RWS100 Fall 2013
Sample Teaching Materials & Texts
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contact Information & Resources for New TAs
3
Key Activities Repeated Over the Semester
4
PACES: Project, Argument, Claims, Evidence, Strategies
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BASIC COMPONENTS OF ARGUMENT
8
The Big Picture: Overview of RWS 100 Course Work
9
DETAILED 3 Week Break Down of Class Activities
12
FIRST WEEK: Introducing Rhetoric with Email Examples
15
Introducing Key Rhetorical Terms & Concepts: Email Activity
17
Some Questions to Ask Any Text
20
Identifying Claims
21
Argument Maps
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MAPPING KRISTOF’S ARGUMENT
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BLEICH - MAPPING THE ARGUMENT
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Charting a Text
25
Example of Charting
26
MACRO CHARTING OF KRISTOF BY PARAGRAPH
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Templates from They Say/I Say
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Sample Template Sentences for Strategy Section
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1
Sample Outline for Introduction (Assignment 1)
30
Rhetorical Précis – description and examples
31
Quick Guide to Quotations (See Graff et al., “The Art of Quoting”)
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Example of a Rhetorical Move: Metadiscourse
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Sample Syllabus
34
Assignments
42
Sample Assignment 1 Prompt
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Sample Detailed Schedule for Unit 1
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Sample “Short” Schedule Fall 2013
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3 MAIN TEXTS
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Why Did Human History Unfold Differently On Different Continents For
The Last 13,000 Years?
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Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges? Kevin Carey.
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LaPierre: Transcript of speech on Newtown massacre
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2
Contact Information & Resources for New TAs
Lower Division Writing Committee
Chris Werry
(cell : 858 837 2923)
AH 3181
cwerry@mail.sdsu.edu
(619) 594 3882
Jamie Madden
Matt Breece
jmadden@mail.sdsu.edu
Sarah Curiels
curiels@rohan.sdsu.edu
(619) 594 1161
(619) 594 2015
(619) 594 2015
jserrano@mail.sdsu.edu
594 0925
jmadden@mail.sdsu.edu
594 1161
kkeene@mail.sdsu.edu
594 5477
Laura.White@darth.sdsu.edu
594-7512
jonrizzo@mail.sdsu.edu
594-0270
workreq@mail.sdsu.edu
ssrlhelp@mail.sdsu.edu
594.5261
594-5845
mattbreece@hotmail.com
RWS Office
Jo Serrano
AH 3142
(General info & classrooms)
Jamie Madden
AH3143
(Scheduling)
Karen Keene
AH 3147
(Payroll)
Bookstore
Laura White
Course Materials Mgr.
Blackboard
Jon Rizzo
AH-1111E
Computers/Network
TNS
CAL Help Desk PSFA 127
RWS100 TEACHING RESOURCES
RWS100 Wiki: http://sdsuwriting.pbworks.com/
Blackboard
https://blackboard.sdsu.edu/
OTHER RESOURCES
The Center for Teaching & Learning at SDSU, has a lot of support for teaching
assistants. See http://ctl.sdsu.edu/ and scroll down to “Support for Teaching Assistants.”
You may find some of these listed resources useful:
■ A Guide for Graduate Instructors, Teaching Assistants, and New Faculty (University of
Missouri), http://teachandlearn.missouri.edu/guide/chapters/index.htm
■ Teaching Tips for TAs” (UC Santa Barbara),
http://www.oic.id.ucsb.edu/TA/tips/ta_tips.html
■ International Teaching Assistant Handbook: An Introduction to University and College
Teaching in the United States,” http://www.oic.id.ucsb.edu/TA/ITA/title.html
3
Key Activities Repeated Over the Semester
The following is a list of concepts and activities that we will return to a number of times during
the semester. They are in summary form - handouts explaining them in more detail, plus exercises
and further activities, are available on the wiki and Blackboard. You may decide to use a different
set of activities, but many teachers use these as a framework, especially in their first few semesters
of teaching.
Pre-reading 1: finding clues to purpose, context, audience, etc. Pre-reading strategies are
explored in order to help students find clues to purpose, context and audience. SKIM – things we
do. Title, author, date, publisher, genre, works cited, etc. Students will consider how titles,
subtitles, headings, visuals, structural divisions, format, genre, layout, design and other textual
elements can tell us a great deal about a text before we have read it
Pre-reading 2: using questionnaires, general issue questions, and pre-discussion to prime
students for discussion of a text. Posing questions that get students thinking about the general
issues raised in a text. Questionnaires that identify student assumptions about issues, and can be
connected later to elements of the text (“if a common assumption about the issue is X, then
perhaps the authors knows this and uses strategy Y to address the assumption). Finding
connections to issues raised in text and things going on in the world at present. E.g. Gladwell and
the extent to which social media enables new forms of political expression, or Pinker and the
question of where human morality comes from.
“Jigsaw” work – assign students/groups to research the author, key terms/references, the
publication, etc. to get at key info, to get students used to asking key questions, and to help them
figure out where to go to find such information.
Critical/Active Reading and Rhetorical Reading
Explore ways of annotating texts. Model how to pose questions, interrogate assumptions, read
actively and critically. Adler’s “How to Mark a Text” can be useful. See “Questions to Ask Any
Text” handout.
Discussion & Discussion Starters
Class discussion of main texts. There are a range of strategies you can use to jump start discussion
and encourage participation. These include freewriting (gives students time to formulate ideas),
group work, homework posted to Blackboard, calling by name, etc.
Charting
Charting is a form of close reading in which students attend to what the text “does” (rather than
merely what it “says.”) Charting involves annotating a text in order to show the “work” each
paragraph is doing, or the “moves” being made. This is a core concept for the semester. Each
annotation must begin with a verb: introduce, claim, support, present evidence, qualify, rebut,
contrast, satirize, etc. Charting helps keep students focused on issues of agency, purpose, choice
and strategy - reminding them that behind every sentence there is an author with intent who makes
rhetorical choices to achieve her aim. It is also designed to move students toward identifying
relationships between ideas and locating claims, evidence, and the main argument. Charting
exercises are also used with student texts - in revision and peer review.
Charting can be confusing at first. One way of thinking about it is just as a form of close reading
that prompts students to consider the choices authors make and the strategies they draw on. It's
also helpful to get students to consider how parts of the text connect to each other. Charting is an
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open ended process, and the main thing is to get students to slow down, bracket content, and
consider what a text does, how it does it, and why. It isn't a particular methodology with rules. I've
sometimes used the analogy of the slow motion "frame advance" feature on a DVD player. You
can use this to slow a visual text right down and focus on how a scene is composed, what is
foregrounded and backgrounded, what point of view is established, the connections between
segments of a text, etc..
Pre-writing Exercises
Students will be given a series of pre-writing exercises designed to help them master elements of
each assignment. These pre-writing exercises break the writing, reading and reasoning skills of
major assignments into a set of smaller, more manageable tasks that students often complete in
class or as homework. Many of these exercises will involve the concepts described below –
charting; identifying the argument/claim/evidence/project; template phrases, the rhetorical précis,
etc.
Identifying the argument, claims, evidence and project and strategies (PACES)
With every text students will spend time identifying the project, argument, major claims,
evidence and strategies. The argument, major claims, and evidence are described in other
handouts. The project articulates the kind of work that a writer is setting out to do and the overall
activity that the writer is engaged in--researching, investigating, experimenting, interviewing,
documenting, etc. The “project” describes what the author sets out to do, how she does it, and by
what means (such as research connections between X and Y, or applying a definition of X to Z
phenomenon in such and such a way, etc.) To articulate a project—to write an account— you
need a verb, such as “researches,” “investigates,” “studies,” “presents,” “connects A with B,” etc.
Exploring Rhetorical Strategies
Rhetorical strategies are particular ways writers craft language so as to have an effect on readers.
Strategies are means of persuasion, ways of using language to get readers’ attention and
agreement. Some common rhetorical strategies are metadiscourse, definitions, framing devices,
ethos, pathos, logos, rebuttals, qualifications, etc. Students are asked to 1) identify rhetorical
strategies, 2) describe how they work, and 3) describe why they are used – what purpose do they
accomplish?
Developing a Rhetorical Analysis
This involves taking the work done with charting and identifying strategies using this to write an
analysis that focuses on what the author is doing – how the author frames an issue, summarizes
previous research, presents evidence, deals with objections or signposts the organization of text,
etc.
Evaluating Strengths and Weaknesses
We will help students assess the relative strengths and weaknesses of arguments,
supporting evidence, reasoning and strategies.
Template Phrases
Template phrases are used to model parts of the central rhetorical moves academic writers make.
We will often give students templates that provide some of the linguistic “scaffolding” for
introducing a text, capturing key elements of an argument, signaling the topic of a paper, and in
particular working with sources and describing connections between texts. Fill-in-the-blank
sentences may seem overly formulaic, but they are important tools for practice, and can become a
useful tool for invention. A number of templates can be found in Gerald Graff and Kathy
Birkenstein’s book They Say/I Say, and on the wiki.
