012–13, it is the third highest number reported in the last decade. The majority of
detections this reporting period were benzodiazepines. The number of embarkation points
identified for pharmaceuticals detected at the Australian border increased 9 per cent, from
55 countries in 2011–12 to 60 countries in 2012–13. The postal stream continues to account
for the greatest proportion of the number of pharmaceutical detections. Thailand was the
prominent embarkation point for the number of benzodiazepines detected at the Australian
border in 2012–13, with Pakistan the prominent embarkation point for the number of opioid
detections.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
224
The most prevalent DANPS available in the Australian illicit drug market in 2012–13 were
novel piperazine-type substances, novel cathinone-type substances, novel amphetaminetype substances and synthetic cannabinoids. While the number of analysed border seizures
containing DANPS in 2012–13 decreased 56.3 per cent, the weight of seizures more than
doubled. In this reporting period, novel cathinone-type substances accounted for the majority
of analysed border seizures by number, while novel piperazine-type substances accounted
the greatest proportion of the weight of seizures.
The number of national other and unknown NEC drug seizures continued to increase this
reporting period, with the 7 177 seizures in 2012–13 the highest number reported in the last
decade. The weight of national seizures decreased considerably in 2012–13, a direct
consequence of the 11 tonne seizure of hypophosphorous acid in 2011–12. New South
Wales accounted for the greatest proportion of the number and weight of national other and
unknown NEC drug seizures this reporting period. Queensland continues to account for the
greatest proportion of national other and unknown NEC drug arrests, with consumer arrests
accounting for the greatest proportion of arrests.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
225
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232
CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES
AND PRECURSORS
KEY POINTS

Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally, the
757 laboratories detected in 2012–13 is the second highest number in the last decade.

The majority of clandestine laboratories continue to be detected in residential areas;
however detections in commercial/industrial locations increased in 2012–13.

The greatest proportion of laboratories continue to be addict-based; however, the
proportion attributed to laboratories of other sizes almost doubled in 2012–13.

While the weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the
Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of detections increased and is the
highest reported in the last decade.
MAIN FORMS
Clandestine laboratories produce illegal substances using a variety of chemicals and
manufacturing processes. Commonly referred to as ‘clan labs’, clandestine laboratories
range from crude, makeshift operations using simple processes to highly sophisticated
operations using technically advanced facilities and equipment. Regardless of their level of
sophistication or size, clandestine laboratories pose significant risks to the community as a
consequence of the corrosive and hazardous nature of the chemicals used (AFP 2012;
NCCEH 2012).
Drug manufacture carried out in clandestine laboratories may involve any or all of the
following processes:
 Extraction—Raw materials are extracted using chemical solvents to produce a finished
illicit drug. Examples of extraction include precursor chemicals extracted from
pharmaceutical preparations,86 cannabis oil extracted from cannabis or morphine
extracted from opium.
 Conversion—Raw or unrefined drug products are altered into a more sought-after
product by altering the chemical form. Examples include converting cocaine base into
cocaine hydrochloride or methylamphetamine base into crystalline methylamphetamine
hydrochloride.
 Synthesis—Raw materials are combined, and react under specific conditions to create
the finished product through various chemical processes. Examples include
methylamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly known
as ‘ecstasy’) and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD).
 Tableting—Final products are converted into dosage units. An example is pressing
MDMA powder into tablet form.
86
Such as pseudoephedrine from cold and flu products.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
233
There are three types of substances used in illicit drug manufacture:
 Precursors—Considered to be the starting materials for illicit drug manufacture. As a
result of chemical reactions, the precursor’s molecular structure is modified to produce a
specific illicit drug. For example, precursors such as ephedrine and pseudoephedrine
can be converted into methylamphetamine.
 Reagents—Substances used to cause a chemical reaction that modifies the precursor’s
molecular structure. For example, when hydriodic acid and red phosphorous are mixed
with the precursors ephedrine or pseudoephedrine, the resulting compound is
methylamphetamine.
 Solvents—Added to the chemical mixture to ensure effective mixing by dissolving
precursors and reagents, diluting the reaction mixtures, and separating and purifying
other chemicals. For example, ethyl ether, methyl ethyl ketone and acetone are used in
cocaine production (APAIC 2012; INCB 2012).
Globally, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are the most common illicit drugs
manufactured in clandestine laboratories. In Australia, pseudoephedrine and ephedrine are
the most common precursors used in the manufacture of ATS. Safrole, isosafrole, piperonal
and 3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl-2-propanone (MDP2P)87 are principal precursors used in the
manufacture of MDMA (EMCDDA 2011; UNODC 2013a).
Many legitimate industrial chemicals are used in the manufacture of illicit drugs. This creates
a challenge for government and law enforcement in preventing the diversion of these
chemicals from legitimate commerce to illicit drug manufacture. Precursor controls seek to
stop the diversion of precursors to illicit markets, while maintaing access to these chemicals
by legitimate industry.
In 2007, the Australian Government funded the national roll-out of Project STOP, an initiative
aimed at reducing the diversion of pharmaceutical products containing pseudoephedrine to
the illicit drug manufacturing market. As of 30 June 2013, 79.4 per cent of approved
community pharmacies were registered with Project STOP, compared with 79.2 per cent at
30 June 2012.
Internationally, cohesive chemical control strategies play a key role in controlling percursors
due to the global nature of illicit drug precursor manufacture. The Asian Collaborative Group
on Local Precursor Control (ACoG), the South Pacific Precursor Control Forum (SPPCF)
and other regional precursor-control capability forums are regional forums which provide
Australia with an opportunity to inform and respond to illicit drug trafficking and precursor
diversion (AFP 2013a).
In March 2012, the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) launched the Precursors
Incident Communication System (PICS), aimed at stemming the flow of precursor chemicals
diverted from domestic distribution channels. In response to precursor controls, producers of
ATS may move to the use of ‘pre-precursors’ or ‘masked precursors’—essential noncontrolled chemicals that can be converted into precursor chemicals88 (EMCDDA 2013;
INCB 2012; UNODC 2013a).
87
Also known as PMK.
For example, alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN) can be converted into phenyl-2-propanone
(P2P) to manufacture ATS.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
88
234
INTERNATIONAL TRENDS
Globally, ATS manufacture has increased and expanded. The 2013 World Drug Report
indicates increased manufacture in Europe, Asia, Central America and Africa. During 2012,
ATS manufacture continued to expand in Europe, with first-time clandestine laboratory
detections in regions of Poland and the Russian Federation (BINLEA 2013; UNODC 2013b).
The 2013 World Drug Report indicates that East and South-East Asia are the largest ATS
markets internationally, with the ‘Golden Triangle’89 remaining a major ATS production and
trafficking hub (UNODC 2013b). According to media reporting, Thai authorities estimate at
least 1.4 billion ATS tablets are being produced in the Golden Triangle each year, mainly in
the Shan State of Burma (Daily Times 2013). Media sources also report in August 2012 that
347 kilograms of methylamphetamine was seized at an illicit drug production plant in Burma,
on the Chinese-Burma border (Xinhua 2012).
While the Golden Triangle is the primary region for global ATS production, during 2012–13
the Bureau for International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs (BINLEA) reported large
scale ATS manufacture in Cambodia, Indonesia, Malaysia, and the Philippines. BINLEA also
reported the 2012 detection of a dual methylamphetamine/MDMA clandestine laboratory in
Phnom Penh, along with more than 3 000 litres of safrole oil allegedly smuggled from
Thailand and pseudoephedrine-based medication from Vietnam (BINLEA 2013).
According to BINLEA reporting, clandestine laboratories in Burma’s Shan State are
producing large quantities of ATS using precursors sourced from Bangladesh, China, Laos,
India, and Thailand. Since 2010, seizures of pseudoephedrine have increased in Burma,
with almost 3 tonnes seized in the first nine months of 2012. Additionally, two operations
seized 1.8 million and 8.7 million methylamphetamine tablets respectively (BINLEA 2013).
China and India remain the world’s largest licit producers and exporters of precursor
chemicals. China and India are targeted as primary source countries for precursor chemicals
due to the domestic regulatory framework and proximity to illicit drug manufacturing regions.
While China has made legislative and administrative changes to prevent the diversion of
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine—the two most common chemicals used to produce
methylamphetamine—it remains a major source of these precursors (BINLEA 2013).
The BINLEA report indicates that in Mexico, importations of precursor chemicals are
increasing, along with methylamphetamine production. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine,
which is illegally transported to Mexico, is primarily sourced from China, India and
Bangladesh. Following tightened legislative controls on methylamphetamine precursor
chemicals, authorities now believe that Mexican producers are importing non-scheduled
precursor chemicals to manufacture methylamphetamine using alternative methods
(BINLEA 2013).
According to the 2013 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report, attempted large
importations of precursors into Mexico included methylamine, monomethylamine and
phenyl acetic acid (PAA). The majority of these precursors were sourced from China, and to
a lesser degree, Eastern European and Asian countries. Examples include the Mexican
Government’s seizure of 96 237 litres and 34.7 tonnes of PAA, as well as 47.5 tonnes of
methylamine in September 2012. Furthermore, in 2012 three major shipments of Chinese
origin totalling 262 tonnes of the pre-precursor monomethylamine—used to manufacture
ephedrine—were seized in Mexican ports (BINLEA 2013).
89
The ‘Golden Triangle’ comprises the border regions of Burma, Thailand and Laos.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
235
According to open source reporting, while organised crime groups have traditionally used
West Africa as a transit route for cocaine and heroin, they are increasingly trafficking
methylamphetamine—which is cheaper, easier and more profitable to produce and transport
(Africa Report 2013). The 2013 Threat Assessment of Transnational Organised Crime in
West Africa reported that methylamphetamine manufactured in West Africa is primarily
trafficked into East Asia, and to a lesser extent South Africa. While the current income from
trafficking methylamphetamine to East Asia is high, competition from producers located in
the destination markets could limit any long-term market for West-African manufactured
methylamphetamine (UNODC 2013c).
In April 2013, the Australian Federal Police and the Indonesian National Narcotic Control
Board initiated a joint agency operation to target an organised crime syndicate with the
potential to import commercial quantities of safrole. As a result of the operation, authorities
seized 300 litres of pure safrole in Indonesia. It is alleged that the Indonesian national
arrested was responsible for the distribution of an estimated 200 litres of safrole oil per
month to persons in Australia, Canada, United States, Holland and New Zealand
(AFP 2013b).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
236
DOMESTIC TRENDS
AUSTRALIAN BORDER SITUATION
In recognition of ATS being the dominant illicit drug manufactured in Australian clandestine
laboratories, border detection data will focus on ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor and
MDMA precursor detections. In 2012–13, ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border
detections included ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. MDMA precursor border detections
included safrole, piperonal, and 3,4-MDP2P.
In the last decade, both the number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor border
detections have fluctuated. In 2012–13, the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor
detections increased by 11.3 per cent, from 937 in 2011–12 to 1 043 in 2012–13, the highest
number of detections in the last decade. While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA)
detections decreased by 2.5 per cent, from 1 744.6 kilograms in 2011–12 to
1 700.4 kilograms in 2012–13, it is the third highest detection weight in the last decade
(see Figure 72).
FIGURE 72: Number and weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border,
2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Weight
2100
Number
1200
1800
1000
800
1200
600
900
Number
Weight (kg)
1500
400
600
200
300
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
0
2003–04
0
In 2012–13, there were 471 ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections weighing more
than 1 kilogram each. These detections accounted for 96.7 per cent of the total weight of
ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor chemical detections, totalling 1 644.5 kilograms.
Since 2003–04, the number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border has
remained low. The number of MDMA precursor detections increased from 9 in 2011–12 to
12 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections in the last decade. Over the last decade,
the quantity of MDMA precursor detections has fluctuated, with the total weight of detections
exceeding 1 kilogram in only five reporting periods. In 2012–13, 7.98 kilograms of MDMA
precursors were detected at the border. In 2011–12, 240 litres of safrole was detected
(see Figure 73).
In 2012–13, there were 7 detections of safrole, which accounted for almost 100 per cent of
the total weight of MDMA precursor detections. In addition to these 7 detections, there was
1 detection of piperonal and 4 detections of 3,4-MDP2P.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
237
FIGURE 73: Number and weight/litresa of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border,
2003–04 to 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
14
4
500
2
0
0
2012–13
1000
2011–12
6
2010–11
1500
2009–10
8
2008–09
2000
2007–08
10
2006–07
2500
2005–06
12
2004–05
3000
2003–04
Weight (kg) / Litres
Number
Number
Weight (kg) / Litres
3500
a. Significant detections of MDMA precursors occur in both litres and kilograms. As this figure reflects two units of
measurement, it is necessary to refer to comment on ‘Significant Border Detections’ for individual reporting periods to
determine the related unit of measurement.
SIGNIFICANT BORDER DETECTIONS
Significant border detections of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors in 2012–13 include:
 33 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in June 2013, in metal hammock frames, via
sea cargo from Vietnam to Sydney

21 kilograms of ephedrine detected in March 2013, in a metal cabinet, via sea cargo
from India to Sydney

20.8 kilograms of pseudoephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in 30 imported
cartons of rubber tubing, via sea cargo from China to Sydney

20 kilograms of pseudoephedrine crystals detected in March 2013, concealed within
tiles, via air cargo from Hong Kong to Sydney

19.0 kilograms of ephedrine detected in October 2012, concealed in packets of
breadcrumbs and coffee, via the air passenger stream from Vietnam to Sydney.
The 5 detections listed above have a combined weight of 113.8 kilograms and account for
6.7 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursors detected at the
Australian border in 2012–13.
Significant border detections of MDMA precursors in 2012–13 include:
 2 kilograms of safrole detected in March 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via
air cargo from Indonesia to Perth

2 kilograms of safrole detected in April 2013, concealed in bottles of patchouli oil, via air
cargo from Indonesia to Brisbane