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The Rhetorical Précis
A rhetorical précis is a four-sentence paragraph that records the essential rhetorical elements of an
author’s argument. The précis includes the name of the speaker/writer(s), the context or situation
in which the text is delivered, the major assertion, the mode of development for or support of the
main idea, the stated and/or apparent purpose of the text, and the relationship between the
speaker/writer(s) and the audience. It is designed to move students away from summary and
towards writing that shows a more sophisticated understanding of a text’s rhetorical situation. The
précis is designed to highlight key elements of the rhetorical situation, help students with reading
comprehension, and improve treatment of source materials in their writing. We will use it often
over the course of the semester.
Metacommentary (aka metalanguage/metadiscourse)
Metacommentary is self-reflective linguistic material referring to the evolving text and to the
imagined reader of that text. It consists of moments in a text when the author stands back and talks
about her text/argument itself. Metacommentary reveals the ways that writers signal their attitude
towards both the propositional content and the audience of the text. Often, metadiscourse
announces what a paper will be about, what it will do, what its project, purpose and argument will
be. Metadiscourse also provides signposts to the author’s argument, guiding the reader to what
will come next and showing how that is connected to what has come before. Students will spend
time examining and producing various forms of metacommentary.
Reflective Writing
Reflective writing involves students thinking carefully about their writing, how it is developing,
considering their own rhetoric, etc. Before final papers are due you can have students apply course
concepts to their own writing – e.g. chart their own writing, examine the strategies they use, how
their argument is structured, etc. That is, they can use tools of analysis to reflect on and evaluate
their writing. After papers are due, reflective writing can be used to deepen understanding of their
writing.
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PACES: Project, Argument, Claims, Evidence, Strategies
Project:
An author’s project describes the kind of work she sets out to do – her
purpose and the method she uses to carry it out. It is the overall activity that
the writer is engaged in--researching, investigating, experimenting,
interviewing, documenting, etc. Try to imagine what the author’s goals or
hypotheses were as she wrote the text. To articulate a project—and to write
an account— you need a verb, such as “researches,” “investigates,”
“studies,” “presents,” “connects A with B,” etc.
Argument:
In the broadest sense, an argument is any piece of written, spoken, or visual
language designed to persuade an audience or bring about a change in
ideas/attitudes. Less broadly, in academic writing the argument often refers to
the main point, assertion or conclusion advanced by an author, along with the
evidence and reasoning by which this is established. Arguments are concerned
with contested issues where some degree of uncertainty exists (we don’t argue
about what is self-evident or agreed upon).
Claims:
To make a claim is to assert that something is the case, and to provide evidence
for this. Arguments may consist of numerous claims and sometimes also subclaims. Claims in academic writing often consist of an assertion, the staking out of
a position, the solution to a problem, or the resolution of some shortcoming,
weakness or gap in existing research. Often comes with self-identification (“my
point here is that…”) emphasis (“It must be stressed that…”) approval (“Olson
makes some important and long overdue amendments to work on …”) or a
problem/solution or question/answer framework.
Evidence:
The component of the argument used as support for the claims made. Evidence is
the support, reasons, data/information used to help persuade/prove an
argument. To find evidence in a text, ask what the author has to go on. What is
there to support this claim? Is the evidence credible? Some types of evidence:
facts, historical examples/comparisons, examples, analogies, illustrations,
interviews, statistics (source & date are important), expert testimony,
authorities, anecdotes, witnesses, personal experiences, reasoning, etc.
Strategies:
Rhetorical Strategy: a particular way in which authors craft language—both
consciously and subconsciously—so as to have an effect on readers.
Strategies are means of persuasion, ways of gaining a readers’ attention,
interest, or agreement. Strategies can be identified in the way an author
organizes her text, selects evidence, addresses the reader, frames an issue,
presents a definition, constructs a persona or establishes credibility, appeals
to authority, deals with opposing views, uses “meta-discourse,” makes
particular use of style and tone, draws on particular tropes and images, as well
as many of the other textual choices that can be identified.
Hmm..
.
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BASIC COMPONENTS OF ARGUMENT
Qualifiers
Reasons
& Evidence
Rebuttals
Claims
ARGUMENT
Strategies & Moves
ARGUMENT: In the broadest sense, an argument is any piece of written, spoken, or visual language
designed to persuade an audience or bring about a change in ideas/attitudes. Less broadly, in academic
writing “argument” often refers to the main point, assertion or conclusion advanced by an author, along
with the evidence and reasoning by which this is established. Arguments are concerned with contested
issues where some degree of uncertainty exists (we don’t argue about what is self-evident or agreed upon).
Describing the main argument is NOT the same as describing what a text is “about.” Arguments (and
claims) usually advance debatable propositions. For example: “The U.S. should pull troops out of Iraq as
we are stuck in the middle of a civil war that must be solved politically rather than militarily,” or “We
must increase the number of troops in Iraq in order to complete the mission and prevent the conflict from
spreading into a regional war that could inflame the entire middle east.” Each of these is an assertion that
stakes out a position. Each can be debated.
CLAIM: Something the writer wants the audience to believe. Usually consists of an assertion, the staking
out of a position, the solution to a problem, or the resolution of some shortcoming, weakness or gap in
existing research. Often comes with self-identification (“my point here is that…”) emphasis (“It must be
stressed that…”) approval (“Olson makes some important and long overdue amendments to the basic
position outlined by…”) or a problem/solution, or question/answer framework.
REASONS: statements that justify the claim, or explain why a claim should be believed. A reason is
evidence, information, justification or data given to support a claim. To find reasons, ask why the claim
can be made. What have you got to go on? What is there to support the claim?
QUALIFIERS/QUALIFICATION: this is where the author clarifies the nature, scope or extent of her
claims, or sets out the conditions under which she makes her claim. Often the place where the author adds
“nuance” to her claims. Example of unqualified argument: “video games incite violence and should be
banned.” Qualified argument: “certain extreme video games may desensitize some impressionable young
people to violence. While most games are innocent fun, and may even teach useful skills, those that
realistically simulate murder should be banned for children under 14.”
REBUTTALS: Writers often try to anticipate objections to their arguments – they understand that their
audience, and other authors, may not agree with them. They may thus address counterarguments and
objections, and provide rebuttals to these objections/counterarguments. This is often a clever rhetorical
strategy. Introducing the reader to positions opposed to your own, and showing you can deal with them
can work to 'inoculate' the reader against counterarguments. It demonstrates that the author is aware of
opposing views, and is not trying to 'sweep them under the table'. It is also likely to make the writer's
argument seem 'balanced' or 'fair' to readers, and as a consequence be more persuasive.
STRATEGIES: means of persuasion, ways of gaining a readers’ attention, interest, or agreement. They
can be identified in the textual choices an author makes – the way she organizes her text, selects evidence,
frames an issue, chooses words, establishes credibility, establishes a tone or style, deals with opposing
views, appeals to authority, etc.
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The Big Picture: Overview of RWS 100 Course Work
First 2 Weeks: Introduce the course, key concepts, & apply to short texts
1) Introduce RWS100, rhetoric, course goals
2) Introduce key concepts for first part of semester (argument, claims, evidence, rhetorical
moves, charting, etc.)
3) Practice applying these concepts to short texts – advertisements, excerpts from a speech, tv
clips, visual texts, etc (you can choose these texts, or use ones we’ve selected.)
4) Apply these concepts to short texts - Kristof (“War & Wisdom”), Bleich (“California's
Higher-Education Debacle”) Rifkin (“A Change of Heart About Animals”), Parry (“The Art of
Branding a Condition”), Foster Wallace (“This is Water”) etc. OR, see texts in the
FrankenReader texts on the wiki. There is also a collection of teaching resources for these
short texts on the wiki and Blackboard you can use.
5) If you wish, you can begin short writing assignments using “contract grading.”
Unit 1: Diamond & first major writing assignment
1) Introduce assignment 1, the text, and work to be done
2) Introduce pre-reading and critical reading strategies – finding clues to purpose, audience,
genre, context; looking at layout, headings etc.; annotating the text, posing questions, etc.
3) Assign questionnaire/activities to get students thinking about general issues raised in text,
how their experiences/ideas may connect to the text, and to identify some assumptions
often held by readers (use later on to explore moves the author makes to deal with
assumptions)
4) Begin discussion of Diamond – focus on key passages, introduce main issues, present
examples from other sources to illustrate claims. Give vocabulary quizzes to make sure
students read closely and/or model close reading of texts.
5) Jigsaw research activities (assign students background research to do on text – for
example, could ask them to research Diamond, his other work, recently published books,
some of the terms used, the texts/figures referred to, etc.)
6) Work on identifying major elements of the argument - claims, evidence, project, appeals,
etc. Explain ways of talking about these elements (e.g., phrases for talking about
argument). Introduce criteria for evaluating these elements.
7) “Charting,” Moves & Strategies. Chart Diamond– identify what the text does (structure +
the moves made). Work on identifying and analyzing rhetorical strategies - what the
strategy is, how it works, why it is used
8) Draft sections of paper – how to organize the introduction; writing about author’s
argument and project; using rhetorical précis, and “template phrases” from They Say/I Say
to produce a sophisticated account of the argument; managing quotations (see They Say/I
Say); writing about strategies (what, how, why)
9) Using metadiscourse to guide the reader (see They Say/I Say and handouts)
10) How to write the conclusion
11) Models and sample papers: work with sample intros and body paragraphs, and with
sample student papers. Have students chart and grade sample student papers.
Have students chart their own papers, explaining the moves they are making (can have
them hand this in with draft). Students chart their peer’s paper also in peer review.
12) Editing, revising, peer review, conferencing (can do “minimal marking” strategies)
13) After drafts are received, you may want to address grammar/sentence level issues by
focusing on problems that are shared across clusters of papers. Can have students look up
the mechanical issues in Penguin handbook and write short diagnosis or report on this, to
be handed in with final paper (could be extra credit).
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Unit 2: Carey & the “sources” assignment
1) Introduce assignment 2, the text, and work to be done
2) Revisit pre-reading and critical reading strategies – finding clues to purpose, audience,
genre, context, etc.
3) Assign questionnaire/activities to get students thinking about general issues raised in text,
how their experiences/ideas may connect to the text, and to identify assumptions held by
readers. Can show the documentary “College Inc.” to introduce the text.
4) Begin discussion of Carey – focus on key sections.
5) Assign students or groups to research and present on background info – director,
background, other work, key terms used, texts/figures referred to, etc. Give vocabulary
quizzes to make sure students read closely
6) Identifying major elements of the argument - claims, evidence, project, appeals, etc.
7) Chart text and work on identifying and analyzing rhetorical strategies - what the strategy
is, how it works, why it is used
8) Model the key assignment concepts – extend, illustrate, challenge, complicate, qualify.
9) How to connect and compare the claims used in Carey and the outside texts. Provide
sample passages and model texts that extend, illustrate, complicate, clarify
10) Practice using template phrases to map relations between texts. Practice using different
verbs and expressions to talk about how texts relate to each other.
11) How to select and present evidence of your analysis of the relation between texts
Work with sample intros and body paragraphs, and with sample student papers.
Use They Say/I Say to model ways of integrating sources into paper
12) Have students chart and grade sample student papers. Have students chart their own
papers, explaining the moves they are making (can have them hand this in with draft).
Students chart their peer’s paper also in peer review.
13) Editing, revising, peer review, conferencing.
Unit 3: LaPierre & strategies assignment
1) Introduce assignment 3, the text, and work to be done
2) (Re)introduce rhetorical strategies – how they work, how to identify them, how to talk
about them, why they matter.
3) Discuss some of the most common rhetorical strategies authors use in academic (and
other) texts. Metadiscourse, rebuttals, qualifications, definitions, word choice, framing
devices, categories, tropes and figures of speech. Examine short visual and verbal texts.
4) Academic discourse and the CARS model. The moves academic writers often make and
how to make sense of them. Exercises with material (abstracts) from student majors.
5) Genre bending exercises – playing with audience, genre, context, etc., and exploring shifts
in rhetorical strategy.
6) Begin discussion of LaPierre text.– focus on key segments. Do questionnaire or ask
students questions that relate to the text.
7) Assign students or groups to research and present on background info issues and events
referred to in the text, key terms used, texts/figures referred to, etc.
8) Assigning groups to work on different sections of the text.
9) Identify major strategies and exploring how to talk about them. Focusing on what strategy
is, how it works, and why it was chosen.
10) Work with criteria for evaluating strategies.
11) How to select and present evidence of your analysis of strategies. Work with sample intros
and body paragraphs, and with sample student papers.
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12) Have students chart and grade sample student papers. Have students chart their own
papers, explaining the moves they are making (can have them hand this in with draft).
Students chart their peer’s paper also in peer review.
13) Editing, revising, peer review, conferencing.
Unit 4: (OPTIONAL) Portfolio/Lens/Student Writing Assignments
If you decide to require a final assignment, you can select from a number of options. We
recommend one of the following, although you are welcome to suggest alternatives:
1. Group projects/presentations where students get to make an argument that draws from
one of the issues raised in the class, or which focuses on one of the texts covered. If you
choose this option, we strongly suggest you construct a group assignment with clearly
defined roles for each student, so that individual grades can be assigned and you minimize
“free riding” and conflict.
2. Lens paper: if you would like to stick to “traditional” way in the 4th assignment has been
taught, you can use the “lens assignment” (see past 100 syllabi, assignments, materials etc.
for details. This paper involves taking one of the texts we’ve read and using it as a “lens”
through which to analyze another text or a contemporary issue. The student can present an
original argument, interpretation or analysis.
3. Portfolio: Students have done small writing assignments over the semester. You can
assign further short writing assignments in the final part of the course, and give students
an aggregate grade for the completed portfolio. You may wish to make the portfolio the
culmination of writing done as part of “contract grading.”
4. Reflection essay – have students write a paper that asks them to reflect on the writing
work they have done, what they have learned, the way they approach writing, the things
they still need to work on, etc.
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DETAILED 3 Week Break Down of Class Activities
Week 1
W1 Class 1 – introduction to class, rhetoric, course goals
a) Take the roll, deal with crashers
b) Introduce yourself and the class; hand out materials - syllabus, assignments, etc.
c) Give overview of RWS 100 and discuss how it is different from previous writing classes
students have likely experienced (focus on argument, non-fiction texts, critical reading,
rhetorical analysis/strategies NOT summary, etc. See powerpoint “week 1, class 1.”)
d) Go over the syllabus and set expectations
e) Do introductions (pair up and play an introduction game – see “ice-breakers” file)
f) Use powerpoint slides to introduce rhetoric, argument, rhetorical strategies, etc.
g) If there’s time, do short exercises examining newspaper headlines and how they frame an
issue, or look at advertisements, images, etc., to illustrate the rhetorical
reading/analysis/concepts (see powerpoint file.) Examine pictures in the powerpoint slides
– ask questions about strategies, purpose, audience, etc.
HOMEWORK: ask students to give writing sample, do questionnaire, and/or describe
previous experience with writing/reading.
W1 Class 2 – introduction to some key concepts + practice applying them
a) If you asked for writing sample/questionnaire, discuss this; talk about differences between
writing at high school and at university, & writing in English class vs. composition/rhetoric
class.
b) Introduce key concepts and terms for first part of semester (argument, claims, reasons, project,
charting, etc.)
c) Tell students why the course is important – how being able to interpret arguments, locate
claims and evidence, analyze moves and strategies, and evaluate arguments are crucial skills.
They are central to business, professional life, academic study and critical thinking (see
powerpoint “week1 class 2,” esp WPA/LSAT/GMAT/GRE slides and excerpts).
d) Show “SubText,” an animated representation of a man composing an email in which he asks a
woman out. Discuss audience, purpose, persuasion, construction of ethos, strategies, etc., The
man “thinks aloud” as he writes, and we glimpse what goes on “in his head” as he composes.
(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=400w4XnjElI)
Next, do the “Email exercise” – students write email message excusing a late paper, asking the
professor to still accept it, beg forgiveness, etc. Have students read out their emails; list and
discuss the strategies they use. Use this exercise to make the concepts more concrete, and to
explore audience, purpose, strategies, persuasion, ethos, etc. Show examples of really bad
email messages sent to professors in the past, how poorly they understand their audience, the
ethos they construct, etc., and give some tips on how to communicate over email with
professors.
e) If there is time, examine some more short texts in order to illustrate rhetorical concepts.
f) Toward end of class examine the 1950s Marlboro advertisement image. Do some basic
analysis – argument, claims, evidence, strategies, etc.
HOMEWORK: each student finds an ad of their own and locates argument, claims,
evidence, strategies. Write this up and bring to next class
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Week 2
W2 Class 1 - introduction to key concepts + practice applying them (continued)
a) Have some students show the ads they chose and explain their analysis. Try to move the
conversation away from what the ad says to how it appeals to an audience – what it does.
b) Quick review of concepts and class goals. Explain strategies and ethos, pathos and logos.
Model how to identify these elements by looking at short texts – more ads, a video text,
etc.
c) Show students the ads in powerpoint “week 2, class 1,” esp. the antismoking ads. You
may also wish to revisit previous ads/texts discussed in class and focus on strategies and
appeals.
d) Give short sample arguments and in groups have students identify argument, claims,
evidence and strategies (can use examples in “Handout Basic terms of argument 1.doc”)
HOMEWORK: Give students a short text to analyze (e.g. Kristof’s “War & Wisdom,”
Bleich’s “California’s Higher Education Debacle,” Rifkin’s “Change of Heart,”
Wallace Foster’s “This is Water,” etc.) and ask them to identify argument, support,
claims, strategies, ethos, pathos, logos.
W2 Class 2 Saying/Doing, Pre-reading/Critical Reading, Charting,
a) Go over homework. Have students volunteer to share work. Praise, clarify, discuss
responses.
b) Examine short text from homework in detail.
c) Discuss issues of genre, audience, etc. See powerpoint “week 2 class 2” for teaching
materials.
d) Introduce the saying/doing materials, and model how to use this with some examples, or
revisit previous ads/texts and use the verbs from the list.
e) Introduce the practice of “charting” or “clumping” of texts. Explain the value of these
practices.
f) In groups, have students decide how to chart text and be prepared to share the logic behind
their decisions. Share out and discuss the choices made by groups.
g) Introduce pre-reading strategies, active/critical reading, and rhetorical reading (see
handouts on “critical reading” and “rhetorical reading.”) Do the critical reading quiz
(“‘Careful, You Might Run Out of Planet’: SUVs and the Exploitation of the American
Myth”)
h) If time permits, give students Rifkin’s “A Change of Heart about Animals.” Begin
discussion of the text. See file “Rifkin - discussion starters and how to read the text.doc”
Begin charting, identifying argument, claims, reasons, moves, strategies. If there is not
enough time, may wish to assign some of this as homework.