1.07 kilograms of safrole detected in June 2013, concealed in patchouli oil, via air cargo
from Indonesia to Brisbane.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
238
The 3 detections listed above have a combined weight of 5.07 kilograms and account for
63.5 per cent of the total weight of MDMA precursors detected at the Australian border in
2012–13.
IMPORTATION METHODS
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 51.1 per cent of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor
detections by number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 30.8 per cent
(see Figure 74).
FIGURE 74: Number of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a
proportion of total detections, by method of importation, 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (30.8%)
Air passenger/crew (16.0%)
Parcel post (51.1%)
Sea cargo (2.1%)
In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 53.4 per cent of the total weight of
ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections during 2012–13, while parcel post accounted
for 28.4 per cent (see Figure 75). The largest single ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor
detection in 2012–13 was a 33 kilogram sea cargo detection.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
239
FIGURE 75: Weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections at the Australian border, as a
proportion of total weight, by method of importation, 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (53.4%)
Air passenger/crew (12.7%)
Parcel post (28.4%)
Sea cargo (5.5%)
In 2012–13, parcel post accounted for 50.0 per cent of MDMA precursor detections by
number. This was followed by air cargo, which accounted for 41.7 per cent (see Figures 76).
FIGURE 76: Number of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
detections, by method of importation, 2012–13
(Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (41.7%)
Air passenger/crew (8.3%)
Parcel post (50.0%)
In terms of weight, the air cargo stream accounted for 86.1 per cent of the total weight of
MDMA precursor detections in 2012–13, while parcel post accounted for 12.6 per cent
(see Figure 77).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
240
FIGURE 77: Weight of MDMA precursor detections at the Australian border, as a proportion of total
weight, by method of importation, 2012–13 (Source: Australian Customs and Border Protection Service)
Air cargo (86.1%)
Air passenger/crew (1.3%)
Parcel post (12.6%)
EMBARKATION POINTS
In 2012–13, 38 embarkation points were identified for ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor
detections at the Australian border, an increase from 36 countries in 2011–12. China was
the prominent embarkation point, accounting for 25.1 per cent of the total number and
41.2 per cent of the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) precursor detections.
In 2012–13, Indonesia was the prominent embarkation point for MDMA precursor detections,
accounting for 5 of the 12 detections by number, and the top 3 detections by weight.
TABLET PRESS DETECTIONS
On 1 March 2010, tablet presses became a prohibited import in accordance with the
Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 (AGD 2010, AG 2012). In 2012–13, there
were 28 detections at the Australian border, an increase from the 20 detections in 2011–12.
In 2012–13, China was the prominent embarkation point for tablet press detections at the
Australian border, followed by Hong Kong and the United Kingdom. Of the 28 detections,
19 were tablet press parts and 9 were whole machines. Of these, 17 were detected in sea
cargo, 8 in air cargo and 3 in parcel post. The 17 sea cargo detections consisted of 1 whole
tablet press and 16 separate parts detections.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
241
DOMESTIC MARKET INDICATORS
The number of clandestine laboratory detections is not indicative of production output, which
is calculated using a number of variables including size of reaction vessels, amount and type
of precursor chemicals used, the skill of people involved and the method of manufacture.
Regardless of their size, the residual contamination arising from illicit drugs manufacture
presents a serious risk to humans and the environment. In 2011, the Australian Government
launched the Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation Guidelines in recognition of the
hazardous nature of clandestine laboratories (AGD 2011).
CLANDESTINE LABORATORY DETECTIONS
The number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally has more than doubled over the
last decade, increasing from 358 in 2003–04 to 757 in 2012–13. The 6.4 per cent decrease
in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Australia, from 809 in 2011–12 to
757 in 2012–13, is the first decrease since 2006–07. Despite this decrease, it is still the
second highest number of detections on record (see Figure 78).
FIGURE 78: National clandestine laboratory detections, 2003–04 to 2012–13
900
800
700
Number
600
500
400
300
200
100
2012–13
2011–12
2010–11
2009–10
2008–09
2007–08
2006–07
2005–06
2004–05
2003–04
0
New South Wales, Victoria and the Northern Territory were the only states and territory to
report an increase in the number of clandestine laboratories detected in 2012–13 (see
Table 36). Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected in Queensland
decreased by 12.9 per cent from 379 in 2011–12 to 330 in 2012–13, it continues to account
for the highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections.
New South Wales reported the greatest percentage increase in clandestine laboratory
detections, with the 105 detections in 2012–13 the highest number of detections for that
state in the last decade. Clandestine laboratory detections in Victoria increased from 99 in
2011–12 to 113 in 2012–13, the highest number of detections for that state, which also
reported 113 detections in 2009–10. While the number of clandestine laboratories detected
in Western Australia has continued to decrease since 2010–11, it accounted for the second
highest proportion of national clandestine laboratory detections in 2012–13 (see Table 36).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
242
TABLE 36: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by state and territory, 2003–04 to 2012–13
Year
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
2003–04
61
20
189
48
33
1
6
0
358
2004–05
45
31
209
25
44
3
21
3
381
2005–06
55
47
161
50
58
5
12
2
390
2006–07
49
72
132
51
37
9
1
5
356
2007–08
51
76
121
69
30
2
1
6
356
2008–09
67
84
148
65
78
0
7
0
449
2009–10
82
113
297
71
118
1
12
0
694
2010–11
87
63
293
75
171
11
2
1
703
2011–12
90
99
379
58
160
15
7
1
809
2012–13
105
113
330
56
136
9
8
0
757
SIZE AND PRODUCTION CAPACITY
There is currently no recognised standard, either in Australia or internationally, for measuring
the size or production capacity of clandestine laboratories. In 2012–13, state and territory
police services were asked to provide an indication of size and production capacity of
detected laboratories using categories provided by the United Nations Office on Drugs and
Crime for the World Drug Report. Full definitions for the four categories—addict-based, other
small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale—are provided in the Statistics chapter.
In 2012–13, clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based
laboratories, which typically use only basic equipment and simple procedures to
manufacture less than 50 grams per production cycle, through to industrial scale
laboratories, using oversized equipment and which typically manufacture 50 kilograms or
more per production cycle.
During this reporting period, for those able to be categorised, the majority of detected
clandestine laboratories were addict-based laboratories.90 However, the proportion of
laboratories attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale laboratories
increased, reflecting increases in the sophistication and/or size of detected laboratories. The
proportion of industrial scale laboratories detected nationally increased from 2.7 per cent in
2011–12 to 8.0 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 79).
90
This is the second time jurisdictions have provided an indication of the size and production capacity
of detected laboratories. Figures were not available for all clandestine laboratories detected.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
243
FIGURE 79: Category of detected clandestine laboratories, by size and production capacity, 2012–13
Addict-based labs (58.8%)
Other small-scale labs (23.5%)
Medium sized labs (9.7%)
Industrial scale labs (8.0%)
DRUG TYPES AND METHODS OF PRODUCTION
Clandestine laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) continue to be the most
common type of laboratory detected in Australia. In 2012–13, of the laboratories where the
drug produced was identified, 68.8 per cent were producing ATS (excluding MDMA). In
2012–13, methylamphetamine was the main drug produced in detected laboratories
(see Table 37).
TABLE 37: Number of clandestine laboratory detections, by drug production type and state and territory,
2012–13
GHB/
GBL
Chemicals/
Glassware/
Equipment
onlyb
Otherc
Unknownd
Totale
0
0
0
5
3
105
0
1
1
0
3
24
113
0
0
4
1
2
4
137
333
2
0
1
3
2
21
0
19
82
135
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
138
Tas
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
9
NT
8
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
11
ACT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
544
7
1
2
11
4
26
13
183
791
ATS
(excluding
MDMA)
Homebake
Heroin
Cannabis
oil
extraction
MDMA
PSE a
extraction
NSW
93
3
0
1
Vic
83
0
1
Qld
183
2
SA
34
WA
State/
Territory
Total
a. Pseudoephedrine.
b. The seizure of glassware or equipment only is not categorised as a laboratory detection in some jurisdictions.
c. ‘Other’ refers to the detection of other illicit drug manufacture.
d. ‘Unknown’ includes seized substances which were unable to be identified or are awaiting analysis.
e. Total may exceed the number of clandestine laboratory detections due to multiple drug production types being identified at
single laboratories.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
244
The number of ATS (excluding MDMA) laboratory detections decreased this reporting
period, from 552 in 2011–12 to 544 in 2012–13. Since 2000–01, Queensland has accounted
for the greatest proportion of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections, with
Western Australia accounting for the second greatest proportion since 2008–09.
While the number of clandestine laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA remains low, it
increased 250 per cent, from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13. New South Wales has
accounted for the greatest proportion of MDMA clandestine laboratory detections since
2004–05. In 2012–13, New South Wales reported 3 MDMA laboratory detections, of which
1 was a dedicated tableting laboratory. Two MDMA laboratories were also detected in both
Queensland and South Australia.
Since 2009–10, the number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine has continued to
decrease. The number of laboratories extracting pseudoephedrine decreased from 17 in
2011–12 to 11 in 2012–13.
The number of homebake heroin laboratory detections decreased from 3 in 2011–12 to 1 in
2012–13. During this reporting period, 4 clandestine laboratories manufacturing GHB/GBL
were detected, a decrease from 6 laboratories in 2011–12.
While cannabis oil extraction laboratories continue to be detected in Australia, detection
numbers remain low. In 2012–13, 2 cannabis oil extraction laboratories were detected,
1 each in New South Wales and South Australia.
Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia also manufacture a range of precursors and
pre-precursors. In 2012–13, these include but are not limited to, ephedrine,
pseudoephedrine, hypophosphorous acid, P2P and ammonium chloride.
Although the number of clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period decreased,
the proportion of laboratories manufacturing ATS (excluding MDMA) attributed to each
method of production has remained relatively stable. The hypophosphorous method of
production remains the prominent production method identified in Australian clandestine
laboratories, followed by the Nazi/Birch method (see Table 38).
TABLE 38: Method of ATS (excluding MDMA) production in clandestine laboratory detections, by state
and territory, 2012–13
State/
Territory
NSW
Hypophosphorous
(Iodine)
81
Redphosphorus
Nazi/Birch
(Hydriotic)
3
Ammonia)
1
Phenyl-2Propanone
(P2P)
3
(Lithium/
Othera
5
Totalb
93
Vic
40
1
2
10
0
53
Qld
108
33
0
1
0
142
SA
26
3
1
1
1
32
WA
1
4
130
0
0
135
Tas
7
0
0
1
1
9
NT
1
0
0
0
0
1
ACT
0
0
0
0
0
0
264
44
134
16
7
465
Total
a. ‘Other’ includes the detection of other ATS (excluding MDMA) production methodologies.
b. Total may not equal the number of ATS (excluding MDMA) clandestine laboratory detections as the method of production
may not be identified.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
245
In 2012–13, the number of laboratories identified using the hypophosphorous method of
manufacture decreased by 25.4 per cent, from 354 in 2011–12 to 264 in 2012–13.
Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected hypophosphorous
clandestine laboratories, followed by New South Wales.
The number of clandestine laboratories using the Nazi/Birch method continued to decrease,
from 157 in 2011–12 and to 134 in 2012–13. These laboratories continue to be
predominantly detected in Western Australia.
Detections of the red phosphorous production method decreased from 57 in 2011–12 to 44
in 2012–13. While Queensland continues to account for the greatest proportion of detected
red phosphorous laboratories, the number decreased from 38 in 2011–12 to 33 in 2012–13.
The number of clandestine laboratories identified as using the P2P method of production has
remained stable in the last two reporting periods. This method was identified in
16 laboratories in both 2011–12 and 2012–13. In 2012–13, Victoria accounted for the
greatest proportion of P2P laboratories, with 10 detections.
SIGNIFICANT PRECURSOR SEIZURES
While the majority of detected clandestine laboratories in Australia are addict-based, the
proportion of laboratories classified as other small-scale, medium sized and industrial scale
increased in 2012–13. The following provides a snapshot of some significant national
precursor/reagent seizures that occurred in 2012–13:
 100 litres of benzaldehyde seized in Victoria

76 kilograms of ammonium chloride91 seized in Victoria

60 kilograms of sodium acetate seized in Victoria

34 kilograms of acetic anhydride seized in Victoria

30 kilograms of iodine seized in Victoria

21 kilograms of benzaldehyde seized in Queensland

15 kilograms of gamma-amino butyric acid (GABA) seized in Queensland

4.2 kilograms of pseudoephedrine seized in South Australia

24 litres of hypophosphorous acid seized in South Australia

2 litres of safrole seized in Western Australia.
LOCATION AND CATEGORY
While the proportion of clandestine laboratories detected in residential areas decreased in
2012–13, it remains the prominent location of clandestine laboratories in Australia. In
2012–13, 68.2 per cent of detected clandestine laboratories were located in residential
areas, followed by vehicles (9.0 per cent). The proportion of clandestine laboratories
detected in commercial/industrial locations increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to
8.9 per cent in 2012–13 (see Figure 80).
91
Awaiting analysis.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
246
FIGURE 80: Location of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
Residential (68.2%)
Vehicle (9.0%)
Public place (3.8%)
Rural (2.2%)
Commercial/industrial (8.9%)
Other (7.9%)
There are four distinct categories of clandestine laboratories:
 Category A—active (chemicals and equipment in use)
 Category B—stored/used (equipment or chemicals)92
 Category C—stored/unused (equipment or chemicals)
 Category D—historical site.
Category C (stored/unused) remains the most common category for clandestine laboratories
detected in Australia, accounts for 50.5 per cent of detections in 2012–13, a decrease from
56.3 per cent in 2011–12. This was followed by Category B (stored/used), which accounted
for 32.4 per cent of detected laboratories. The proportion of Category A (active) detected
laboratories increased from 6.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 11.3 per cent in 2012–13 (see
Figure 81)
92
Laboratories which are fully assembled, but not active at the time of detection.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
247
FIGURE 81: Category of clandestine laboratory detections, 2012–13
Category A (11.3%)
Category B (32.4%)
Category C (50.5%)
Category D (5.8%)
NATIONAL TABLET PRESS SEIZURES
In 2012–13, there were 19 tablet presses93 seized nationally, compared with 17 seizures in
2011–12. The majority of seizures this reporting period occurred in New South Wales.
South Australia reported the detection of 1 encapsulator in 2012–13.
93
Simple and rotary presses.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
248
NATIONAL IMPACT
While the total weight of ATS (excluding MDMA) and MDMA precursor detections at the
Australian border decreased in 2012–13, the number of precursor detections increased and
is the highest reported in the last decade. The predominant precursors detected include
pseudoephedrine for ATS and safrole for MDMA.
In 2012–13, there were increases in the number of tablet presses detected at the border and
seized nationally. Detections of tablet presses and tablet press parts at the border increased
40.0 per cent this reporting period, with the number of tablet presses seized nationally
increasing 11.8 per cent.
Despite a decrease in the number of clandestine laboratories detected nationally in
2012–13, the 757 clandestine laboratories detected this reporting period is the second
highest number on record. The majority of these laboratories were manufacturing ATS
(excluding MDMA), using the hypophosphorous method of production. The number of
laboratories detected manufacturing MDMA increased from 2 in 2011–12 to 7 in 2012–13.
Clandestine laboratories detected in Australia ranged from addict-based through to industrial
scale laboratories. While the greatest proportion of laboratories able to be categorised
remained addict-based, the proportion attributed to other small-scale, medium sized and
industrial scale laboratories increased in 2012–13. Residential areas remain the most
common location for clandestine laboratory detections. Of note was the increase in the
proportion of laboratories attributed to commercial/industrial locations this reporting period,
which increased from 2.8 per cent in 2011–12 to 8.9 per cent in 2012–13.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
249
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Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
250
International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) 2012, Precursors and chemicals frequently
used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, INCB, Vienna,
viewed
3
September
2013,
<http://www.incb.org/documents/PRECURSORS/TECHNICAL_REPORTS/2011/PARTITIO
N/ENGLISH/PR2011E_ExtentOfLicitTradeAndLatestTrendsInTraffickingPrecursors.pdf>.
National Collaborating Centre for Environmental Health (NCCEH) 2012, Clandestine
amphetamine-derived drug laboratories: remediation guidelines for residential settings,
NCCEH,
Vancouver,
viewed
3
September
2013,
<http://www.ncceh.ca/sites/default/files/Drug_Lab_Remdiation_Guidelines_Dec_2012.pdf>.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013a, World Drug Report 2013,
UNODC, Vienna.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013b, Global Smart Update
March 2013, Volume 9.
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2013c, Transnational Organized Crime
in West Africa: A Threat Assessment, UNODC.
Xinhua 2012, ‘Chinese, Myanmar police bust cross-border drug gang’, Xinhua, 16 August
2012, viewed 25 November 2013, <http://english.people.com.cn/90883/7911989.html>.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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INITIATIVES
KEY POINTS

The leading drug policy document in Australia is the National Drug Strategy
2010–2015.

A number of key amendments were recently made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 to
strengthen the serious drug offences framework.

The Australian Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls
to prohibit the importation of new psychoactive substances and is working with states
and territories to address the domestic manufacture, supply and advertising of these
substances.
INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines some of the initiatives that reflect the Australian Government’s
commitment to countering the threat posed by illicit drugs. These initiatives have been
developed by law enforcement, health authorities and other government and
non-government agencies. The contribution to this chapter was provided primarily by the
Attorney-General’s Department, as the central policy and coordinating element of the
Attorney-General’s portfolio.
The Attorney-General’s portfolio continues to work with Commonwealth, state and territory
agencies to strengthen Commonwealth legislative frameworks and law enforcement
mechanisms to combat the illicit drug trade—particularly in light of the links to serious and
organised crime.
Recent initiatives include amendments to the Commonwealth serious drug offences
framework to improve the Commonwealth’s ability to be responsive to new and emerging
threats in the illicit drug market. The Commonwealth is pursuing a range of activities to
strengthen controls on new psychoactive substances.
NATIONAL DRUG STRATEGY 2010–2015
The National Drug Strategy 2010–2015 (NDS) is the leading drug policy document for
Commonwealth, state and territory governments, as well as the non-government sector. The
NDS focuses on building safe and healthy communities by minimising alcohol, tobacco and
other drug-related harms among individuals, families and communities.
The objective of harm minimisation is maintained through a balanced approach between
demand reduction, supply reduction and harm reduction that has underpinned the NDS
since its inception in 1985. The NDS continues the key partnership between health and law
enforcement, while acknowledging the importance of working with other sectors to address
the complex causes and consequences of drug use.
The Attorney-General’s Department is a member of the Intergovernmental Committee on
Drugs (IGCD), which is comprised of representatives from health and law enforcement
agencies across all jurisdictions. The IGCD has responsibility for the implementation of the
NDS and includes specialist working groups and committees designed to provide ongoing
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guidance and expertise to the IGCD relating to specific alcohol, licit and illicit drug issues of
interest.
STRENGTHENING THE SERIOUS DRUG OFFENCES FRAMEWORK
A number of key amendments have recently been made to the Criminal Code Act 1995 (Cth)
(Criminal Code) to strengthen the serious drug offences framework and ensure it is up to
date and effective in combating the illicit drug trade.
A number of synthetic substances that pose a serious risk of death or harm if taken were
listed as controlled or border controlled drugs and are now subject to the full range of serious
drug offences in the Criminal Code. In April 2012, four drugs (benzylpiperazine, ketamine,
methcathinone, 4-methylmethcathinone) and one precursor (phenylpropanolamine) were
listed indefinitely after being temporarily listed for 12 months.
In May 2013, the following amendments were made to Part 9.1 of the Criminal Code:



the lists of drugs, plants and precursors were transferred to the Criminal Code
Regulations 2002 to provide for quicker listing of substances
the emergency determination mechanism was improved by extending the listing period
to allow for appropriate analysis and testing of substances
the mechanisms for listing new drugs, plants or precursors were refined.
Improvements to the serious drug offences framework are made in consultation with key
stakeholder agencies such as the Australian Federal Police (AFP), Australian Customs and
Border Protection Service, Department of Health and the Australian Crime Commission
(ACC).
NEW PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCES
New psychoactive substances or ‘synthetic’ drugs mimic the effect of existing illicit drugs, but
have slightly different chemical structures that may fall outside existing prohibitions. Often
purchased online and sold as ‘legal highs’,94 there are a range of controls already in place to
prohibit many of them.
CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY BAN
On 19 June 2013, the then Commonwealth Assistant Treasurer introduced an interim
consumer protection ban under the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 (Cth) prohibiting
the retail sale of certain psychoactive products and substances nationally. This ban was
introduced to fill a gap in coverage in some states and territories where Schedule 9 95 of the
Poisons Standard had not been fully implemented. It followed the introduction of an interim
ban that was put in place by the New South Wales Minister for Fair Trading. The national
interim ban lapsed on 13 October 2013. As the relevant state and territory drug laws were
updated while the interim ban was in place, the Assistant Treasurer determined that a
permanent ban was not required.
STRENGTHENING THE RESPONSE AT THE BORDER
Tackling new psychoactive substances requires a national approach. The Australian
Government is considering options to strengthen existing border controls to prohibit the
importation of these substances. The Commonwealth is also working with the states and
Use of the term ‘legal high’ may not reflect the true legal status of these substances under Australian
legislation.
95 Schedule 9 of the Standard for the Uniform Scheduling of Medicines and Poisons lists substances the
Therapeutic Goods Administration has assessed as liable to abuse or misuse and which should be prohibited.
94
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253
territories through the IGCD to develop complementary regimes around the domestic
manufacture, supply and advertising of new psychoactive substances.
FORENSIC DRUG INTELLIGENCE
The Forensic Drug Intelligence (FDI) team, formerly the Australian Illicit Drug Data Centre, is
a part of the AFP Forensics portfolio. FDI supports the AFP, law enforcement and other
partners through the collection, collation and analysis of forensic and scientific information
on illicit drugs. The FDI provides specialist forensic advice, scientific and technical
intelligence analysis and evidence-based policy development.
Two of the projects the FDI team has responsibility for are funded through the Confiscated
Assets Account. These are the Enhanced National Intelligence Picture on Illicit Drugs
(ENIPID) and the National Drug Precursor Risk Assessment Capability (NDPRAC), both of
which contribute to the production of operationally-relevant intelligence and inform evidencebased policy decisions.
NATIONAL FORENSIC RAPID LAB
The National Forensic Rapid Lab (NFRL) is a recently implemented capability within the AFP
Forensics portfolio. The goal of the NFRL is to identify organised, multiple importations of
significant quantities of illicit drugs via the international postal system through the collection,
analysis and assessment of forensic intelligence.
A major component of the NFRL’s mission is the detection and rapid identification of new
and novel drugs, including ‘analogues’, which are increasingly being systematically ordered
via the internet and distributed using the international postal system.
The NFRL provides valuable and actionable operational intelligence to other countries via
the AFP’s international network. This enables effective disruption and prosecution activities
within those countries, with the aim of preventing the importation of illicit drugs into Australia
via the international postal system.
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PRECURSOR ADVISORY GROUP
The Precursor Advisory Group (PAG) was established under the National Precursor Control
Framework to support the decision-making process under the framework. The PAG is
responsible for coordinating risk assessments of the diversion of precursors to illicit drug
manufacture and the consequential harms to the community posed by the use of precursors.
The PAG also provides recommendations on national controls to mitigate identified risks.
The PAG is chaired by the Attorney-General’s Department. Membership of the PAG includes
technical experts from the Commonwealth and state and territory governments. The group
also draws advice from various industry representatives through a Precursor Industry
Reference Group.
The PAG directs the NDPRAC to carry out risk assessments on prioritised chemicals and in
consultation with the PIRG, uses these assessments to make recommendations to the IGCD
for regulatory or other action relating to these chemicals.
ICE PIPES REGULATION – PROHIBITED IMPORT
The ACC has identified amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) as one of the three highest
organised crime priorities for Australia. While ATS can be administered through a range of
methods, including inhalation, smoking of methylamphetamine in its crystalline form is
particularly dangerous due to high purity levels.
Ice pipes or devices capable of being used for drawing or inhaling the resulting smoke or
fumes from heating methylamphetamine are illegal in most Australian jurisdictions. As ice
pipes do not have any legitimate use in industry, they have been controlled as a Prohibited
Import under the Customs (Prohibited Imports) Regulations 1956 since
10 December 2011.
Persons with a legitimate scientific or law enforcement reason to import ice pipes are still
able to do so, subject to permission from the Minister for Immigration and Border Protection
or an authorised person.
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STATE AND TERRITORY
LEGISLATIVE AMENDMENTS
& INITIATIVES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides an overview of recently proposed or implemented legislative
and regulatory changes and law enforcement initiatives related to illicit drugs in
Australian states and territories. Contributions to this chapter were provided by each
state and territory police service. Information contained in this chapter should be
used as a guide only. Please refer to the nominated Act or regulation for further
detail.
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LEGISLATIVE & REGULATORY
AMENDMENTS
NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Drug Misuse and Trafficking Act (DMTA) 1985
Date assented: 27 September 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the DMTA to have 45 new substances added to Schedule 1. The
substances listed in Schedule 9 of the Commonwealth Poisons Standard will be
adopted into the Poisons and Therapeutic Goods Act (NSW). When new substances
that belong to this class are identified, this will be specified in the DMTA Schedule
and it will become a prohibited drug.
OBJECTIVES
The majority of synthetic cannabinoids, cathinone analogues and the NBOMe
compounds will become prohibited substances. The definition of ‘analogue’ will be
amended not to include the phrase ‘psychotropic properties.’ This will make it easier
to prove a substance is an analogue.
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
New Psychoactive Substances Act
Date assented: 24 September 2013
PURPOSE
To introduce a new Act to deal specifically with psychoactive substances.
OBJECTIVES
Effectively this will make it an offence to sell, manufacture and advertise substances
with a psychoactive effect. It will also deal with those substances that are marketed
as plant food or bath salts. There will be no possession offence attached to this Act.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Misuse of Drugs Amendment Regulations 2012
Date assented: 3 August 2012
PURPOSE
The insertion of the definition ‘Indigenous community’ (regulation 6A) into section
4B(1) of the Misuse of Drugs Act. Consequently, the areas that were defined as
prescribed areas under section 4 of the Northern Territory National Emergency
Response (NTNER) Act 2007, prior to its repeal, are again prescribed areas under
the Misuse of Drugs Act.
OBJECTIVES
The Regulation provides clarity of definition given the repeal of legislation. Individuals
within Indigenous communities who initiate and/or aggravate certain offences may
face increased penalties.
QUEENSLAND (Qld)
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Drugs Misuse Act (DMA) 1986
Date assented: 29 April 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the DMA extended definition of a dangerous drug contained in Section 4
‘Definitions’ and to create a new offence for trafficking in precursor chemicals used in
the production of dangerous drugs.
OBJECTIVES
Amend the definition of ‘dangerous drug’ to overcome the evidentiary difficulties in
proving a substance has a substantially similar chemical structure and a substantially
similar pharmacological effect to a scheduled dangerous drug (where the substance
is new and has not been subjected to study) to include:
(c) a thing that:

has a chemical structure that is substantially similar to the chemical structure of a
thing referred to in paragraph (a)96 or (b)97

has a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the pharmacological
effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b)

is intended to have a pharmacological effect that is substantially similar to the
pharmacological effect of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or (b).
Additionally, create a new offence of trafficking in precursors (substances used to
manufacture dangerous drugs).
96
A thing specified in the Drugs Misuse Regulation 1987, schedule 1 or 2 or, where the thing so
specified is a plant, any part of the thing.
97 A thing being a salt, derivative or stereo-isomer of a thing referred to in paragraph (a) or any salt of
such a derivative or stereo-isomer.
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QUEENSLAND (Qld) cont.
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Drugs Misuse Regulations (DMR) 1987
Date assented: 5 April 2013
PURPOSE
Addition of 33 substances as dangerous drugs.
OBJECTIVES
Addition of one compound into Schedule 1 of the DMR:

paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA).
Addition of 33 compounds into Schedule 2 of the DMR:

n-(1-adamantyl)-1-pentyl-indazole-3-carboxamide (APINACA or AKB48)

alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (alpha-PVP)

2-aminoindane

6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB)

butyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4(C4) 2-methoxy isomer)

[3-(3-carbamoylphenyl)phenyl] n-cyclohexylcarbamate (URB-597)

cyclohexyl [1,1'-biphenyl]-3-ylcarbamate (URB-602)

desoxypipradrol (2-DPMP)

1,3-dimethylamylamine (DMAA or methylhexanamine)

1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(1-adamantylamido)indole (STS-135)

(1-(5-fluoropentyl)-indol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)

methanone (XLR-11; 5-fluoro UR-144)

1-(5-fluoropentyl)-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (5-fluoro JWH-122)

5-hydroxy tryptophan (5-HTP)

4-hydroxy-n-methyl-n-ethyltryptamine (4-HO-MET)

methiopropamine

methoxetamine

n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromophenethylamine (25B-NBOMe)

n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-chlorophenethylamine (25C-NBOMe)

n-(2-methoxybenzyl)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenethylamine (25I-NBOMe)

5-methoxy-n,n-diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT)

5,6-methylenedioxy-2-aminoindane (MDAI)

3,4-methylenedioxypyrovalerone (MDPV)

4-methylethylcathinone (4-MEC)

1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AM-1248)
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
1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(2-iodobenzoyl)indole (AM-2233)

1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(4-methyl-1-naphthoyl)indole (MAM-1220)

1-[(n-methylpiperidin-2-yl)methyl]-3-(1-naphthoyl)indole (AM-1220)

naphthylpyrovalerone (naphyrone)

pentyl-3-(1-adamantoyl)indole (AB-001)

pentylindol-3-yl)-(2,2,3,3-tetramethylcyclopropyl)methanone (UR-144)

pentyl-3-(2-methoxybenzoyl)indole (RCS-4 (2-methoxy isomer))

phenazepam.
TASMANIA (Tas)
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Misuse of Drugs Order 2012
Date assented: 1 October 2012
PURPOSE
The Order enabled the addition of synthetic cannabinoid drug classes and other new
substances to the Controlled Drug list of the Misuse of Drugs Act 2001.
OBJECTIVES
To increase the utility of the Act to deal with new psychoactive substances.
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WESTERN AUSTRALIA (WA)
TITLE OF ACT/REGULATION
Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2011
Date assented: 30 January 2013
PURPOSE
To amend the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 to change the definition of drug
paraphernalia and to create a number of new offences concerning the sale and
display for sale of drug paraphernalia.
OBJECTIVES
Drug paraphernalia is now defined as:
a) anything made or modified to be used in connection with manufacturing or
preparing a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant:

for administration to a person

for smoking, inhaling or ingesting by a person

to be burned or heated so its smoke or fumes can be smoked or inhaled by a
person.
b) anything made or modified to be used by a person:

to administer a prohibited drug or a prohibited plant to a person

to smoke, inhale or ingest a prohibited drug or prohibited plant

to smoke or inhale the smoke or fumes resulting from burning or heating a
prohibited drug or prohibited plant.
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STATE AND TERRITORY INITIATIVES
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY (ACT)
INITIATIVE
Early Intervention and Diversion Program (Alcohol Diversion for Young People) and
the Illicit Drug Diversion Program
DURATION
2010–2012
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The Australian Capital Territory Policing Early Intervention and Diversion program is
designed to provide early incentives for drug offenders to deal with their drug
problems. The main people who can benefit from this program are young offenders
who have no prior involvement with the courts.
Young drug offenders who qualify for the program have the opportunity of being
referred to a variety of education and treatment options.
It is a partnership approach between health, police and non-government agencies
adhering to the principles of the National Drug Strategy 2010–2015.
NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW)
INITIATIVE
End User Declarations (EUD)
DURATION
2010–2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
An electronic system should be developed in order to facilitate the input and retrieval
of this data. The New South Wales Police Drug Squad has made a submission to
create such a system and there is currently a study funded by the National Drug Law
Enforcement Research Fund (NDLERF) looking at the feasibility of such a system.
Price Waterhouse Coopers has finished their scoping study and presented their
results.
NDLERF has accepted and endorsed the scoping study. The study has been
adopted by the Australia New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency Crime Forum and
has now been endorsed by the Strategic Issues Group (CrimTrac) and Senior
Officers Group on Organised Crime. The Investigations Coordinator Chemical
Operations (New South Wales Police Force) will chair the EUD Working Group and
with the Attorney General’s Department will identify and formalise other jurisdictional
members of the working group.
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NEW SOUTH WALES (NSW) cont.
INITIATIVE
Pharmaceutical misuse
DURATION
2010–2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The New South Wales Police Force (NSWPF) are currently involved in a range of
external committees that are looking at pharmaceutical misuse including the
Intergovernmental Committee on Drugs (IGCD), New South Wales Expert Advisory
Group on Drugs and the New South Wales Illicit Drug and Alcohol Monitoring Group.
The IGCD commenced the National Pharmaceutical Drugs Misuse Strategy in
2010.The aim of the strategy is to reduce the diversion and misuse of
pharmaceuticals and associated harms. The NSWPF have contributed to the
consultation process for the Strategy through participation in the New South Wales
consultation forum and through the provision of research into the illicit
pharmaceuticals market conducted by the Drug and Alcohol Coordination (DAC).
Some of the key issues for law enforcement agencies include accurate police data
collection, information sharing between state and federal police and health bodies,
sharing and development of best practice strategies in relation to prosecutions and
health initiatives, a review of relevant jurisdictional laws and regulations, clear
delineation of regulator roles, responsibility and liaison channels, a real-time national
on-line prescription system and education programs and resources for all
stakeholders.
The NSWPF is committed to pursuing operational and policy responses to these
issues through an internal working party consisting of DAC, the Drug Squad and
Local Area Command members. This working party will facilitate change within the
NSWPF and through membership to external bodies including the IGCD.
NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT)
INITIATIVE
Northern Territory Early Intervention Pilot Program (NTEIPP)
DURATION
2010–2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The NTEIPP aims to facilitate partnerships with police, community service
organisations and agencies, with a view to better engage with youth. Facilitating an
interventionist approach enables youth to engage positively with community based
police and other organisations and be provided with opportunity for referral and brief
interventions.
The improved relationships developed with youths through use of the NTEIPP have
fostered a connection to health and other social services. This positive interaction
with young people facilitates the intervention and referral process.
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NORTHERN TERRITORY (NT) cont.
INITIATIVE
Northern Territory Illicit Drug Pre Court Diversion Program (IDPCDP)
DURATION
Ongoing-current
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The Northern Territory IDPCDP model enables police to divert first time drug
offenders (both juvenile and adults) in possession of less than a trafficable quantity of
an illicit drug. These offenders may be given the opportunity to participate in
assessment, education, counselling and/or treatment to expiate the offence. Noncompliance in assessment or intervention results in the offender being prosecuted
through the court system.
This program utilises and enhances service provision, provided by both Government
and non-government organisations, to maximise the opportunity for users of illicit
drugs and licit drugs (used illicitly) to enter assessment, education, counselling
and/or treatment. It establishes a framework whereby users may, through the
admission of guilt, be diverted by police to assessment, education, counselling and/or
treatment as an alternative to receiving a criminal penalty.
QUEENSLAND (QLD)
INITIATIVE
Clandestine Laboratory Awareness Workshops – CLAWS project
DURATION
2012–2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The aim of this project was to educate real estate professionals state-wide, with a
view of increasing awareness to identify the presence of a clandestine laboratory and
thereby minimising the risk of harm to the community, whilst ensuring property
security and integrity. The project also aimed to educate the Department of
Communities in relation to clandestine laboratory investigation.
INITIATIVE
Operation Greensmoke (synthetic drug awareness)
DURATION
2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The aim of this project was to educate police, industries (such as the mining sector)
and the community throughout metropolitan and regional Queensland about the new
and emerging drugs such as synthetic cannabis and ‘bath salts’.
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QUEENSLAND (QLD) cont.
INITIATIVE
National Drug Commander’s Forum
DURATION
2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The Queensland State Drug Squad (SDS) hosted the 2013 National Drug
Commander’s Forum which was held on 13 November 2013 in Cairns. The theme of
the forum was ‘Bridging the Borders’ and focused on developing strategies to
enhance cross-jurisdictional cooperation in drug related investigations involving
police and other law enforcement agencies throughout Australia.
Commanders of drug units are required to address a variety of shifting organisational
and governmental priorities with a limited amount of resources, whilst remaining
cognisant of the need to maintain the guidelines set by national and state drug
policies. The National Drug Commander’s Forum provided an opportunity to address
the recurring issues of cross-border operations, use of proceeds of crime funds for
operations, unexplained wealth and other topics where jurisdictional differences
impede the progress of operational outcomes.
Representatives from a national, state and territory police and other law enforcement
and partner agencies attended the forum which included the United States Federal
Bureau of Investigation, the United States Drug Enforcement Administration, the New
Zealand Police, Netherlands Police, the Australian Crime Commission, the Australian
Customs & Border Protection Service, the Crime and Misconduct Commission and
the Australian Sport Anti-Doping Agency.
The forum and seminar was made possible thanks to the ongoing support of the
Queensland Police Service State Crime Command, the Drug and Alcohol
Coordination Unit and the Australian Crime Commission.
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA)
INITIATIVE
South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy 2011–2016 – Annual Report on
Progress
DURATION
November 2011–2012
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The first progress report of the 2011–2016 Strategy was prepared by Drug and
Alcohol Services South Australia, with input from lead agencies, including South
Australia Police, through the South Australian Alcohol and Other Drug Strategy
Steering Group.
The first year of the strategy delivered significant progress. Of 60 priority actions, 56
are on track or complete, 4 require additional effort and there are none behind
schedule or not expected to be met.
INITIATIVE
Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program
DURATION
November 2012–May 2014
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
An 18-month Naloxone Distribution Pilot Program implemented by Drug and Alcohol
Services South Australia is the first of its kind in South Australia. It is overseen by an
advisory group comprised of representatives from police, ambulance, clinical
services, SA Voice for Intravenous Education, SA Sex Industry Network and the
Expanding Naloxone Availability in ACT committee. The pilot program aims to:

increase availability of naloxone to people who inject opioids

increase the capacity of people who inject opioids and potential overdose
witnesses to effectively respond to an opioid overdose

reduce brain injury and fatalities caused by opioid overdoses.
By June 2013, overall parameters and methodology were being reassessed due to
difficulties achieving recruitment targets despite augmentation strategies.
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SOUTH AUSTRALIA (SA) cont.
INITIATIVE
South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016
DURATION
2012–16
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
In September 2012, the South Australia Police Illicit Drug Strategy 2012–2016 was
launched as a succinct document that emphasises every action counts when
addressing the complexities of illicit drug use and related crime. It is overseen by a
management group of senior executives and the managers of relevant specialist
units.
With emergent technological advances and exponential growth of online purchasing,
innovation is required to effectively address internet use for purchasing and
distribution of illicit drugs, their clandestine manufacture and the importation of
analogue and synthetic drugs.
Police officers have a vital role for increasing illicit drug detections and positively
influencing community attitudes towards illicit drugs by focusing activities on the four
priority areas of the Strategy:

enforcement

partnerships and community engagement

capacity building

intelligence analysis and research.
TASMANIA (Tas)
INITIATIVE
Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative (IDDI)
DURATION
2000–ongoing
In 2011, the IDDI became a program for adults only.
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The IDDI is an early intervention program for minor drug offenders, where cannabis
and other illicit drugs are involved, including the illicit use of pharmaceuticals. IDDI
operates under an agreement between the Department of Police and Emergency
Management and the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS).
The IDDI seeks to divert minor drug offenders away from the criminal justice system.
An offender may be issued with a caution or a diversion notice. A diversion notice
requires that the individual make contact with the Alcohol Drug Service (ADS),
DHHS. The ADS provides assessment, counselling and treatment to assist minor
drug offenders to address their drug use issues.
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TASMANIA (Tas) cont.
INITIATIVE
Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013
DURATION
2007–2013
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 was developed by the
Inter Agency Working Group on Drugs (IAWGD) and was launched in 2007. The
IAWGD is a group that has representation from a range of government departments
and non-government organisations. The IAWGD is also responsible for
implementation, monitoring and reporting against the Plan.
The objectives of the Tasmanian Psychostimulants Action Plan 2007–2013 are to:

reduce the supply and availability of illicit drugs and precursors

work with the dance party industry to develop guidelines for safer environments

build resilience in young people

develop information resources for young people, the community, police and
health professionals

provide timely and appropriate intervention and linking of people to health
services.
The Plan supports the objectives of the Tasmanian Drug Strategy 2005–2012.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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TASMANIA (Tas) cont.
INITIATIVE
Court Mandated Diversion (CMD)
DURATION
Ongoing-current
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
CMD provides Magistrates with an option to divert eligible offenders into treatment for
their drug use through either the bail or sentencing process. CMD is administered by
the Department of Justice.
The primary goal of the CMD program is to break the drug-crime cycle by involving
offenders in treatment and rehabilitation programs. It increases offender access to
drug, alcohol, and other welfare services, in order to break their cycle of contact with
the criminal justice system.
Other principal goals of the CMD project are to:

provide offenders with an opportunity to acknowledge and address offending
behaviour caused by drug abuse, thereby improving physical and psychological
well being

help eligible offenders to reduce and abstain from illicit drug use

reduce drug-related offending behaviour

improve offenders’ relationships with family and friends

improve offenders’ possibility of gaining or retaining employment

provide offenders with the tools to recognise and prevent relapse into substance
abuse and criminal behaviour

develop a shared approach to and a commitment to a ‘joint’ service delivery
system between Government and the non-government sector.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
198
VICTORIA (Vic)
INITIATIVE
Illicit Drug Diversion Initiative
DURATION
Ongoing-current
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND/OR OUTCOMES
The Drug Diversion and Cannabis Cautioning programs enable police to refer illicit
drug users to timely health interventions.
The Cannabis Cautioning program involves providing a cautioning notice for simple
use/possess cannabis offences to offenders who meet the police criteria. An optional
education session for offenders will be offered in conjunction with the caution.
The Drug Diversion program involves offering a diversion to a person detained for
use or possession of an illicit drug other than cannabis on the condition that they
undertake a clinical drug assessment and enter any prescribed drug treatment. The
offender must meet police criteria and agree to the diversion and will be provided
with a drug assessment appointment time.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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STATISTICS
INTRODUCTION
The Australian Crime Commission (ACC) uses the National Illicit Drug Reporting
Format (NIDRF) system to process seizure, arrest and purity data for the Illicit Drug
Data Report (IDDR). This allows for more accurate analysis of law enforcement data
and assists in moving towards nationally standardised data holdings. The ACC
acknowledges the assistance of police statisticians and information managers in this
process.
COUNTING METHODOLOGY
The following methodology was used to develop a count of arrests by drug type:
 where a person has been charged with multiple consumer or provider offences
for a particular type of drug, that person is counted once only as a consumer or
provider of that drug
 where consumer and provider charges for a particular drug type have been laid,
the provider charge takes precedence and the person is counted only as a
provider of that drug
 a person who has been charged in relation to multiple drug types is counted as a
consumer or provider for each drug type
 a person is counted on each separate occasion that they are charged.
DATA SOURCES
ARREST AND SEIZURE DATA
The following agencies provided arrest and seizure data:
 Australian Federal Police

Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing

New South Wales Police Force

Northern Territory Police

Queensland Police Service

South Australia Police

Tasmania Police

Victoria Police

Western Australia Police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
200
DRUG PURITY DATA
The following agencies and organisations provided drug purity data:
 Australian Federal Police

Australian Federal Police, ACT Policing

ChemCentre

Forensic Science South Australia

Forensic Science Service Tasmania

New South Wales Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office

New South Wales Forensic and Analytical Science Service

Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services

Victoria Police.
The purity tables only represent purity figures for seizures of that drug type that have
been analysed at a forensic laboratory. The number of 'cases' in the purity level
tables reflects the number of individual samples analysed (items), as distinct from the
number of seizures/cases (which may have multiple items).
Drug purity figures for Victoria, Queensland, and the Australian Capital Territory
represent the purity level of drugs seized by police during the relevant quarter.
Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity
level of drugs received at the laboratory during the relevant quarter. Specifically, the
ChemCentre in Western Australia and Forensic Science South Australia do not
analyse all seizures less than 2 grams. As a result, the purity table will underestimate
the number of samples tested.
The time between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the
laboratories can vary from a few days to several months and, in isolated cases,
years. The purity table represents those seizures analysed during the financial year
2012–13, not necessarily all seizures made during that period.
The New South Wales Drugs Laboratory tests for purity levels on cases larger than
the traffickable level: being 3 grams for amphetamine, methylamphetamine, heroin,
cocaine, 0.75 grams for phenethylamines and 15 discrete dosage units (ddu) for
lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). For each case, purity testing is carried out on each
drug type over the traffickable quantity. Additionally, the laboratory will only test a
limited number of samples per case. The laboratory also tests purity levels on
controlled operations for the New South Wales Police Force, including undercover
units, which are greater than 100 milligrams.
In South Australia, very low levels of drugs (less than 0.1%) were excluded from
analysis.
Tasmania Police do not conduct purity determinations on exhibits unless it is
specifically requested by the investigator and he/she has a good reason for doing so.
Tasmania Police also do not conduct purity determinations on less than 0.5 grams.
Legislation in Tasmania does not take into account the purity of the exhibit, so there
are very few instances where purity determinations are of great value and hence not
worth the significant effort required to determine the purity.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
201
Drug seizures are not routinely tested for purity in the Northern Territory, unless
specifically requested. The Misuse of Drugs Act (NT) provides for all of the
preparation or mixture to be deemed as if all of the substance (preparation or
mixture) is comprised of the dangerous drug found, irrespective of purity.
ACT Policing only tests for purity on seizures that are larger than the traffickable
amount. All samples lodged by ACT Policing with the ACT Government Analytical
Laboratory are tested, but not all are tested for purity.
DRUG PRICE DATA
Data on prices for illicit drugs were collected from each of the police jurisdictions and
are based on information supplied by covert police units and police informants.
Unless otherwise stated, police price information has been used.
LIMITATIONS OF THE DATA
OVERVIEW
Despite limitations in the current data set, the ACC’s IDDR, provides the best
collection of arrest and seizure statistics available in Australia. The NIDRF data
processing system has enabled the ACC to improve statistical quality and reliability.
DATASETS
Since the development and implementation of the NIDRF processing system,
limitations with the administrative datasets used to compile the statistics have
decreased. However, the following factors should be considered when using the data
to develop assessments or conclusions:
 a lack of uniformity across all states and territories in the recording and storing of
data on illicit drug arrests and seizures

ongoing problems with quality control, resulting in the absence of essential
information from some records

differences in applying a uniform counting and data extraction methodology
across all jurisdictions

differences in definitions of consumer and provider offences across and within
jurisdictions over time