HOMEWORK: Give students Bleich’s “California’s Higher Education Debacle.”
Have students practice skills learned so far – identifying argument, claims, evidence,
charting, ethos, pathos, logos, etc.
AFTER 2 WEEKS YOU CAN CONTINUE ANALYZING CLAIMS, EVIDENCE, AND
STRATEGIES IN SHORT TEXTS IF YOU FEEL STUDENTS NEED FURTHER
HELP. IF NOT, YOU CAN INTRODUCE ASSIGNMENT 1 AND START
DISCUSSING AND ANALYZING DIAMOND.
13
Week 3
W3 Class 1: Rhetorical analysis and preparing for first paper with low stakes
assignment (Rifkin)
a) Review of Bleich homework – praise and redirect as necessary. As a whole class,
collaborate on draft statement of argument and claims. (IF you want, can do rhetorical
précis – have students complete template for Bleich.)
b) In groups, produce list of strategic moments in Bleich. Share out and discuss. Reinforce
and rephrase their insights, modeling appropriate language and pushing students to go
from what, to how, to why.
c) Model a well developed one paragraph analysis (or just use one of the examples)
d) Show sample student papers which model sections of assignment 1 using Rifkin as
example.
e) Explain the first major assignment – students will produce an “account” of the argument,
and this account will involve identifying and analyzing argument, claims and rhetorical
strategies.
f) Emphasize that rhetorical analysis will be at the center of the first paper, and that this is
not the same as summarizing. Some summary will be done, but it will be focused on
argument and should help set up the larger discussion of strategies.
g) Emphasize that rhetorical analysis needs to include discussion of 1. what, 2. how, 3. why.
That is, 1) describe the strategy (what). 2. Provide interpretation and analysis of how the
strategy works (how). 3. explain why the author chose to use this strategy (purpose and
audience).
HOMEWORK. If you want to give homework, you could give students a short text
and have them practice doing assignment 1 with it. Have them hand it in next class. If
you plan to discuss the papers in class, ask students to submit papers to Blackboard.
ALTERNATIVELY, just have them read first major text.
W3 Class 2:
a) Ask students to discuss any difficulties or insights they experienced while doing the
practice assignment.
b) Get student papers and work with them on the projector. Discuss what works and where
improvements could be made. Relate to what will need to be done in first major paper.
c) Go over the first major assignment, take questions, and discuss the extra work you expect
to see in it (compared to homework).
d) If you wish, have students complete a brief survey asking them to reflect on the work done
so far.
e) Preview OR begin work on Diamond. Start a discussion about the general issues, poll
students on their thoughts/assumptions.
f) Assign “jigsaw” homework – background research to be done in groups that will help
explain the text.
HOMEWORK: read first major text. In groups, present results of jigsaw work.
14
FIRST WEEK: Introducing Rhetoric with Email Examples
1) Using a YouTube Animation to introduce rhetorical concepts
2) The rhetoric of composing emails to your professors
3) Sample Student Emails (how NOT to win favor and influence people)
1. Using a YouTube Animation to introduce rhetorical concepts
SubText – animation showing “Lev” composing an email to a girl he likes.
The man “thinks aloud” as he writes, and we glimpse what goes on “in his head” as he composes
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=400w4XnjElI
Examine how this trivial act is full of rhetorical issues. The character is asking, how does this
language present me? What persona does it construct? What tactic will be most effective? What
moves should I make, how will this make me seem? How should I think of my audience? What is
my purpose? How do I avoid embarrassment?
Have students take the concepts of rhetorical situation, persuasion, construction of ethos,
strategies, etc., and apply to this visual text.
15
2. The rhetoric of composing emails to your professors
Considering issues of audience, context, purpose, persuasion, strategy, ethos, pathos,
and logos in email messages.
Situation: The syllabus says that the instructor does not accept late work and that if you
miss class you will be penalized. Nevertheless, you miss three classes (out of 15 total) and
try to hand in the second major assignment a week late. If the instructor doesn’t accept
your work you will fail the class.
Assignment: Please write the instructor a brief email explaining your situation. You do
not want to fail the class.
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Introducing Key Rhetorical Terms & Concepts: Email Activity
Time:
Materials:
Overview:
50-75 minutes
warm-up writing prompt, overhead email examples, Key Rhetorical Terms &
Concepts handout, overhead sample paragraph, text to use for HW
First, get students writing rhetorically without being conscious of the
“moves” they’re making (by writing a persuasive email). Then, have students
report what they were doing using a verb vs. merely reading what they wrote.
Next, introduce rhetorical terms and concepts and use the email exercise to
help exemplify. Lastly, assign additional work where students have to apply
concepts to a more academic text. If time permits, model a short analysis
paragraph to demonstrate how to write academically – not mechanically.
Warm-up: 15 minutes
1.
Ask students to get out a piece of paper and pen and tell them they will be writing for
approximately five (to ten) minutes. Read them the prompt below and then give
them the allotted time to write.
Imagine that you are in the final month of the fall 2008 semester. You have missed the
last two weeks of your RWS 100 class. Your instructor will not pass a student who has
missed excessive days; however, you really cannot afford to fail this class. Write an email
to your instructor and try to convince him/her to make an exception for you. Feel free to
invent whatever reasons you want for why you were absent and why it is necessary that
you pass. Please be creative but also write a response that you would actually send to a
professor.
2. Once finished, call for volunteers to share what they wrote. HOWEVER, ask the
students not to tell you what they were saying in their emails. Instead, ask them to
tell you what they were doing–what their strategies were/what “moves” they were
making. As example you could say, “Don’t tell me you wrote ‘Hi, my name is Melissa.’
Instead, tell me you introduced yourself.” Ask students to use verbs, such as
“introduced” from the previous example. Write their responses on the board and
discuss which are stronger than others.
a. Here are some examples you might get. If you don’t get all of them, try
eliciting responses.
i. Greet the professor
ii. Introduce myself
iii. Apologize
iv. Take responsibility
v. Elicit sympathy
vi. Thank her / show graciousness
vii. Assure I am proactive (on BB, contacted student, caught up, etc.)
viii. Initiate repair action (can we meet? can I bring my work tomorrow?)
ix. Build a defense
x. Offer to show a doctor’s note or death certificate
xi. Attempt to humor her (try to entertain / make professor laugh)
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3. Show students the examples of poorly written emails (overheads). Comment on why
the emails are not rhetorically savvy. Remind students that there are other strategies
helpful to use besides writing a convincing excuse.
a. Ask students to consider other things to do to help
i. Write formally and professionally. Check spelling and grammar!
ii. Use a professional letter format and give an appropriate “subject”.
iii. Leave appropriate contact information.
iv. Organize / order information appropriately; perhaps apologize and
show you’re proactive before demanding help or a second chance!
v. Use qualifiers and rebuttals: write “Perhaps we should meet” instead of
“We need to meet” or predict what the professor might say and rebut it,
“While I know your policy states…I feel my circumstances call for an
exception.”
Introduce Key Rhetorical Terms and Concepts: 25 minutes
1.
Pass out the Key Rhetorical Terms and Concepts handout. Begin reading the first page
as a class. When appropriate, make comments connecting back to the email activity.
See list for examples:
a. Rhetoric – remind students that even their emails were rhetorical and that
there’s an “art” to convincing even professors through emails. Rhetoric is
everywhere!
b. Rhetorical Analysis – tell students that you already performed a small
rhetorical analysis by interpreting “moves” made and by analyzing which
strategies worked and which didn’t.
c. Rhetorical Situation – ask students to identify the components of the
rhetorical situation within the email exercise and discuss how the relationships
might effect how the email is written.
i. Writer – student
ii. Purpose – to persuade professor
iii. Audience – professor
iv. Subject/Text– wants to pass class, writes an email
v. Context – you missed too many classes, instructor has strict rule, you
really need to pass, communicating by email
2. Second Page: Continue as before and ask students to identify the project, argument,
claims, evidence, and strategies from the exercise. See the examples below for help.
a. Project: to compose a convincing email to a professor
b. Argument: the professor should give the student another chance and let
him/her pass the class
c. Claims: the student deserves another chance because s/he is caught up and
willing to do anything; the student will prove to the professor the kind of
student s/he can be; the professor should make an exception and forgive the
student for making the mistakes; it is unfair to not let the student pass under
the circumstances; etc.
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d. Evidence: any documentation excusing the absence; witnesses; authoritative
testimony (maybe a coach writes for you); a convincing anecdote;
attachments of work completed to prove student is on task; etc.
e. Strategies: remind students that they already picked up on these. Refer to
board.