differences in the way drugs and offences may be coded

insufficient drug identification

an inability to identify seizures resulting from joint operations, for example, those
involving the AFP and a state or territory agency.
DRUG IDENTIFICATION AND CODING
Not all illicit drugs seized by law enforcement are scientifically analysed to establish
the precise nature of the drug. In some cases, only seizures of a predetermined
weight or those that are the subject of a ‘not guilty’ plea are analysed. In some
instances, an initial field test may be carried out to provide an indication as to the
seized drug, but all other seizures are recorded at the discretion of the investigating
officer and without further qualification.
Historically, a number of jurisdictional data systems did not differentiate between
amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
202
(MDMA). This has restricted the ACC’s ability to monitor and report on national
trends in MDMA seizures and arrests. Similar problems continue to exist with a range
of other drugs, including ketamine and gamma-butyrolactone (GBL), and in some
jurisdictions seizures of these drugs are recorded as ‘other drugs’. Monitoring and
reporting on national trends of these drugs is therefore limited.
RECORDING AND STORAGE METHODS
The lack of consistency between law enforcement agencies in recording illicit drug
arrests and seizures presents difficulties when data is aggregated and compared.
Disparities exist in the level of detail recorded for each offence, the methods used to
quantify the seizures, the way offence and seizure data is extracted, and the way
counting rules and extraction programs are applied.
QUALITY CONTROL
Missing, incomplete and non-specific information relating to drug seizures makes it
impossible to calculate precisely the total quantity of each drug type seized. As a
result it is difficult to analyse trends on a comparative basis across a number of
years. This has been a particularly pertinent issue since the 2001–02 report, as the
NIDRF system allows for increased scrutiny of large seizures that may not have been
queried in the past.
CONSUMERS AND PROVIDERS
Offenders are classified as consumers or providers in order to differentiate between
people who have been apprehended for trading in, as opposed to using, illicit drugs.
Those charged with supply-type offences (importation, trafficking, selling, cultivation
and manufacture) are classified as providers. Those charged with user-type offences
(possessing or administering drugs for their own use) are classified as consumers.
In some cases, the jurisdictions allocate consumer and provider codes, and in others,
the ACC applies the codes based on the information on the type of offence
committed. Further, there are some differences in the methodologies jurisdictions use
for applying consumer and provider codes. In some states and territories, the
quantity of the drug involved determines whether an offence is regarded as a
consumer or a provider offence. Additionally, the threshold quantity that determines
whether a person is to be charged as a provider varies over time, both within and
between states and territories. Offender data supplied may exclude law enforcement
actions that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
DETECTION DATA
Border detection data supplied may exclude detections that are the subject of
ongoing investigations.
SEIZURE DATA
The seizure data presented in Table 49 includes only those seizures for which a valid
drug weight was recorded. Consequently, it undercounts both the number of seizures
and the amount of drug seized for all drug types. Seizure data for ATS, cannabis and
other drugs are most likely to be affected by the variety of measurement methods
and these figures should be treated with caution when making comparisons between
jurisdictions or over time. This table includes seizures by the Australian Federal
Police and state and territory police jurisdictions. Seizure data supplied may exclude
seizures that are the subject of ongoing investigations.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
203
DRUG USE MONITORING IN AUSTRALIA (DUMA) PROGRAM
The DUMA program is an ongoing data collection system capturing information on
approximately 4 000 police detainees per year across nine locations throughout
Australia. There are two core components: a self-report survey and voluntary
urinalysis. The self-report survey details a range of criminal justice, demographic,
drug use and drug market participation information, while the voluntary urinalysis
serves as an important objective method for corroborating self-reported drug use. Not
all detainees who respond to the self-report survey agree to urinalysis testing,
although the response rate is high. During 2012–13, data on approximately 2 000
police detainees was collected. Figures reported for 2012–13 reflects data collected
in the third and fourth quarter of 2012 only, with urine collected in only two sites
during the fourth quarter of 2012.
JURISDICTIONAL ISSUES
The comparability of law enforcement data across states and territories is
problematic. For the information of agencies and individuals wishing to interpret the
data, specific issues regarding jurisdictional data have been identified by the ACC
and the relevant jurisdiction. These issues have been summarised and are
represented below.
NEW SOUTH WALES
The New South Wales (NSW) Police Force provided the ACC with offender and
seizure data. The NSW Health, Mental Health and Drug and Alcohol Office, provided
the drug purity data.
Prior to 2005–06, NSW Police Force data was extracted directly from the mainframe
recording system (COPS). Since 2005–06, data has been extracted from COPS
using a data warehousing application ‘Enterprise Data Warehouse’. Tests to verify
the process of data extraction have been undertaken and the NSW Police Force is
confident that the retrieval process is comparable with previous extracts from COPS.
VICTORIA
Victoria Police provided the ACC with offender, seizure and drug purity data.
Drug quantities and weights reported are estimates only and are not validated by
forensic analysis. In 2004–05, Victoria Police rewrote its data extraction program and
improved the data quality checks. Further data quality processes have been
implemented to improve the data.
The Victorian clandestine laboratory detections figure was taken from the record of
attendances by forensic analysts at suspected laboratories and validated by the
Clandestine Laboratory Squad.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
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QUEENSLAND
The Queensland Police Service provided the ACC with offender and seizure data.
Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services provided purity data.
During the 2006–07 reporting period, the Queensland Police Service changed
administrative systems. As a result, caution should be exercised in comparing data.
SOUTH AUSTRALIA
South Australia Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data, but did not
include this data for offenders participating in its Drug Diversion Program. Forensic
Science South Australia provided the purity data.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA
Western Australia Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data.
ChemCentre provided the purity data.
Legislation changes for cannabis offences in Western Australia took effect from
1 August 2011 following amendments to the Misuse of Drugs Act. The Cannabis
Infringement Notice (CIN) was replaced by a Cannabis Intervention Requirement
(CIR) which changes the way police should respond when dealing with a person in
possession of cannabis. From 1 August 2011, any person who does not have a
criminal history and is found to have 10 grams or less of cannabis will be offered
28 days to complete a Cannabis Intervention Session after which no charges will
follow. People with previous cannabis related convictions are ineligible for this option.
Participation in a Cannabis Intervention Session is offered once to adult offenders,
but twice to juveniles aged between 14 and 17 years, so that subsequent offending
would result in charges being brought directly.
Western Australia Police introduced a new incident recording system in 2002–03,
which changed the method for recording drug seizures. For this reason, care should
be exercised when comparing data across years.
TASMANIA
Tasmania Police provided the ACC with offender and seizure data. Forensic Science
Service Tasmania provided the purity data.
It is important to note that the reported figures may differ from those reported in the
Tasmania Police Annual Report and other publications due to the differing counting
rules applied.
NORTHERN TERRITORY
Northern Territory Police provided the ACC with seizure and offender data. Northern
Territory Forensic Laboratory was unable to provide purity data for this report.
Data collection methods in the Northern Territory have been audited since the
2010–11 report. The change in data collection methodology has resulted in the
provision of more detailed and accurate data for 2012–13.
Seizure data for the Northern Territory relates to suspected drug type only. The
number of Drug Infringement Notices (DINs) may differ to those extracted from the
Integrated Justice Information System.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
205
Kava seizures in the Northern Territory may constitute a significant proportion of the
number and weight of other and unknown NEC seizures within a given reporting
period. Individual kava coding was not available for processing seizures in the
Northern Territory for the majority of the 2012–13 reporting period. As such, care
should be taken when interpreting these results.
In the Northern Territory, it is often difficult to obtain accurate date of birth and
address details from offenders; however, this lack of detail does not invalidate the
data.
AUSTRALIAN CAPITAL TERRITORY
ACT Policing provided seizure and offender data. ACT Policing provided the purity
data for inclusion in this report from analysis results provided by the ACT
Government Analytical Laboratory.
Data is comparable with figures in the IDDR from 2002–03 onwards.
As reported by ACT Policing, Simple Cannabis Offence Notices (SCONs) data may
not be a true representation of the number of SCONs issued for the period as
offenders may be subsequently summonsed for non-payment and will therefore be
included in consumer and provider arrests data.
AUSTRALIAN CUSTOMS AND BORDER PROTECTION SERVICE
(CUSTOMS AND BORDER PROTECTION)
Detections of illicit drugs by Customs and Border Protection are handed to the
Australian Federal Police (AFP) for investigation purposes, safe storage and
destruction. Border detections are recorded on ‘Druglan’, which is updated with
confirmed seizure weight data from the AFP. At present, there is no provision for an
automatic update of accurate weights to Druglan. Data relating to the same border
detections held by the AFP and Druglan will differ slightly. This is because only
unconfirmed seizure weights are initially recorded. Customs and Border Protection
detection figures are subject to change and reflect available data at time of
extraction. As such, figures published in the IDDR may differ from those published in
other reports, including Customs and Border Protection Annual Reports.
For operational reasons, the format of data presented in the IDDR may vary from
year to year. From 2010–11, Customs and Border Protection was unable to provide
importation data to populate country of embarkation charts for inclusion in the report.
From 2011–12, dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and steroid border detection data
are reported as a combined figure.
AUSTRALIAN FEDERAL POLICE (AFP)
The AFP provided national offender, seizure and purity data. This data was compiled
in conjunction with the AFP’s Forensic Drug Intelligence team. Seizures resulting
from joint operations with Customs and Border Protection are represented within AFP
figures in Tables 49. Totals may differ from those published earlier in the AFP Annual
Report 2012–13 due to the data extraction being based on more recent data and on
the AFP using different drug grouping categories to the ACC.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
206
EXPLANATORY NOTES
The following explanatory notes relate to terms used in this report.
AMPHETAMINE-TYPE STIMULANTS (ATS)
Unless otherwise specified, ‘amphetamine-type stimulants’
amphetamine, methylamphetamine and phenethylamines.
(ATS)
include
ARREST
‘Arrest’ incorporates recorded law enforcement action against a person for suspected
unlawful involvement in illicit drugs. It incorporates enforcement action by way of
arrest, summons, diversion program, cannabis expiation notice (South Australia),
simple cannabis offence notice (Australian Capital Territory), drug infringement notice
(Northern Territory), and ‘notice to appear’ (Queensland). Some charges may have
been subsequently dropped or the defendant may have been found not guilty.
CANNABIS
‘Cannabis’ includes cannabis plant, leaf, resin, oil, seed and all other forms.
CATEGORIES FOR CLANDESTINE LABORATORIES
In 2011–12 and 2012–13, jurisdictions were asked to distinguish detected
clandestine laboratories into the following four categories, taken from the United
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime Annual Report Questionnaire that is used to
inform the World Drug Report.
Addict-based labs (kitchen labs). Only basic equipment and simple procedures are
used. Typically, those operating in such laboratories have a limited or non-existent
knowledge of chemistry and simply follow instructions. Usually, there are no
significant stores of precursors and the amount of drugs or other substances
manufactured is for personal use. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield
less than 50 grams of the substance.
Other small scale labs. People operating in these laboratories have advanced
chemical knowledge; more complex amphetamine-type stimulants may be
manufactured. Laboratories may be of similar size to ‘addict-based labs’ but
frequently employ non-improvised equipment. They may also include experimental
laboratories. The amount manufactured is typically for personal use or for a limited
number of close associates. Typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield less than
500 grams of the substance.
Medium sized labs. Use commercially available standard equipment and glassware
(in some cases, custom-made equipment). They are not very mobile, making it
possible to recover precursor chemicals and equipment in many cases (production
estimates are the most viable and reliable). The amount manufactured at such sites
is primarily for illicit economic gain. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield
between 0.5 to 50 kilograms.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
207
Industrial scale labs. Laboratories use oversized equipment and glassware that is
either custom-made or purchased from industrial processing sources. Such industrial
operations produce significant amounts of ATS in very short periods of time, only
limited by access to precursors, reagents and consumables in adequate quantities
and the logistics and manpower to handle large amounts of drugs or chemicals and
process them into the next step. A typical manufacture cycle for ATS would yield
50 kilograms or more.
COCAINE
‘Cocaine’ includes cocaine, coca leaf and coca paste.
DETECTION
In the context of the border environment, the term ‘detection’ refers to the
identification of illicit drugs by the Customs and Border Protection.
EMBARKATION POINT
‘Embarkation point’ describes the origin of the transport stage of importations.
Embarkation is affected by air and sea transport connection patterns and the location
of transport hubs, and may not necessarily reflect the true origin of drugs.
Australia may appear as an embarkation country due to an export detection. In some
instances, it may relate to detections on air passengers travelling domestically on an
international flight.
HALLUCINOGENS
‘Hallucinogens’ includes tryptamines such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and
psilocybin-containing mushrooms.
HEROIN AND OTHER OPIOIDS
‘Heroin and other opioids’ include opioid analgesics such as heroin, methadone and
pethidine and opiate analgesics including codeine, morphine and opium.
OTHER DRUGS
‘Other drugs’ include anabolic agents and selected hormones, tryptamines,
anaesthetics, pharmaceuticals and drugs not elsewhere classified. Current reporting
processes do not enable detailed identification of these drugs.
PHENETHYLAMINES
Phenethylamines include 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, commonly
known
as
‘ecstasy’),
3,4-methylenedioxyethylamphetamine
(MDEA),
3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), dimethoxyamphetamine (DMA) and
paramethoxyamphetamine (PMA).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
208
SEIZURE
‘Seizure’ is the confiscation by a law enforcement agency of a quantity of an illicit
drug or a regulated drug being used or possessed unlawfully, whether or not an
arrest is made in conjunction with that confiscation.
The amount of drug seized may be recorded by weight, volume or as a unit count—
for example, number of tablets, plants or bags. The method of estimating the amount
of drug seized varies between and within jurisdictions. For example, seizures of
amphetamine in tablet form may be weighed or counted. Similarly, seizures of
cannabis plants may be weighed, counted or measured.
STEROIDS
‘Steroids’ include anabolic and androgenic steroids such as testosterone, nandrolone
and stanazolol.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
209
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following symbols and abbreviations are used in the tables:
na
not available
nec
not elsewhere classified
no.
number
r
revised figure
%
per cent
–
zero, or rounded to zero.
Figures that have been rounded may not add to totals.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
210
ARREST TABLES
TABLE 39: All drugs: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
NSW
16 324
3 136
6
19 466
2 969
538
0
3 507
20 094
3 845
6
23 945
Vic
12 865
2 611
25
15 501
3 649
697
7
4 353
16 516
3 311
32
19 859
Qld
19 409
5 386
10
24 805
2 903
638
4
3 545
22 312
6 024
14
28 350
SA
1 425
406
0
1 831
1 763
440
0
2 203
3 656
1 000
0
4 656
7 097
1 536
44
8 677
0
0
0
0
7 097
1 536
44
8 677
6 306
2 020
23
8 349
2 148
613
15
2 776
8 454
2 633
38
11 125
1 128
318
17
1 463
0
0
0
0
1 128
318
17
1 463
1 210
298
0
1 508
278
58
0
336
1 488
356
0
1 844
350
108
20
478
232
79
12
323
582
187
0
769
387
134
0
521
0
0
0
0
387
134
0
521
289
60
0
349
67
10
0
77
356
70
0
426
97
17
0
114
0
0
0
0
97
17
0
114
66 887
16 030
145
83 062
14 009
3 073
38
17 120
82 167
19 431
151
101 749
SA CENs
b
WA
WA CIRs
c
Tas
NT
NT DINs
d
ACT
ACT SCONs
Total
e
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices.
c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements.
d. Drug Infringement Notices.
e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 40: Amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
Totala
Provider
State/territory
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
NSW
3 548
863
0
4 411
1 142
237
0
1 379
4 777
1 128
0
5 905
Vic
4 180
811
2
4 993
1 511
257
1
1 769
5 691
1 068
3
6 762
Qld
3 304
976
1
4 281
545
115
0
660
3 849
1 091
1
4 941
SA
425
185
0
610
537
148
0
685
976
336
0
1 312
WA
1 506
515
3
2 024
667
177
2
846
2 173
692
5
2 870
Tas
63
19
0
82
35
8
0
43
98
27
0
125
NT
95
18
0
113
49
7
0
56
144
25
0
169
ACT
72
9
0
81
23
1
0
24
95
10
0
105
13 193
3 396
6
16 595
4 509
950
3
5 462
17 803
4 377
9
22 189
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 41: Cannabis: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
NSW
Male
Female
Totala
Provider
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
11 171
1 933
6
13 110
1 243
177
0
1 420
12 639
2 151
6
14 796
Vic
5 651
1 098
19
6 768
1 280
253
4
1 537
6 931
1 351
23
8 305
Qld
12 889
3 436
6
16 331
1 671
360
3
2 034
14 560
3 796
9
18 365
SA
868
169
0
1 037
1 092
237
0
1 329
1 970
408
0
2 378
SA CENsb
7 097
1 536
44
8 677
0
0
0
0
7 097
1 536
44
8 677
WA
3 196
956
13
4 165
923
263
7
1 193
4 119
1 219
20
5 358
1 128
318
17
1 463
0
0
0
0
1 128
318
17
1 463
Tas
889
208
0
1 097
203
38
0
241
1 092
246
0
1 338
NT
222
77
0
299
162
67
0
229
384
144
0
528
387
134
0
521
0
0
0
0
387
134
0
521
200
47
0
247
27
3
0
30
227
50
0
277
WA CIRs
NT DINs
c
d
ACT
ACT SCONs
Total
e
97
17
0
114
0
0
0
0
97
17
0
114
43 795
9 929
105
53 829
6 601
1 398
14
8 013
50 631
11 370
119
62 120
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status and gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
b. Cannabis Expiation Notices.
c. Cannabis Intervention Requirements.
d. Drug Infringement Notices.
e. Simple Cannabis Offence Notices.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 42: Heroin and other opioids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
NSW
282
93
0
375
192
72
0
264
480
168
0
648
Vic
733
168
1
902
249
66
0
315
982
234
1
1 217
Qld
193
56
0
249
32
10
0
42
225
66
0
291
SA
18
9
0
27
52
32
0
84
70
41
0
111
WA
54
40
0
94
41
19
1
61
95
59
1
155
Tas
11
3
0
14
2
2
0
4
13
5
0
18
State/territory
NT
ACT
Total
2
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
2
1
0
3
10
4
0
14
4
2
0
6
14
6
0
20
1 303
374
1
1 678
572
203
1
776
1 881
580
2
2 463
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 43: Cocaine: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
NSW
442
68
0
510
169
12
0
181
613
81
0
694
Vic
135
20
0
155
74
6
0
80
209
26
0
235
Qld
154
21
2
177
35
1
0
36
189
22
2
213
SA
3
2
0
5
22
3
0
25
25
5
0
30
WA
36
9
0
45
40
6
0
46
76
15
0
91
Tas
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
2
NT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
ACT
6
0
0
6
7
4
0
11
13
4
0
17
776
121
2
899
348
32
0
380
1 126
154
2
1 282
State/territory
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 44: Steroids: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
NSW
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
26
0
0
26
11
0
0
11
39
0
0
39
Vic
74
1
1
76
11
1
0
12
85
2
1
88
Qld
282
34
0
316
68
8
0
76
350
42
0
392
SA
4
1
0
5
1
0
0
1
7
1
0
8
WA
61
10
0
71
24
6
0
30
85
16
0
101
Tas
6
0
0
6
7
0
0
7
13
0
0
13
NT
7
2
0
9
5
0
0
5
12
2
0
14
ACT
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
6
6
0
0
6
460
48
1
509
133
15
0
148
597
63
1
661
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 45: Hallucinogens: consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
Male
Female
Not
known
Total
108
14
0
122
27
5
0
32
137
20
0
157
Vic
47
13
0
60
8
2
0
10
55
15
0
70
Qld
144
27
0
171
24
7
1
32
168
34
1
203
State/territory
NSW
SA
3
2
0
5
8
3
0
11
11
5
0
16
WA
67
13
0
80
23
8
0
31
90
21
0
111
Tas
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
3
3
0
0
3
NT
3
0
0
3
1
0
0
1
4
0
0
4
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
373
69
0
442
94
25
1
120
469
95
1
565
ACT
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 46: Other and unknown—not elsewhere classified (nec): consumer and provider arrests, by state and territory and gender, 2012–13
Consumer
State/territory
NSW
Totala
Provider
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
Male
Female
Not known
Total
747
165
0
912
185
35
0
220
1 409
297
0
1 706
Vic
2 045
500
2
2 547
516
112
2
630
2 563
615
4
3 182
Qld
2 443
836
1
3 280
528
137
0
665
2 971
973
1
3 945
SA
104
38
0
142
51
17
0
68
597
204
0
801
WA
1 386
477
7
1 870
430
134
5
569
1 816
611
12
2 439
Tas
241
67
0
308
27
10
0
37
268
77
0
345
NT
21
10
0
31
15
5
0
20
36
15
0
51
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6 987
2 093
10
9 090
1 752
450
7
2 209
9 660
2 792
17
12 469
ACT
Total
a. Includes those offenders for whom consumer/provider status or gender was not stated. Total may exceed the sum of the table components.
Note: The arrest data for each state and territory include Australian Federal Police data.
TABLE 47: All arrests: consumer and provider arrests, by drug type, 2008–09 to 2012–13
Consumer
Drug type
Amphetamine-type stimulants
Cannabis
Heroin and other opioids
Provider
2008–09
11 778
2009–10
9 993
2010–11
9 501
2011–12
12 590
2012–13
16 595
2008–09
4 629
2009–10
3 921
2010–11
3 334
2011–12
4 216
2012–13
5 462
47 804
48 883
50 845
52 413
53 829
7 722
8 123
7 694
8 548
8 013
1 783
1 884
1 706
1 800
1 678
903
860
838
907
776
Cocaine
553
841
575
714
899
289
400
264
280
380
Steroids
158
221
277
389
509
44
67
68
118
148
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
270
366
283
366
442
99
144
89
117
120
5 574
6 588
6 544
7 893
9 090
1 644
2 109
1 838
2 153
2 209
67 920
68 776
69 731
76 165
83 042
15 330
15 624
14 125
16 339
17 108
Note: Excludes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
TABLE 48: All arrests: number and proportion, by drug type, 2008–09 to 2012–13
Drug Type
2008–09
2009–10
2010–11
2011–12
2012–13
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
No.
%
Amphetamine-type stimulants
16 452
19.6
13 982
16.4
12 897
15.2
16 828
18.1
22 189
21.8
Cannabis
55 638
66.3
57 170
67.1
58 760
69.3
61 011
65.5
62 120
61.1
2 693
3.2
2 767
3.2
2 551
3.0
2 714
2.9
2 463
2.4
Cocaine
848
1.0
1 244
1.5
839
1.0
995
1.1
1 282
1.3
Steroids
214
0.3
314
0.4
365
0.4
511
0.5
661
0.6
Heroin and other opioids
Hallucinogens
Other and unknown nec
Total
369
0.4
512
0.6
373
0.4
484
0.5
565
0.6
7 659
9.1
9 263
10.9
8 972
10.6
10 605
11.4
12 469
12.3
83 873
100
85 252
100
84 757
100
93 148
100
101 749
100
Note: Includes arrests where consumer/provider information was not recorded.
SEIZURE TABLES
TABLE 49: Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012–13
Amphetamine-type stimulants
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Cannabis
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Heroin
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
7 125
1 305 075
1 450
1 032 796
3 900
34 257
332
22 281
4 232
8 985
240
5 197
344
2 950
183
738
17 806
2 412 279
1 637
3 098 713
972
818 083
272
23 796
14
31 078
348
65 703
1
2
6
4 082
0
0
3 250
4 041 457
15 943
1 795 786
3 761
5 316 279
17 741
810 499
364
733 242
9 480
20 590
2 792
244 683
1 638
177 625
763
200 371
52 482
9 299 075
262
29 136
295
4 218
268
2 778
6
39
814
7 851
4
19
47
895
3
2
1 699
44 938
721
37 545
217
2 062
185
1 380
39
798
164
173
0
0
3
2
46
243
1 375
42 203
127
340 253
58
26 617
9
127 438
1
1 059
9
764
0
0
5
6 146
0
0
209
502 277
5
15
59
648
Other opioids
State police
Seizures (no.)
23
3
8
0
3
17
Weight (gms)
45
2
339
0
3
244
AFP
Seizures (no.)
25
10
8
0
1
0
Weight (gms)
3 778
1 670
46
0
5
0
Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations
state/territory police. Totals may differ from those reported in jurisdictional annual reports due to the different counting rules applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
0
0
0
0
44
0
0
5 499
between the Australian Federal Police and
TABLE 49 (continued): Seizures: drug type, by state and territory, 2012–13
Cocaine
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Steroids
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
Hallucinogens
State police
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
AFP
Seizures (no.)
Weight (gms)
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Total
927
49 952
61
1 276
174
1 361
17
674
104
104
0
0
1
0
13
982
1 297
54 349
455
985 004
237
10 848
79
3 142
4
1 110
95
2 117
0
0
0
0
0
0
870
1 002 221
140
5 423
0
0
46
4 066
0
0
10
22
0
0
13
812
41
1 280
250
11 603
17
597
18
2 677
11
552
31
3 373
3
80
0
0
1
4
0
0
81
7 283
145
1 760
18
297
18
273
2
32
25
26
2
31
6
1
1
0
217
2 420
54
684
34
227
2
5
0
0
11
338
0
0
1
1
0
0
102
1 255
Other and unknown drugs nec
State police
Seizures (no.)
2 302
305
1 107
25
1 455
157
204
28
5 583
Weight (gms)
260 468
85 719
450 845
11 639
10 070
1 606
519 412
1 444
1 341 203
AFP
Seizures (no.)
820
358
151
7
249
1
7
1
1 594
Weight (gms)
394 582
285 959
36 072
2 287
80 453
201
59 303
0
858 857
Note: Includes only those seizures for which a drug weight was recorded. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and
state/territory
police.
Totals
may
differ
from
those
reported
in
jurisdictional
annual
reports
due
to
the
different
counting
rules
applied.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
PURITY TABLES
TABLE 50: Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
NSW
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Vic
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Purity
Median
Min
nnnn
(%)
(%)
Max
(%)
–
3
3
–
9.0
9.0
–
1.0
1.0
–
15.5
15.5
3
11
14
10.5
14.5
12.7
7.0
6.5
6.5
11.5
66.5
66.5
–
2
2
–
6.5
6.5
–
2.5
2.5
–
10.5
10.5
–
1
1
–
9.0
9.0
–
9.0
9.0
–
9.0
9.0
3
17
20
10.5
12.5
11.0
7.0
1.0
1.0
11.5
66.5
66.5
–
12
12
–
56.8
56.8
–
31.6
31.6
–
81.7
81.7
–
1
1
–
70.1
70.1
–
70.1
70.1
–
70.1
70.1
1
1
2
28.3
56.1
42.2
28.3
56.1
28.3
28.3
56.1
56.1
–
1
1
–
15.5
15.5
–
15.5
15.5
–
15.5
15.5
1
15
16
28.3
56.1
55.2
28.3
15.5
15.5
28.3
81.7
81.7
5
1
6
1.2
83.2
3.8
0.6
83.2
0.6
10.6
83.2
83.2
11
2
13
10.6
9.1
10.6
1.0
5.9
1.0
71.8
12.4
71.8
6
1
7
44.8
79.9
49.6
8.8
79.9
8.8
77.3
79.9
79.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
22
4
26
10.6
46.1
11.1
0.6
5.9
0.6
77.3
83.2
83.2
1
2
3
21.1
41.9
21.1
21.1
2.3
2.3
21.1
81.5
81.5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
4
7
14.5
57.9
57.9
0.7
27.8
0.7
60.6
62.6
62.6
–
2
2
–
39.6
39.6
–
0.2
0.2
–
79.0
79.0
4
8
12
17.8
57.9
42.8
0.7
0.2
0.2
60.6
81.5
81.5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
2
6
14.0
13.9
14.0
0.1
13.9
0.1
36.0
14.0
36.0
15
2
17
2.2
2.8
2.2
0.1
2.1
0.1
55.7
3.6
55.7
12
11
23
9.0
3.4
4.0
1.0
0.4
0.4
13.9
25.5
25.5
31
15
46
2.5
3.5
3.2
0.1
0.4
0.1
55.7
25.5
55.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
13.7
13.7
–
13.7
13.7
–
13.7
13.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
13.7
13.7
–
13.7
13.7
–
13.7
13.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
25
30
7.5
6.8
7.0
1.7
0.2
0.2
9.0
73.5
73.5
–
1
1
–
46.9
46.9
–
46.9
46.9
–
46.9
46.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
26
31
7.5
6.9
7.0
1.7
0.2
0.2
9.0
73.5
73.5
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine
received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the
laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 50 (continued): Amphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
CCases
(no.)
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Max
(%)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
0.3
0.3
–
0.3
0.3
–
0.3
0.3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
9.0
9.0
–
9.0
9.0
–
9.0
9.0
–
2
2
–
4.6
4.6
–
0.3
0.3
–
9.0
9.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
1
4
73.3
79.0
73.5
69.1
79.0
69.1
73.7
79.0
79.0
–
2
2
–
57.4
57.4
–
53.9
53.9
–
60.9
60.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
3
3
6
73.3
60.9
71.2
69.1
53.9
53.9
73.7
79.0
79.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all amphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of amphetamine
received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of amphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the
laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 51: Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Purity
Purity
Purity
Purity
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
<=2 gms
>2 gms
35
119
68.5
60.0
2.0
1.0
83.5
85.5
44
54
72.2
61.2
2.0
1.0
Total
AFP
154
61.5
1.0
85.5
98
66.7
<=2 gms
>2 gms
5
31
77.1
76.6
69.6
0.8
79.3
80.1
1
28
Total
Vic
36
77.0
0.8
80.1
<=2 gms
>2 gms
411
143
79.8
73.8
0.4
0.2
Total
554
78.0
State/territory
NSW
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
84.0
83.5
13
55
51.0
72.0
1.5
1.0
1.0
84.0
68
70.2
78.3
77.6
78.3
31.0
78.3
80.0
3
32
29
77.7
31.0
80.0
98.2
95.8
357
96
75.2
75.0
0.8
0.3
0.2
98.2
453
75.2
Max
(%)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
81.0
82.5
35
48
73.5
69.0
1.0
4.0
89.0
89.0
127
276
71.5
65.2
1.0
1.0
89.0
89.0
1.0
82.5
83
72.5
1.0
89.0
403
68.0
1.0
89.0
76.1
77.3
74.7
0.3
79.0
80.3
1
23
75.9
78.7
75.9
5.0
75.9
80.3
10
114
77.0
77.6
69.6
0.3
79.3
80.3
35
77.3
0.3
80.3
24
78.7
5.0
80.3
124
77.6
0.3
80.3
98.5
100.0
127
49
69.5
82.2
0.2
0.2
95.9
94.3
55
36
80.8
75.2
0.7
0.8
97.0
93.8
950
324
76.6
75.3
0.2
0.2
98.5
100.0
0.3
100.0
176
74.5
0.2
95.9
91
78.8
0.7
97.0
1274
76.1
0.2
100.0
State police
State police
AFP
<=2 gms
1
25.3
25.3
25.3
1
52.5
52.5
52.5
5
44.7
38.3
77.2
–
–
–
–
7
44.7
25.3
77.2
10
11
72.0
71.6
3.1
3.1
79.5
79.5
6
7
79.3
79.0
77.4
52.5
80.3
80.3
20
25
78.4
78.4
54.3
38.3
80.3
80.3
17
17
77.6
77.6
9.4
9.4
80.3
80.3
53
60
78.4
78.3
3.1
3.1
80.3
80.3
<=2 gms
397
61.6
0.1
79.8
215
51.6
0.1
77.3
286
54.0
0.1
77.6
275
44.8
0.1
76.9
1173
52.1
0.1
79.8
>2 gms
Total
189
586
51.7
57.0
0.2
0.1
76.5
79.8
122
337
56.7
52.8
0.1
0.1
76.3
77.3
120
406
56.2
54.7
0.4
0.1
76.7
77.6
159
434
48.6
45.7
0.1
0.1
75.8
76.9
590
1763
53.0
52.6
0.1
0.1
76.7
79.8
AFP
<=2 gms
1
66.2
66.2
66.2
–
–
–
–
3
4.1
3.2
77.0
–
–
–
–
4
35.1
3.2
77.0
>2 gms
4
60.0
52.4
76.0
4
71.0
33.9
79.3
2
79.8
79.7
80.0
2
78.7
77.7
79.8
12
76.8
33.9
80.0
Total
SA
5
63.9
52.4
76.0
4
71.0
33.9
79.3
5
77.0
3.2
80.0
2
78.7
77.7
79.8
16
71.1
3.2
80.0
67
57.8
0.1
80.5
50
60.2
0.1
79.5
41
68.6
0.9
80.2
10
69.4
0.1
80.0
168
61.3
0.1
80.5
57
124
52.0
53.2
0.1
0.1
79.4
80.5
104
154
50.2
53.1
0.1
0.1
79.6
79.6
80
121
54.1
56.8
0.1
0.1
79.2
80.2
38
48
52.2
52.9
0.1
0.1
80.7
80.7
279
447
51.8
54.6
0.1
0.1
80.7
80.7
<=2 gms
>2 gms
–
3
–
52.7
–
51.1
–
76.8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
28.7
–
28.7
–
28.7
–
3
–
79.1
–
77.1
–
79.9
–
7
–
76.8
–
28.7
–
79.9
Total
3
52.7
51.1
76.8
–
–
–
–
1
28.7
28.7
28.7
3
79.1
77.1
79.9
7
76.8
28.7
79.9
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of
methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the
date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 51 (continued): Methylamphetamine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
July–September 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
October–December 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
January–March 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
April–June 2013
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Max
(%)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
51
139
190
29.0
54.0
49.0
0.8
–
–
76.0
87.0
87.0
121
159
280
53.0
43.0
50.0
–
–
–
81.0
85.0
85.0
44
175
219
31.0
53.0
50.0
0.1
0.1
0.1
80.0
88.0
88.0
21
125
146
38.0
53.0
51.0
–
0.2
–
80.0
89.0
89.0
237
598
835
48.0
51.0
50.0
–
–
–
81.0
89.0
89.0
–
5
5
–
80.0
80.0
–
78.8
78.8
–
80.3
80.3
–
7
7
–
78.0
78.0
–
65.6
65.6
–
80.3
80.3
1
4
5
79.9
69.4
79.0
79.9
1.1
1.1
79.9
79.9
79.9
–
5
5
–
79.0
79.0
–
51.9
51.9
–
79.9
79.9
1
21
22
79.9
79.0
79.0
79.9
1.1
1.1
79.9
80.3
80.3
–
2
2
–
6.2
6.2
–
5.7
5.7
–
6.8
6.8
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
4
5
64.0
65.1
64.1
64.0
60.3
60.3
64.0
77.6
77.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
6
7
64.0
62.2
64.0
64.0
5.7
5.7
64.0
77.6
77.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
1
54.0
–
54.0
54.0
–
54.0
54.0
–
54.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
78.5
78.5
–
76.8
76.8
–
80.3
80.3
1
2
3
54.0
78.5
76.8
54.0
76.8
54.0
54.0
80.3
80.3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Note: Figures do not represent the purity levels of all methylamphetamine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of
methylamphetamine received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of methylamphetamine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the
date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 52: Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
NSW
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Vic
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
SA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
July–September 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
October–December 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
January–March 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
Cases
(no.)
(no.)
(no.)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
April–June 2013
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Max
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
33
70
103
21.5
19.5
19.5
2.5
1.0
1.0
86.5
83.0
86.5
25
56
81
23.0
21.5
21.5
7.0
1.5
1.5
83.0
90.5
90.5
21
36
57
16.5
15.7
16.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
84.5
71.5
84.5
8
8
16
13.0
15.7
14.2
1.0
4.5
1.0
20.0
23.5
23.5
87
170
257
19.5
19.5
19.5
1.0
1.0
1.0
86.5
90.5
90.5
8
4
12
36.9
44.1
40.0
2.2
18.8
2.2
52.5
79.1
79.1
–
5
5
–
28.9
28.9
–
3.8
3.8
–
35.4
35.4
6
15
21
63.6
57.0
57.0
44.4
28.4
28.4
79.1
88.9
88.9
1
–
1
47.4
–
47.4
47.4
–
47.4
47.4
–
47.4
15
24
39
47.4
49.0
48.7
2.2
3.8
2.2
79.1
88.9
88.9
81
23
104
16.5
17.3
16.7
6.3
5.5
5.5
87.3
39.2
87.3
127
25
152
20.6
19.5
20.2
1.8
11.6
1.8
90.0
89.9
90.0
62
7
69
22.6
25.0
23.0
8.4
10.9
8.4
82.5
28.0
82.5
5
–
5
18.3
–
18.3
11.6
–
11.6
28.9
–
28.9
275
55
330
19.8
18.7
19.6
1.8
5.5
1.8
90.0
89.9
90.0
1
7
8
15.4
58.9
50.8
15.4
13.8
13.8
15.4
79.4
79.4
–
2
2
–
40.9
40.9
–
40.7
40.7
–
41.1
41.1
17
15
32
41.5
48.1
45.8
0.5
37.4
0.5
85.1
79.6
85.1
–
3
3
–
48.1
48.1
–
36.8
36.8
–
82.0
82.0
18
27
45
41.0
48.1
45.3
0.5
13.8
0.5
85.1
82.0
85.1
77
93
170
15.7
10.2
13.9
0.4
0.2
0.2
72.3
56.1
72.3
40
48
88
14.6
14.2
14.3
0.5
0.1
0.1
71.2
64.0
71.2
56
56
112
17.9
16.1
16.7
0.1
1.8
0.1
74.1
71.8
74.1
44
21
65
16.6
10.4
15.2
0.8
0.4
0.4
72.1
59.9
72.1
217
218
435
16.3
13.3
15.1
0.1
0.1
0.1
74.1
71.8
74.1
–
1
1
–
58.7
58.7
–
58.7
58.7
–
58.7
58.7
–
1
1
–
79.1
79.1
–
79.1
79.1
–
79.1
79.1
1
–
1
12.0
–
12.0
12.0
–
12.0
12.0
–
12.0
–
1
1
–
79.8
79.8
–
79.8
79.8
–
79.8
79.8
1
3
4
12.0
79.1
68.9
12.0
58.7
12.0
12.0
79.8
79.8
6
78
84
21.0
14.4
14.5
13.0
3.6
3.6
25.4
78.7
78.7
2
37
39
51.4
17.3
18.7
23.2
1.0
1.0
79.6
22.9
79.6
5
31
36
15.7
13.6
13.6
0.1
2.4
0.1
29.4
52.3
52.3
11
61
72
11.0
13.5
12.9
9.3
1.0
1.0
15.5
59.0
59.0
24
207
231
14.2
14.3
14.3
0.1
1.0
0.1
79.6
78.7
79.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a
forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of
phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations
between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 52 (continued): Phenethylamines purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
July–September 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
October–December 2012
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
January–March 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
Cases
(no.)
(no.)
(no.)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
April–June 2013
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
Max
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
8
19
27
26.0
22.0
24.0
8.0
14.0
8.0
54.0
36.0
54.0
4
20
24
31.5
29.0
29.0
26.0
12.0
12.0
39.0
35.0
39.0
25
51
76
22.0
19.0
21.0
0.9
0.8
0.8
30.0
32.0
32.0
5
34
39
21.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
10.0
10.0
83.0
88.0
88.0
42
124
166
22.0
21.0
21.0
0.9
0.8
0.8
83.0
88.0
88.0
1
–
1
82.3
–
82.3
82.3
–
82.3
82.3
–
82.3
–
1
1
–
47.2
47.2
–
47.2
47.2
–
47.2
47.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
2
82.3
47.2
64.7
82.3
47.2
47.2
82.3
47.2
82.3
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
82.7
82.7
–
82.7
82.7
–
82.7
82.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
82.7
82.7
–
82.7
82.7
–
82.7
82.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Note: Phenethylamines include MDA, MDEA, MDMA, Mescaline, PMA, DMA and Phenethylamines not elsewhere classified (n.e.c). Figures do not represent the purity levels of all phenethylamines seizures—only those that have been analysed at a
forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of phenethylamines received at the laboratory in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of
phenethylamines seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations
between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 53: Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
NSW
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Purity
Purity
Purity
Purity
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
37
22
22.0
40.5
15.5
12.5
65.5
69.5
25
12
19.0
21.5
8.0
13.0
39.0
56.5
1
14
55.0
24.0
55.5
11.0
55.5
69.0
17
6
26.5
25.7
20.5
21.0
61.0
44.5
80
54
22.0
26.2
8.0
11.0
65.5
69.5
Total
AFP
59
22.5
12.5
69.5
37
20.5
8.0
56.5
15
24.5
11.0
69.0
23
26.5
20.5
61.0
134
23.2
8.0
69.5
<=2 gms
>2 gms
2
15
75.9
68.9
72.1
58.3
79.7
74.2
–
9
–
59.8
–
39.9
–
72.3
1
13
63.2
68.2
63.2
38.0
63.2
72.3
–
5
–
60.6
–
44.8
–
70.5
3
42
72.1
67.8
63.2
38.0
79.7
74.2
Total
Vic
17
69.1
58.3
79.7
9
59.8
39.9
72.3
14
67.7
38.0
72.3
5
60.6
44.8
70.5
45
68.2
38.0
79.7
<=2 gms
>2 gms
131
26
13.6
14.7
3.9
9.1
76.5
72.0
82
15
14.1
15.2
0.8
11.2
84.1
82.1
37
18
14.4
15.4
7.6
9.9
77.8
73.4
8
–
13.8
–
10.2
–
18.7
–
258
59
14.0
15.2
0.8
9.1
84.1
82.1
Total
157
13.7
3.9
76.5
97
14.2
0.8
84.1
55
15.0
7.6
77.8
8
13.8
10.2
18.7
317
14.1
0.8
84.1
State police
AFP
<=2 gms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
6
6
68.4
68.4
67.7
67.7
74.3
74.3
6
6
56.3
56.3
39.3
39.3
66.2
66.2
12
12
69.3
69.3
13.2
13.2
75.1
75.1
4
4
46.8
46.8
33.1
33.1
60.8
60.8
28
28
66.1
66.1
13.2
13.2
75.1
75.1
<=2 gms
23
13.0
2.2
18.5
33
20.0
0.9
71.2
8
20.5
0.6
65.7
29
16.4
0.8
62.4
93
16.8
0.6
71.2
>2 gms
Total
11
34
14.0
13.3
12.2
2.2
35.7
35.7
18
51
21.4
20.7
1.9
0.9
69.7
71.2
9
17
19.7
19.7
13.3
0.6
68.3
68.3
8
37
18.1
16.6
9.9
0.8
20.9
62.4
46
139
19.2
17.2
1.9
0.6
69.7
71.2
AFP
<=2 gms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
>2 gms
–
–
–
–
1
61.9
61.9
61.9
1
53.2
53.2
53.2
2
48.0
24.6
71.4
4
57.5
24.6
71.4
Total
SA
–
–
–
–
1
61.9
61.9
61.9
1
53.2
53.2
53.2
2
48.0
24.6
71.4
4
57.5
24.6
71.4
State police
<=2 gms
15
21.8
14.6
29.2
22
24.0
7.3
27.7
3
24.1
7.4
24.4
13
19.9
5.3
26.2
53
21.0
5.3
29.2
>2 gms
Total
17
32
25.7
23.8
0.1
0.1
47.6
47.6
14
36
23.1
23.3
14.5
7.3
26.4
27.7
7
10
17.7
18.0
6.3
6.3
20.1
24.4
11
24
19.2
19.7
0.8
0.8
29.2
29.2
49
102
23.2
22.1
0.1
0.1
47.6
47.6
<=2 gms
>2 gms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
69.2
–
69.2
–
69.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
–
69.2
–
69.2
–
69.2
Total
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
69.2
69.2
69.2
–
–
–
–
1
69.2
69.2
69.2
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
AFP
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in
the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment
has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 53 (continued): Heroin purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
July–September 2012
State/territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
October–December 2012
Max
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
January–March 2013
Max
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
April–June 2013
Max
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Total July 2012–June 2013
Max
(%)
Purity
Median
Min
(%)
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Max
(%)
1
16
17
24.0
29.5
29.0
24.0
25.0
24.0
24.0
53.0
53.0
2
3
5
7.0
38.0
36.0
7.0
36.0
7.0
7.0
54.0
54.0
–
5
5
–
41.0
41.0
–
23.0
23.0
–
76.0
76.0
12
2
14
24.0
56.5
26.0
4.0
49.0
4.0
59.0
64.0
64.0
15
26
41
23.0
38.0
30.0
4.0
23.0
4.0
59.0
76.0
76.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
52.0
52.0
–
41.6
41.6
–
62.4
62.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
2
–
52.0
52.0
–
41.6
41.6
–
62.4
62.4
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
5
5
–
59.5
59.5
–
55.1
55.1
–
59.9
59.9
–
5
5
–
59.5
59.5
–
55.1
55.1
–
59.9
59.9
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all heroin seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of heroin received at the laboratory in
the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of heroin seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No adjustment
has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 54: Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Purity
Purity
Purity
Purity
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
<=2 gms
>2 gms
8
22
44.2
55.2
22.0
27.5
69.5
73.5
6
21
51.7
57.5
32.5
23.5
72.0
74.5
1
17
68.5
55.5
68.5
5.0
68.5
78.5
Total
AFP
30
50.0
22.0
73.5
27
54.0
23.5
74.5
18
56.2
5.0
<=2 gms
>2 gms
7
17
66.3
66.8
49.0
23.1
85.1
82.4
1
14
47.5
61.8
47.5
24.0
47.5
75.7
4
9
68.4
62.9
Total
Vic
24
66.6
23.1
85.1
15
61.1
24.0
75.7
13
<=2 gms
>2 gms
17
19
46.4
51.7
8.0
4.5
86.0
73.1
31
12
34.9
56.4
7.8
32.7
92.2
74.0
Total
36
49.9
4.5
86.0
43
39.4
7.8
State/territory
NSW
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
Cases
(no.)
Median
(%)
Min
(%)
Max
(%)
10
7
49.5
59.5
44.5
17.5
72.5
70.5
25
67
49.5
57.0
22.0
5.0
72.5
78.5
78.5
17
55.5
17.5
72.5
92
53.2
5.0
78.5
66.4
51.7
76.5
79.0
2
7
77.6
57.5
77.3
49.0
78.0
61.6
14
47
68.4
61.6
47.5
23.1
85.1
82.4
66.4
51.7
79.0
9
58.4
49.0
78.0
61
65.4
23.1
85.1
17
7
45.2
66.1
25.2
31.6
74.6
73.8
5
5
48.6
48.9
28.4
21.5
67.0
69.8
70
43
40.5
52.0
7.8
4.5
92.2
74.0
92.2
24
51.9
25.2
74.6
10
48.8
21.5
69.8
113
46.4
4.5
92.2
State police
State police
AFP
<=2 gms
–
–
–
–
1
39.8
39.8
39.8
1
66.0
66.0
66.0
–
–
–
–
2
52.9
39.8
66.0
3
3
69.8
69.8
60.3
60.3
78.8
78.8
6
7
51.3
50.4
41.0
39.8
80.2
80.2
3
4
65.5
65.7
59.3
59.3
67.4
67.4
1
1
45.7
45.7
45.7
45.7
45.7
45.7
13
15
59.3
59.3
41.0
39.8
80.2
80.2
<=2 gms
29
15.9
7.1
72.2
23
49.7
1.9
84.5
29
21.1
7.1
61.8
21
46.0
1.5
65.5
102
24.2
1.5
84.5
>2 gms
Total
13
42
24.8
20.0
13.8
7.1
72.1
72.2
24
47
59.8