Assign Additional Work in Class or for HW (5-20 minutes)
1.
Before assigning the HW, here is a model paragraph to use to exemplify how a short
academic analysis might look. Point out that the analysis is not just answering the
prompt over and over, line by line; in fact, it never says “his project is/his argument is”
etc. Notice that it has an introduction, a conclusion, transitions, and it is organized.
The author, text, context, and audience are introduced. Finally, try and point out that
it is analysis, not opinion (note the qualifiers)!
Where there is communication being made, there is rhetoric. Sources of
authors being rhetorical in their texts can be found almost anywhere–even in
emails. In his email titled, “Student Requesting Special Consideration,” author
Joe Smith writes to one of his college instructors in hopes of persuading her to
give him another chance. Smith, a freshman at San Diego State University, has
missed too many classes to pass the course, according to the strict policies
enforced by his Rhetoric and Writing instructor, Melissa Watson. After
apologizing, Smith softly asserts that he should be given the opportunity to
make up missed assignments in order to pass the class. He claims that because
of the special circumstances of his situation, he is deserving of Watson’s
willingness to dismiss the guidelines outlined in her attendance policy and
overlook his absences. According to Smith, his grandmother recently passed
away, and he was unable to access a computer to email Watson or to check
Blackboard for the assignments due. However, to support his claims, Smith
offers no additional evidence besides his descriptive anecdote about the funeral.
Perhaps to make up for his lack of evidence, then, Smith writes his message
using a tone that is formal, respectful, and apologetic. Together, his strategic
tone and tragic anecdote about his grandmother may be convincing enough to
elicit the sympathies he is looking for from his instructor. With every aspect
taken into consideration, Smith certainly appears to be experienced in the art of
persuasion, even in writing an email.
2. Lastly, assign the students a short text to analyze. Give them the assignment below.
Write a paragraph (1/2-1 pg. typed) giving a brief account of the author’s text
similar to the example paragraph shown in class. Introduce what you can about
the author, text, audience, purpose, and context. Then give the overall
explanation of the author’s PACES. There is no need to add specific details,
especially any in-depth analyses of strategies. For now, imagine you’re writing
an introduction to a paper about the text and your detailed analysis will come
later in the paper. However, try not to merely list the information mechanically.
Instead, attempt to make it a paragraph suitable for an academic paper written
for a professor to grade. This means make sure your brief analysis is carefully
organized, transitioned, varied in language and sentence structure, and free of
mechanical and grammatical errors.
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Some Questions to Ask Any Text
The following questions can be posed to any text, and can help you start thinking about texts from a
rhetorical perspective.
THE BIG PICTURE
1. Who is the audience? Who is the author trying to reach? (age, gender, cultural background, class,
etc.) Which elements of the text – both things included, and things left out – provide clues about
the intended audience? How does the author represent the audience
2. Who is the author, and where is she coming from? What can you find out about the author?
What can you find out about the organization, publication, web site, or source she is writing for?
3. What is the author’s purpose? What is the question at issue? Why has the author written this
text? What is the problem, dispute, or question being addressed? What motivated her to write, what
does she hope to accomplish, and how does she hope to influence the audience?
4. What is the context - what is the situation that prompted the writing of this text, & how do you
know? When was the text created, and what was going on at the time? Can you think of any social,
political, or economic conditions that are particularly important?
5. What “conversation” is the author part of? It’s unlikely the author is the first person to write on
a particular topic. As Graff points out, writers invariably add their voices to a larger conversation.
How does the author respond to other texts? How does she enter the conversation (“Many authors
have argued X, but as Smith shows, this position is flawed, and I will extend Smith’s critique by
presenting data that shows…”) How does the author position herself in relation to other authors?
6. What questions or problems does the text address? What community cares about them?
7. How does the author claim “centrality,” i.e. establish that the question, problem or topic being
discussed matters, and that readers should care?
8. What is the author’s “stance”? What is his attitude toward the subject, and how does this come
across in his language?
9. What research went into writing the text, & what material does the author examine? (project)
ARGUMENT & PERSUASION
1. What is the most important sentence in this text, to you? Why?
2. What is the author’s overall argument, or central claim?
3. What are the most important (sub) claims?
4. How does the author establish her authority/credibility? (ethos)
5. How does the author connect with your emotions? (pathos)
6. What evidence or reasons does the author provide, and do they convince you? (logos)
7. What are you being asked to believe, think, or do? (persuasion)
8. How is the text organized? Why do you think the author organized the text this way? What effect
does it have?
9. What are the main strategies used by the author?
10. Does the author use metadiscourse? Are there moments when the author talks about what he is
doing, or addresses the audience directly? Is this persuasive? How?
11. Does the author respond to other arguments, and if so, are they treated fairly?
12. How do the author’s stylistic choices reinforce or advance the argument? How do word
choice, imagery, metaphor, design, etc. help persuade?
13. How does the author frame the issues? Does the author’s representation of the issue or problem
invite the audience to see things from a particular perspective? How does this help persuade?
14. How does the author define the central terms being discussed? How does this help persuade?
15. What assumptions can you identify? What does the author take for granted, and what does this
tell you about her argument?
16. What implications follow from the author’s argument?
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Identifying Claims
1. Verbs that May Indicate a Claim
Assert, advance, advocate, argue, claim, conclude, contend, establish, maintain, make the case,
propose, reason, support, suggest, take the position…
2. Identifying claims – a good rule of thumb is to look for the following cues:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
question/answer pattern
problem/solution pattern
self-identification (“my point here is that…”)
emphasis and repetition (“it must be stressed that…” “Again…to sum up…”)
approval (“Olson makes some important and long overdue amendments to work on …”)
metalanguage that explicitly uses the language of argument (“My argument consists of
three main claims. First, that…”)
3. Which sentences are claims? (Use “rules of thumb” above to determine)
(Oreskes’ “The Scientific Consensus on Climate Change: How Do We Know We’re Not
Wrong?”)
 “What is the scientific consensus on climate change, and how do we know it exists?” 66
 “This latter point is crucial and merits underscoring…” 74
 “It is important to distinguish among what is happening now…” 77
 “Year after year, the evidence that global warming is real and serious has only
strengthened. Perhaps that is the strongest argument of all. Contrarians have repeatedly
tried to falsify the consensus, and they have repeatedly failed.” (89)
 “This book deals with…this chapter addresses a different question: might the scientific
consensus be wrong?” (66)
 “First, let’s make clear what the scientific consensus is…Second, to say that global
warming is real and happening is no the same as agreeing about what will happen in the
future…” (73)
 “This suggests something discussed elsewhere in this book…” (74)
 “Is there disagreement over the details of climate change? Yes. Does this… 76
“So why does the public have the impression of disagreement among scientists? (76)
Exercise: Group and Create a Hierarchy of Claims
Some Claims & Sub-Claims - How Would You Rank These in Importance? Which belong together?
■ The public falsely believes that there is disagreement due to conceptual “conflations”
made by contrarians (scientific and political uncertainty; mode and tempo; current science
versus predicting future), misleading arguments put forward by interest groups, and the
failure of scientists to communicate with public. (76 - 78)
■ Politically motivated groups have tried to manufacture uncertainty and mislead the
public through a variety of strategies (75, 78)
■ Scientists reason in ways that are comparable to the way lawyers reason – they look for
independent lines of evidence that hold together (90).
■ No scientific conclusion can ever be proven, uncertainty is unavoidable, and new
evidence may lead us to change our views, but GCC is not a mere “belief,” and is instead
our best current understanding, and “best basis for reasoned action.” (79)
■ The common /traditional view of the scientific method is wrong; there is no one single
scientific method that will guarantee validity. Instead, there is a collection of standards
and methods for evaluating scientific reliability, and HIGCC passes all of these.
■ HIGCC stands up to the inductive model – it can be shown to rest on a strong inductive
base. (81)
21
■ HIGCC stands up to the deductive model, supporting predictions and hypotheses that
have been shown to be valid (83-84).
Argument Maps
Can have students create an “argument map” in order to help them get a sense of the overall
structure of the argument. When faced with long, complex texts with many moving parts, students
sometimes struggle to see the big picture, or keep track of how the parts fit together. Building a
map can help with this.
It can also help with evaluation - for example, to help students notice where claims aren’t
supported by evidence, or a claim doesn’t line up with the overall argument.
MAPPING THE ARGUMENT
Project
Argument
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Strategies that
support claim/arg
Strategies that
support claim/arg
Strategies that
support claim/arg
Strategies that
support claim/arg
Strategies that
support claim/arg
22
MAPPING KRISTOF’S ARGUMENT
Project
Kristof’s “War & Wisdom” sets out to intervene in the debate about invading Iraq, and
persuade policymakers and readers of The New York Times that war with Iraq would be a
mistake. He does this by listing the most common arguments for going to war and constructing
rebuttals for them, by documenting the concerns of key political and military authorities, and by
showing that viable alternatives exist.
Argument
We should not go to war as it will cost too many lives and too much money, Hussein is not an
imminent threat, and we have effective alternatives.
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
Key military
authorities do not
believe we need to
invade Iraq
Evidence for
Claim
War will cost too
much in lives and
money, and there
are much better
ways of spending
the money.
Evidence for
Claim
When faced with
similar threats
(Libya in the 80s,
cold war) past
presidents such as
Reagan responded
not by going to
war but by
pursuing a policy
of containment.
We can do more to
bolster security by
spending money
on education and
energy
independence.
Hussein doesn’t
have nukes, and
can’t develop them
in the future as
they are easy to
detect.
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Quotations that
document the
position of
Generals
Schwarzkopf,
Zinni and Clark
Cites estimated
costs + cost per
family.
Cites historical
record of actions
by Libyan regime
and the response of
president Reagan
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Selects key
generals likely to
appeal to a broad
audience
(republican and
democrat) esp. one
famous for
planning the first
Gulf war; a person
who has directed
war against Iraqi
troops, and thus
has much practical
experience.
Pathos appeals
(“kids torn apart
by machine-gun
fire.”)
Appeals to
precedent,
authority, & past
successful policy
(containment)
Selects an analogy
and draws on
authorities likely
to appeal to the
broadest possible
audience –
particularly those
suspicious of antiwar arguments.
Uses analogy to
construct powerful
rebuttal of main
claim for invasion.
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Inspectors can find
nukes, as need vast
electrical hookups
that are easily
identifiable.
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Strategic
concessions –
Bush has shown
Hussein is a liar,
Iraq is hiding
weapons, and we
are thus “justified”
in invading Iraq.
But this would be
very unwise and
too costly.
BLEICH - MAPPING THE ARGUMENT
Project
To sound the alarm and “wake” Californians to the fact that they risk destroying the system
(CSU) that made the California dream possible; to shame citizens, and persuade them they need
to act quickly to save higher education. Bleich draws on his personal experience, his experience
as chairman of the CSU board of trustees, and he researches facts relevant to the issue.
Argument
CA is about to destroy the system that made it great due to a) failure to uphold
promises/investments made by previous generations, b) shortsightedness & selfishness of both
citizens and politicians. We must face up to the challenge and address the problem, or the dream
will die.
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
Claim
CA’s past success
is due in large part
to investment in
education and
unrivaled
commitment to
educational equity
and openness.
Crisis is caused by
failure of political
leadership, esp. a)
pandering ($ on
prisons not
education) b) tax
cuts), c)
gerrymandering, of
districts, d) failure
to make hard
choices
Crisis caused by
failure of public to
uphold bargain,
value education, &
by reactions to
politicians have
only made things
worse (term limits,
ballot initiatives).
Public lacks
willingness to
acknowledge
problems and work
together.
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
- Research &
statistics ($4.41
returned for $1
invested – par. 4)
- Personal
experience (par 16). He could not
afford to go to law
schools in East,
but Berkeley was
affordable. His
success, and his
firm’s success, has
benefitted CA.
Data on prison
spending; example
of poor decisions
made during
energy crisis
Signs of decline:
broken schools,
funding shifts,
stories of students
and faculty, etc. CA
K-12 education 47th
in per-pupil
spending. Stats higher ed funding
plunged from 17%
to 9%
Stats on funding
shifts; examples
of outdated
buildings and
‘painful stories’
of faculty;
furloughs and
student fee
increases.
.
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
Strategies that
support
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CA has
abandoned
‘bargain’ and
risks destroying
dream. This is
unfair and selfdestructive.
Citizens need to
tell everyone they
know about the
problem and try to
persuade others
(“shame” them).
Must wake state up
and “rediscover
greatness.”
Evidence for
Claim
Evidence for
Claim
Charting a Text
Charting1 involves annotating a text in order to show the “work” each paragraph, group of
paragraphs, or section is doing. Charting helps identify what each part of the text is doing
as well as what it is saying—helping us move away from summary to analysis. There are
two strategies for charting that we’ll look at: macro-charting and micro-charting.
MACRO-CHARTING
How do we do macro-charting?
• Break text down into sections--identify “chunks” or parts of the text that
seem to work together to DO something for the overall argument.
• Draw lines between sections and label each one, annotating them with
“doing” verbs: providing context, making a claim, supporting a claim,
rebutting counter argument, illustrating with personal anecdote,
describing the issue, etc.
Why do we do macro-charting?
• Macro-charting helps with understanding structure of argument, as well as
locating claims, supporting evidence, and main argument.
• Macro-charting guides students toward identifying relationships between
ideas.
• Macro-charting brings awareness that behind every sentence there is an
author with intent who makes rhetorical choices to achieve his/her aims.
MICRO-CHARTING
How do we do micro-charting?
• Break down sections of text by paragraph to analyze what each paragraph
is doing for the overall argument.
• Detail the smaller “moves” and strategies made within paragraphs: note
when, where, and how and author makes a claim, cites evidence, and/or
supports his/argument using a rhetorical strategy.
Why do we do micro-charting?
• Micro-charting can serve as a way to thoroughly understand in a detailed
way how a text is put together.
• Micro-charting encourages readers to look more carefully and closely at a
text and helps us to focus our reading on tasks asked for in prompts.
• Micro-charting brings awareness of the specific rhetorical choices made
throughout a text (addressing particular audiences by making deliberate
moves).
1
Adapted from work by Micah Jendian and Katie Hughes
25
Example of Charting
26
MACRO CHARTING OF KRISTOF BY PARAGRAPH
ONE: strategic concession (“Bush and Powell have adroitly shown…”) plus part of
major claim (“haven’t shown the solution is to invade Iraq.”)
TWO: pathos (“kids torn apart”) plus 2 major claims (“containment is a better option
than war,” “key military leaders oppose an invasion of Iraq”)
THREE: Presents evidence (quotes General S)
FOUR: Presents evidence (quotes General Z)
FIVE: Acknowledges key counterarguments/objections (“Hawks often compare
Saddam to Hitler…”) Presents critique and rebuttal (“the analogy is faulty…Hussein
can’t invade neighbors army has degraded even since Iran war…he’ll die soon)
SIX: Rebuttal continued (“A better analogy is Qadafi, who used to be denounced as the
Hitler of the 1980s) plus support/evidence for rebuttal (account of conflict with Libya)
SEVEN: appeal to authority (Reagan contained Libya, didn’t invade) and support for
claim in paragraph 2 (containment = better).
EIGHT: Concession (Bush is right about Hussein playing games) plus rebuttal
(inspectors got job done and decoyed weapons)
NINE and TEN: Rebuttal (even if Hussein manages to hide weapons, can’t refine or
develop nukes, since they are easily detected)
ELEVEN: Claim (war will cost too much) evidence (100-200 billion, $750-1500 per
taxpayer
TWELVE: Claim (spending money on education and energy independence would do
more for national security)
THIRTEEN: concession (Bush eloquently made case justifying invasion) question/claim
(but is this wise, and is this the best way to spend lives and money)
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Templates from They Say/I Say
(From Graff et al., They Say/I Say: The Moves that Matter in Academic Writing.)
HOME GROWN TEMPLATES
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Sample Template Sentences for Strategy Section
Introduction + overview of your project
“A Rhetorical strategy is a particular way in which authors craft language so as to have an effect
on readers. Strategies are means of persuasion, ways of using language to get readers’ attention,
interest, or agreement. It is important to be able to identify these strategies so as to…”
“In my paper I will begin by briefly describing the project and argument made by…”
“I will then identify and examine some of the rhetorical strategies used by…Next, I will present
an explanation of these strategies, explaining how they work and why they are used…Finally, I
will conclude my paper with a discussion of the significance of these authors’ work [or] a
comparison of their use of rhetorical strategies.”
Project and Argument Statements: “In article X, Tannen, professor of linguistics
at…investigates Y… Tannen’s project is A, or as she puts it “B, C and D.” Tannen uses several
primary methods to achieve this, most notably E, F and G…”
“Tannen’s central argument is H, or as she puts it, “Bla bla bla.” Tannen claims X is the
case/advances argument Y/asserts Z.”
Rhetorical Strategies: “Chua uses a number of rhetorical strategies throughout her text.
However, I will focus on J and K, which appear in her discussion of L…”
“A clear example of this strategy occurs on page iv, when Chua states… This strategy works by
doing C…it is effective because it does K…it has the effect of P… Why engage such a strategy?
Chua chooses this strategy in order to…”
“A second example of this rhetorical strategy is…”
Conclusion: “The significance of Chua’s project can be discerned in F…She stresses the
importance of Y, and argues that insufficient attention has been paid to Z…Chua claims
that it is crucial that X… This paper demonstrates the value of H, and how by paying
close attention to the way authors do J we can see T…”
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Sample Outline for Introduction (Assignment 1)
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Rhetorical Précis – description and examples
In order to help us effectively describe and summarize an author’s argument, we will use a
method of description called the rhetorical précis. This highly structured four-sentence
paragraph highlights the essential rhetorical elements in any spoken or written discourse
and can be used to introduce primary and secondary texts in a more comprehensive essay.
The précis includes the name of the speaker/writer(s), and the context or situation in
which the text is delivered, the major assertion, the mode of development for or support of
the main idea, the stated and/or apparent purpose of the text, and the relationship between
the speaker/writer(s) and the audience. The following is a breakdown of the information
you should include in each one of the four sentences.