55.3
0.1
0.1
79.6
84.5
26
55
35.1
25.1
13.2
7.1
63.2
63.2
13
34
27.2
36.5
13.3
1.5
71.8
71.8
76
178
36.2
27.8
0.1
0.1
79.6
84.5
AFP
<=2 gms
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
2
53.7
46.4
61.1
–
–
–
–
2
53.7
46.4
61.1
>2 gms
2
72.8
65.5
80.2
1
30.4
30.4
30.4
1
66.0
66.0
66.0
5
81.6
10.1
82.3
9
66.0
10.1
82.3
Total
SA
2
72.8
65.5
80.2
1
30.4
30.4
30.4
3
61.1
46.4
66.0
5
81.6
10.1
82.3
11
65.5
10.1
82.3
State police
<=2 gms
3
30.0
9.9
53.9
6
33.6
13.5
71.5
–
–
–
–
2
51.7
47.2
56.1
11
34.5
9.9
71.5
>2 gms
Total
5
8
44.2
42.3
13.8
9.9
65.6
65.6
30
36
51.3
39.5
15.3
13.5
81.8
81.8
6
6
42.3
42.3
0.1
0.1
55.1
55.1
26
28
57.6
57.5
25.6
25.6
79.0
79.0
67
78
57.3
56.6
0.1
0.1
81.8
81.8
<=2 gms
>2 gms
–
3
–
52.5
–
50.0
–
60.8
–
1
–
65.0
–
65.0
–
65.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
–
56.6
–
50.0
–
65.0
Total
3
52.5
50.0
60.8
1
65.0
65.0
65.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
56.6
50.0
65.0
>2 gms
Total
Qld
State police
AFP
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory
in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No
adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
TABLE 54 (continued): Cocaine purity levels: state and territory, by quarter, 2012–13
State/territory
WA
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
Tas
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
NT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
ACT
State police
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
AFP
<=2 gms
>2 gms
Total
July–September 2012
October–December 2012
January–March 2013
April–June 2013
Total July 2012–June 2013
Purity
Purity
Purity
Purity
Purity
Cases
Median
Min
Max
Cases
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
Media
n
(%)
7
11
18
35.0
32.0
32.5
9.0
10.0
9.0
68.0
47.0
68.0
–
6
6
–
24.0
24.0
–
21.0
21.0
–
70.0
70.0
2
5
7
59.0
52.0
56.0
56.0
35.0
35.0
62.0
80.0
80.0
–
4
4
–
47.5
47.5
–
6.0
6.0
–
59.0
59.0
9
26
35
36.0
35.5
36.0
9.0
6.0
6.0
68.0
80.0
80.0
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
1
1
–
39.5
39.5
–
39.5
39.5
–
39.5
39.5
–
2
2
–
40.6
40.6
–
10.7
10.7
–
70.6
70.6
–
3
3
–
39.5
39.5
–
10.7
10.7
–
70.6
70.6
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
4
–
39.6
39.6
–
31.8
31.8
–
55.7
55.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
4
4
–
39.6
39.6
–
31.8
31.8
–
55.7
55.7
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Min
Max
Cases
Median
Min
Max
Cases
Median
Min
Max
Cases
Median
Min
Max
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(no.)
(%)
(%)
(%)
Figures do not represent the purity levels of all cocaine seizures—only those that have been analysed at a forensic laboratory. Figures for South Australia, Western Australia and Tasmania represent the purity levels of cocaine received at the laboratory
in the relevant quarter. Figures for all other jurisdictions represent the purity levels of cocaine seized by police in the relevant quarter. The period between the date of seizure by police and the date of receipt at the laboratory can vary greatly. No
adjustment has been made to account for double counting data from joint operations between the Australian Federal Police and state/territory police.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
UNDER EMBARGO
PRICE TABLES
TABLE 55: Amphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
na
30–40
50–150
na
100
50
100
na
0.7 gram
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 weight gram
na
150–400
180–500
na
600
300
600–800
na
2 grams
3 grams
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
na
500
600–1 100
na
2 200–3 000
800–900
1 500
na
1/4 ounce
na
1 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
na
na
na
na
8 000
na
na
na
1 ounce (street deal)
na
3 000–4 000
na
na
12 500
na
na
na
1 ounce
na
3 500–5 000
na
na
na
4 000–5 000
na
na
na
na
1 pound
na
40 000
na
na
na
na
na
1 kilogram
na
80 000–120 000
na
na
na
na
na
TABLE 56: MDMA prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
NSW
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
1 tablet/capsule
20–50
30
20–50
15–25
15
35
30–50
30–35
2–24 tablets/capsules (per tab)
15–25
25–35
20–35
na
na
30
35
20a
25–99 tablets/capsules (per tab)
10–20
20–25
15–25
10–15
na
25–28
30
na
100–999 tablets/capsules (per tab)
9–15
15–20
8–20
10–13
na
na
20
7–10b
1000+ tablets/capsules (per tab)
8–13
10–20
7–18
na
na
na
20
na
a.
b.
Vic
Qld
10+ (tablet/capsule).
100 + (bulk tablets).
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
229
TABLE 57: Methylamphetamine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
Crystal form (‘ice’)
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
50–150
100
50–150
na
na
80–100
200
50–100
0.7 gram
250–500
80
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 weight gram
400–900
750–1 000
500–1 000
na
na
na
1 200–1 600
400–700
2 grams
na
1 700
na
na
na
na
na
na
3 grams
na
2 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1 000–2 000
2 000
750–1 700
na
na
3 000
5 000
1 700–1 800
1/4 ounce
1 150–2 800
2 800
5 800–8 000
na
na
na
na
na
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 ounce (street deal)
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 ounce
7 000–13 500
11 500–13 000
10 000–15 000
na
na
10 000–12 000
16 000–19 000
8 000–10 000
1 pound
95 000–120 000
120 000
70 000–120 000
na
na
na
na
na
200 000–260 000
280 000–320 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 kilogram
Non-crystal form
Powder/paste/base
1 street deal (0.1 gram)
0.7 gram
1 weight gram
2 grams
3 grams
50–100
30–40
50–150
100
na
50–80
na
50
120–150
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
70–250
150–400
180–500
600–900
na
300
na
na
200–350
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
250–500
600–800
600–1 100
1 200–3 200
na
800–900
na
1 200
1/4 ounce
na
1 000
na
6 000–8 000
na
na
na
na
1 vial (1/2 ounce)
na
2 000
na
5 500–14 000
na
na
na
na
1 ounce (street deal)
na
3 000–4 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
4 000–5 000
na
na
8 ball (3.5 gram; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
1 ounce
1 500–4 000
3 500–5 000
na
na
na
1 pound
23 000–40 000
40 000–60 000
45 000–90 000
na
na
na
na
na
70 000–110 000
100 000–120 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 kilogram
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
230
TABLE 58: Cannabis prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
Bush
Leaf
Deal (1 gram approx.)
1/2 bag (14 grams)
Ounce bag (28 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
Head
Deal (1 gram approx.)
1/4 bag (7 grams)
1/2 bag (14 grams)
Ounce bag (28 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
1 mature plant
Hydroponic
Leaf
Deal (1 gram approx.)
1/2 bag (14 grams)
Ounce bag (28 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
Head
Deal (1 gram approx.)
1/2 bag (14 grams)
Ounce bag (28 grams)
1 pound
1 kilogram
1 mature plant
Resin
Deal (1 gram approx.)
Oil
Cap/vial
a.
NSW
Vic
Qld
SAa
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
20–30
200
350–450
2 500–4 000
5 000–8 000
15–25
na
200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
na
350
4 200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
12–25
na
na
250–400
2 500–4 000
na
1 000–2 000
25–30
150
250
450
4 000
8 000
3 000
15–25
50–90
na
130–280
2 200–4 000
na
2 500
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
80
150
200–300
3 500
7 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–30
200
350–450
2 500–4 000
5 000–8 000
15–25
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
4 200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
12–25
na
300–400
3 500–5 000
na
2 000–5 000
25–30
250
450
4 000
8 000
3 000
25–50
na
300–450
2 800–5 000
6 000
3 200–5 000
25
na
250–300
2 500–3 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
150
300
4 500
8 500–9 000
na
30–50
na
400–450
5 000–6 000
na
na
20–25
150
250–300
3 100–3 500
na
4 000–5 000
40–50
na
25–50
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
South Australia Police has not provided prices for cannabis ‘leaf’ as this is believed to no longer have a market in South Australia—only ‘head’ is sold.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
231
TABLE 59: Heroin prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
NSW
Vic
Half point (0.05 gram)
35–70
na
na
na
na
1 taste/cap (0.1–0.3 gram)
50–150
50
50
100
50–100
1/4 gram
Qld
SA
WA
na
na
100
200
na
1/2 weight (0.4–0.6 gram)
140–300
200
250
na
400–500
1 street weight (0.6–0.8 gram)
200–300
na
500
400
na
1 gram
220–600
300101
na
400–600
800–1 000
1 000–2 000
1 700102
800–1 200
900–1 200
1 900–2 000
na
5 000
na
na
na
8 ball (3.5 grams; i.e. 1/8 ounce)
10 gram bag
1/2 ounce
na
3 500
na
3 500–4 000
na
6 400–8 600
8 500–16 000
na
7 000–9 000
12 500
90 000–120 000
na
7 000–8 000
na
na
12.5 ounce block
na
95 000–180 000
90 000–120 000
na
na
1 pound
na
na
na
na
na
Asian catti (700 grams)
160 000–210 000
na
na
na
na
1 kilogram
280 000–295 000
na
na
na
na
1 ounce
1/2 Asian catti (350 grams)
TABLE 60: Cocaine prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Weight
NSW
1 cap
50–80
1 gram
Vic
Qld
SA
na
50
na
WA
na
250–400
300–400
300–400
700–800
750
1/4 ounce (7 grams)
na
3 000–4 000
na
na
5 000
1 ounce (28 grams)
5 500–9 500
9 200–12 000
6 000–7 000
na
10 000
na
na
na
na
na
220 000–250 000
180 000–220 000
200 000–240 000
1 pound (0.45 kilograms)
1 kilogram
101.
102.
na 320 000–360 000
Street purity.
Higher purity.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
232
70
TABLE 61: Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Other drugs
LSD
1–9 tabs (ddu103)
10–100 tabs (ddu)
101–999 tabs (ddu)
1000+ tabs (ddu)
1 x 20 millilitre vial
Ketamine
Tablet
Powder (1 gram)
Vial (5–10 millilitres)
GHB/GBL
1–1.5 millilitres
4–5 millilitres (fish)
10–15 millilitres
50 millilitres
100 millilitres
Bulk
1 litre
25 litres
GHB
Serve/4 milligrams
Vial
8 serves/32 milligrams
Opioid pharmaceuticals
Per milligram
Per tablet
Oxycontin (per tablet)
Oxycontin (60 milligram tablet)
Oxycontin
(100
milligram
tablet)
Oxycontin (1 box)
MS Contin
1 milligram
Per tablet
60 milligram tablet
100 milligram tablet
Kapanol (per tablet)
Buprenorphine (2 milligram
tablet))
Buprenorphine
(8 milligram
tablet)) (1 microgram tablet)
Fentanyl
Fentanyl (1 x 100 microgram
patch)
Morphine
(per tablet)
103.
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
10–25
2–5
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
10–25
na
na
na
800
na
na
na
na
na
30–50
25
na
na
na
10–20
na
na
na
na
25
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50–180
100–200
na
na
na
25–50
150–200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
na
na
na
na
3–8
15–25
50–80
na
na
na
2 200–4
000
15 000–
17 000
na
na
na
5
na
na
na
100–200
na
na
na
4–8
10–20
na
na
100–200
na
2 000–3
000
na
4–5
na
na
na
na
na
5 000
na
5–10
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–25
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1
na
10–100
na
na
na
1
na
na
60
100
2 000
1
na
na
60
100
2 800
na
na
25
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
60
100
na
na
80–100
na
na
na
na
na
na
20104
na
na
na
na
20–100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1
na
na
na
65
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
30–45
60–100
15–50
10–20
20–50
na
400
na
na
40
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
60
100
na
na
na
na
na
5–10
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Discrete dosage units (ddu).
equals 20 milligrams.
104. Weight
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
233
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Other drugs
Benzodiazepine
pharmaceuticals
Per milligram
Per tablet
Bromazepam (per tablet)
Clonazepam (per tablet)
Flunitrazepam (per tablet)
Nitrazepan (per tablet)
Diazepam (per tablet)
Oxazepam (per tablet)
Temazepam (per tablet)
Xanax (bottle 50 tablets)
Precursors
Ephedrine
1 kilogram
Pseudoephedrine
Box
Per milligram
100 x boxes
Ounce
1 kilogram (pure)
Hypophosphorous Acid
50 millilitres
1 litre
Iodine
1 gram
100 grams
1 kilogram
Analogues
4MMC per tablet/capsule
4MMC (1 milligram)
MDPV
1 tablet/capsule
2–24 tablets/capsules (per
tablet) tablets/capsules (per
25–99
tablet)
100–999
tablets/capsules (per
tablet) tablets/capsules (per
1000+
tablet)
Point
Milligram
Ounce
N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP)
1 tablet
105.
NSW
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
na
4–200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20105
na
15–25
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
5–10
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
150
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
350
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
5
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25 000
50–250
na
na
na
na
80
na
na
4 000–5
000
na
na
na
na
na
na
50
na
na
na
na
100
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 500–2
000
na
na
400
na
1 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
1 200–3
000
0.50–1
40–100
400
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–50
na
na
na
na
na
30
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
30
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
30–50
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
20–50
na
na
na
na
na
Per tablet.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
234
TABLE 61 (continued): Other drugs prices by state and territory, 2012–13 ($)
Other drugs
NSW
Synthetic cannabinoids
1.5 grams
na
3 grams
na
7 grams
na
14 grams
na
Ounce
na
Other
Methadone 30 millilitres
na
Sildenafil (per tablet)
na
Dimethyltripamine (DMT) per
na
milligram
Performance
and Image Enhancing
Drugs
Testosterone enanthate 200
milligrams
1 x 10 millilitre vial
na
10 x 10 millilitre vial
na
20 x 10 millilitre vial
na
50 x 10 millilitre vial
na
Deca-durabolin 200
milligrams
1 x 10 millilitre vial
na
Stanozolol 25
milligram/millilitre
40 millilitre vial
na
Sustanon 250 (blend of 4
testosterone
1
x 10 millilitrecompounds)
vial
na
10 x 10 millilitre vial
na
Testosterone propionate
100mg
1 x 10 millilitre vial
na
10 x 10 millilitre vial
na
20 x 10 millilitre vial
na
50 x 10 millilitre vial
na
Primoteston 300
milligrams/millilitres
1 x 10 millilitres
na
Trenbolone Acetate 100mg
1 x 10 millilitre vial
na
10 x 10 millilitre vial
na
20 x 10 millilitre vial
na
50 x 10 millilitre vial
na
Clenbuterol
0.04 milligram tablet
na
30 millilitres
na
106.
Vic
Qld
SA
WA
Tas
NT
ACT
na
na
na
na
na
20–35
50–95
100–140
150–240
400
na
na
na
na
na
na
60
na
na
na
na
60
na
na
na
25
na
na
na
na
na
50–70
140
na
na
na
na
na
na
15
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
25
175106
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
230
1 900
3 600
8 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
120–200
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
230
300
na
na
na
na
na
180
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
200
1 800
220–250
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
180
1 400
2 600
5 500
220
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
240
1 400
3 600
8 000
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
3
160
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
na
Per gram.
Illicit Drug Data Report 2012–13
235