1. Name of the author, a phrase describing the author, the type and title of the work,
the date (in parenthesis), a rhetorically accurate verb (such as “assert,” “argue,”
“suggest,” “imply,” “claim,” etc.) that describes what the author is doing in the
text, and a THAT clause in which you state the major assertion (argument
statement) of the author’s text.
2. An explanation of how the author develops and/or supports the argument—the
rhetorical structure of the text (for instance, types of evidence, comparing and
contrasting, narrating, illustrating, defining, etc.). Choose this information
carefully to complement the direction of your essay.
3. A statement of the author’s purpose, followed by an IN ORDER TO phrase in
which you explain what the author wants the audience to do or feel as a result of
reading the work.
4. A description of the author’s tone and intended audience.
Example:
1. Jeremy Rifkin, in the LA Times article titled “A Change of Heart About Animals”
(September 1, 2003), argues that new scientific evidence demonstrates that
humans and animals are more alike than previously assumed.
2. Rifkin supports his argument by introducing human attributes assumed lacking in
animals and then providing evidence that show animals share these characteristics.
3. The author’s purpose is to persuade us that animals and humans are similar so that
we will support ethical treatment of animals.
4. The author writes in a respectful tone with informal language to appeal to the
broad audience that reads the LA Times.
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Quick Guide to Quotations (See Graff et al., “The Art of Quoting”)
1. Choose
Carefully
2. Introduce
or “frame”
3. Integrate
4. Explain and
analyze
5. Always Cite
6. Maintain
Your Voice
(handle
attributions)
Choose what you want to use carefully. Make sure you need the quotation to illustrate
your point, and that it connects closely with the point you are making.
You should ‘set up’ or introduce quotations – don’t just insert them into your text
without providing some background. This means they should be introduced with your
own words. You should use introductory phrases that provide context or say what the
author is doing in the section of the text the quotation comes from– for example,
“Author X is concerned about global warming, and describes her alarm in the
following terms. She writes, [insert quotation]…
Make the quoted words fit the language (part of speech and verb tense) of your
writing. You may need to carefully select parts of the quotation to do this.
EXPLAIN the relevance of any direct quote you include to the analysis you’re doing
within that paragraph or section. Never just leave a quote hanging on its own (aka the
“dangling” or “drive-by” quotation, as Graff and Birkenstein put it.)
Always cite the text, author, page number, etc. you are using..
Sometimes when a writer is paraphrasing the ideas of others the viewpoints get mixed
up and the reader finds it difficult to know who is saying what. The writer needs to
provide good "cueing" so that the reader always knows the difference between what
the writer believes and what the source believes.
QUOTATION SANDWICH
Top slice = introduction & framing
(advance your point or interpretation of the
author’s claim, or what the author is doing)
The meat/tofu = the actual quotation
Bottom slice = explain, restate, discuss
significance. Why is it important, and what do
you take it to say?
Quotations & Punctuation
Commas and periods go INSIDE QUOTATIONS unless parenthetical citation follows, in which
case the comma or period goes on the other side of the citation (note that in British English it’s the
opposite – punctuation goes outside the quotation).
"Really, there is no excuse for aggressive behavior," the supervisor said. "It sets a bad
example."
The period goes outside of the quotation mark when using a parenthetical reference.
"Animals have a variety of emotions similar to humans" (Erikson 990).
The colon and semicolon always go outside the closing quotation mark.
He referred to this group of people as his "gang": Heidi, Heather Shelley, and Jessie.
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Example of a Rhetorical Move: Metadiscourse
2
Many forms of academic writing utilize metadiscourse. These are moments in the
text when the author explicitly TELLS you how to interpret her words.



In academic texts, metadiscourse occurs when the author stops arguing,
stands back and tells you how to interpret the argument.
In this moment, the author reflects on what he or she is saying. This may
involve making explicit the strategies (the strategy of explaining a
strategy).
Metadiscourse is similar to the project statement or thesis in your papers.
Practicing writing metadiscourse is useful. It helps you develop your ideas,
generate more text, and get a better sense of both your paper’s structure and how
you might change direction.
In clarifying things for your reader, you also clarify things for yourself. Gerald
Graff describes the way this works in his article, “How to Write an Argument:
What Students and Teachers Really Need to Know,” found in this reader. For
specific examples, see They Say/I Say p. 126-30.
Authors use metadiscourse to:
1. Ward off potential misunderstandings.
2. Anticipate and respond to objections.
3. Orient the reader by providing a “map”– where the argument is going,
where it has gone, etc.
4. Forecast & review structure and purpose
5. Qualify the nature, scope or extent of an argument
6. Alert readers to an elaboration of a previous idea.
7. Move from a general claim to a specific example.
8. Indicate that a claim is especially important
2
From They Say /I Say
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Sample Syllabus
Professor: Snape
Office: AH 3181
Office Hours: Mon 11.00 -1.00
Email: snape@mail.sdsu.edu
Phone: 594 3882
Class Meets: Tue/Thurs 2.00 – 3.15, AH 2134
- “Rhetoric refers to the study and uses of written, spoken and visual language. It investigates how
language is used to organize and maintain social groups, construct meanings and identities, coordinate
behavior, persuade, position, perform, produce change, mediate power, and create knowledge.” (Werry)
- “Argument is the essence of education…[and] central to democratic culture” (Lasch)
- “Universities are houses of argument.” (Norgaard)
- “I can win an argument on any topic, against any opponent. People know this, and steer clear of me at
parties. Often, as a sign of their great respect, they don't even invite me.” Dave Barry
What is the Story of this Course?
You will practice interpreting, analyzing, evaluating and producing written argument, as
argument is central to academic literacy, critical thinking, professional and civic life. You will
learn to write and revise papers in which you address complex arguments effectively, use source
materials responsibly and make sound decisions about audience, context, structure, and
purpose.
TEXTS AND MATERIALS:
1) RWS 100 Course Reader. Listed under “Rhetoric & Writing Studies” or “RWS,” available at
SDSU bookstore.
2) Graff, Gerald and Cathy Birkenstein. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic
Writing (2nd edition) W.W. Norton & Co., 2012.
3) Bullock, Richard, and Francine Weinberg, The Little Seagull Handbook. Norton 2012.
4) Recommended – a double or single-subject, spiral-bound notebook with a 2-pocket
folder to store portfolio work.
REQUIREMENTS
ESSAYS: You will write three formal essays of four to eight pages in length for this course, plus a
final project (to be worked out in discussion with me). Most papers will require at least one
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rough draft, or conferencing (meeting) with me.
PORTFOLIO: You will compose a number of less formal, shorter texts - homework, in-class
writing, reflections, discussion board posts, reading responses, and peer reviews. There will also
be 10 short 1-2 page pieces of writing. Altogether, this is your “portfolio.” Most of this work will
help you draft the 3 major papers. On occasion, students will be asked to turn in this portfolio so
I can review your progress.
The portfolio will be evaluated using “contract grading.” If you complete all portfolio work (10
short pieces of writing, reading responses, reflections, posts, etc.) and it meets the specified
criteria, you will receive an “A” for this component of the class (if you do all the work, but only
80% of it meets the criteria, you’ll receive a “B”.) If you do 80% of portfolio work (8 short pieces
of writing, reading responses, posts, etc.) and it all meets the specified criteria, you will receive a
B. And so it goes. This means that a) you will do a lot of writing in this class, b) you need to make
sure you keep track of your portfolio work, as I’ll ask you to hand it in periodically (I suggest you
use a notebook with a 2-pocket folder for loose material) and c) if you work hard you can receive
a good grade on this portion of the assessment (20% of the course grade.)
QUIZZES: On occasion you’ll do short quizzes to check you’ve read the texts closely and
understand key concepts. The quizzes will be unannounced. If you read the texts closely and pay
attention in class the quizzes will be easy – ‘money for nuthin,’ as Dire Straits put it.
POSTS & PRESENTATIONS: You will occasionally be asked to post to the bulletin board and/or
class wiki. You may also be asked to give a brief presentation in class, either individually or as
part of a group.
CLASS PARTICIPATION: You are expected to participate. Active participators will arrive prepared,
pay attention, and get involved in class activities. We will engage in both small group and large
class discussion activities, as well as peer review, workshops and conferencing. Your participation
in class, peer review & at scheduled conferences is important and 10% of your grade.
IF YOU ARE ABSENT you are still responsible for knowing what was covered in class, what the
homework is, and when it is due. I suggest you exchange phone numbers and/or emails with at
least two of your classmates. In addition, check the course wiki regularly.
ASSIGNMENTS
%
Assignment 1: Constructing an Account of an Argument
Assignment 2: Gathering Information and Managing Sources
Assignment 3: Explaining Rhetorical Strategies
Portfolio/Journal work/homework
Participation
20
25
20
15
20
100%
Total
IMPORTANT DUE DATES
35
Paper #1 Thursday, October 03
Paper #2 Thursday, November 07
Paper #3 Tuesday, December 10
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MAJOR ASSIGNMENTS
1) Describe and analyze an author’s argument, claims, project, support and rhetorical
strategies (Diamond)
2) Construct an account of an author’s project and argument and carry out small, focused
research tasks to find information that helps clarify, illustrate, extend or complicate that
argument; use appropriate reference materials, including a dictionary, in order to clarify
their understanding of an argument (Carey)
3) Construct an account of one or more authors’ projects and arguments and explain
rhetorical strategies that these authors—and by extension other writers—use to engage
readers in thinking about their arguments. (LaPierre/Harris)
POLICIES & PROCEDURES
ATTENDANCE: There is no substitute for attending class. Since this is a discussion-oriented
course, your attendance is crucial, and key to doing the portfolio work. Regular attendance will
greatly elevate your chances of performing well. Simply showing up for class, however, will not
be enough. I expect the class to be the site of lively intellectual activity, discussion, debate and
critical, respectful exchange.
ESSAYS: All essays are due as a hard copy in class on the date specified. All essays must be typed
and adhere to MLA format and must be stapled. Late assignments will not be accepted. For
documented extenuating circumstances, late work may be accepted up to one week following
the printed deadline.
COURSE TUTORING, ESL, & WRITING HELP: RWS tutors are available to help you with your
writing. Tutors are located in Love Library. Contact the department of Rhetoric and Writing
Studies at (619) 594-6515 for more info on drop-in tutoring hours. Some help is available for ESL
writers (if you need significant ESL help, you can transfer to LING 100, which specializes in this).
I’m committed to helping you develop as a writer. If you have questions or would like additional
assistance with class concepts or projects, please drop in at any time during my office hours or
make an appointment to speak with me.
BLACKBOARD & THE COURSE WIKI: I will sometimes ask you to access Blackboard to review or
print out materials to bring to class, or use the discussion board.
ELECTRONICS: Your active participation is required in this course. As such, our classroom will be a
“cell-free zone.” Please turn off your cell phones, iPods, and similar electronic equipment when
you come to class. Because we will be interacting in group discussion often, the use of laptops
will also be distracting. Students who would like to use laptops are encouraged to discuss the
specific need with the instructor in advance. If you are in class listening to music or texting, I will
mark you absent.
PLAGIARISM: All work in this course must be original. Plagiarism will result in serious
consequences ranging from grade reduction to failure in the class to expulsion from the college.
For more information on the university cheating and plagiarism policy, please visit: http://wwwrohan.sdsu.edu/dept/senate/ policy/pfacademics.html. SDSU’s library also has an excellent
tutorial on how to avoid plagiarism.
RESPECT: Since this is a discussion-based class, it is vital that you listen and speak respectfully to
others at all times. I encourage you to express your opinions, of course – they will help inspire
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good discussions.
PROBLEMS: If you run into problems or emergencies, talk to me as soon as possible
HELP/SERVICES
OFFICE HOURS: I encourage all students to attend office hours, especially if you have any
questions or concerns about reading, writing, rhetoric, or the structure or requirements of the
course. Office hours are Tu/Th 1.00 – 3.00, or by appointment.
DISABLED STUDENTS: Every attempt will be made to offer reasonable accommodations for
students with disabilities in this course. Students with disabilities who may need
accommodations in this class are encouraged to notify the instructor privately and to contact
Student Disability Services (SDS) as soon as possible. SDS staff are available in the Capulli Center
in Suite 3101 or by phone at (619) 594-6473 (voice) or (619) 594-2929 (TTD/TTY).
COUNSELING: There are many events and situations that put additional stress on being a
student. SDSU has an excellent center for Counseling & Psychological Services that is open to
students Monday through Friday from 8am-4:30pm. To set up an initial consultation, call (619)
594-5220. For immediate or emergency help, you are welcome to use San Diego’s free 24-hour
counseling access line at (800) 479-3339. C&PS on campus also has a “Center for Well-Being”
with multiple stations for relaxation if you are feeling stressed during the semester. C&PS is
located in the Capulli Center, Room 4401.
STUDENT-ATHLETES: Student-athletes have demanding, dynamic schedules. As an instructor, I
am committed to helping you succeed in the course. To do so, regular and effective
communication is needed. While exceptions will not be made for attendance, assignment
deadlines, or exams, I’m happy to work with all student-athletes in conjunction with StudentAthlete Support Services (SASS) to help you excel in this course. For more information on SASS’
academic advising and tutoring services, please call (619) 594-4743.
COURSE OUTLINE AND READING SCHEDULE
Please note that the following schedule is approximate, as dates and topics may shift as the
semester continues. Please refer to Blackboard for current information regarding your
assignment due dates. With the exception of Food Inc., all readings are expected to be
completed outside of class before the first class discussion date.
Week 1
Syllabus; What is Rhetoric?
Key Terms and Concepts (read pgs. 1-11 in Reader)
Introduction to the first project
Week 2
Apply concepts to short texts.
Introduce PACES and charting
Pre-reading strategies
Week 3
Begin discussion of Diamond
Chart sections, find claims and evidence
Rhetorical précis
Week 4
Draft introduction and body paragraph; quotations
Rough Draft Due; Workshop (bring 3 copies to class)
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Week 5
Conferencing – meet professor outside of class to work on draft
Revise Diamond paper
Week 6
Paper #1 Due
Introduction to the second project
Watch College inc.
Week 7
Chart Carey
Groups of 5 present on major section (evidence, claims, strategies)
Week 8
Template phrases for discussing connections between texts
Present prospectus for assignment 2
Library Orientation to Research Carey
Week 9
Working with multiple sources
Drafting introduction and body paragraphs; template phrases
Week 10
Paper #2 Rough Draft Due; Workshop (bring original plus 3 copies to class)
Revising
Week 11
Paper #2 Due;
Introduction to the third project
LaPierre/Harris and rhetorical strategies
Week 12
LaPierre/Harris
LaPierre/Harris
Week 13
How to identify and analyze strategies
Writing about strategies
Group presentations – claims, evidence and strategies for major sections
Week 14
[OPTIONAL conferencing for 15 minutes with me outside of class regarding your rough draft]
Paper #3 Rough Draft Due
Week 15
Workshop (bring 3 copies to class)
LaPierre/Harris
Week 16
LaPierre/Harris continued
Final paper due
Wrap Up
FINAL CLASS Writing journals and final work due at this time.
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RWS 100 Student Learning Outcomes
General Education Capacities/Goals & RWS Learning Outcomes
Our Learning Outcomes Reflect the Goals and Capacities of the General Education Program. RWS
100 is one of several courses in the area of general education defined as “Communication and
Critical Thinking.” Focusing particularly on argument, this course emphasizes four essential
general education capacities: the ability to 1) construct, analyze and communicate argument, 2)
contextualize phenomena, 3) negotiate differences, and 4) apply theoretical models to the real
world. This course advances general education by helping students understand the general
function of writing, speaking, visual texts, and thinking within the context of the university at
large, rather than within specific disciplines. In addition to featuring the basic rules and
conventions governing composition and presentation, RWS 100 establishes intellectual
frameworks and analytical tools that help students explore, construct, critique, and integrate
sophisticated texts.
Within this framework of four general capacities, the course realizes four closely related
subsidiary goals. These goals focus on helping students
1)
2)
3)
4)
craft well-reasoned arguments for specific audiences;
analyze a variety of texts commonly encountered in the academic setting;
situate discourse within social, generic, cultural, and historic contexts; and
assess the relative strengths of arguments and supporting evidence.
Our student learning outcomes for RWS 100 are closely aligned with these goals and capacities,
and reflect the program’s overall objective of helping students attain “essential skills that
underlie all university education.”
Assignment Types: the following four outcomes describe the four main writing projects or
"assignment types" for the course. Students will be able to:
1. describe and analyze an author’s argument, claims, project, support and rhetorical
strategies.
2. construct an account of an author’s project and argument and carry out small, focused
research tasks to find information that helps clarify, illustrate, extend or complicate that
argument; use appropriate reference materials, including a dictionary, in order to clarify
their understanding of an argument;
3. construct an account of two or more authors’ projects and arguments and explain
rhetorical strategies that these authors—and by extension other writers—use to engage
readers in thinking about their arguments;
4. Construct an account of two authors’ projects and arguments in order to use concepts
from one argument as a framework for understanding and writing about another.
Outcomes across the semester: the following points describe outcomes to work on throughout
the semester, to be attained over the 15 weeks. Students will be able to:
5. describe elements of an argument--claims, methods of development, kinds of evidence,
persuasive appeals; annotate the work that is done by each section of a written
argument;
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6. use all aspects of the writing process--including prewriting, drafting, revising, editing, and
proofreading;
7. choose effective structures for their writing, acknowledging that different purposes,
contexts and audiences call for different structures; understand the relationship between
a text's ideas and its structure;
8. identify devices an author has used to create cohesion or to carry the reader through the
text; use metadiscourse to signal the project of a paper, and guide a reader from one
idea to the next in their writing;
9. effectively select material from written arguments, contextualize it, and comment on it
in their writing;
10. determine when and where a source was published, who wrote it and whether it was
reprinted or edited; understand that texts are written in and respond to particular
contexts, communities or cultures; examine the vocabulary choices a writer makes and
how they are related to context, community or culture, audience or purpose;
11. respond in writing to ideas drawn from various cultures and disciplines, using the activity
of writing to clarify and improve their understanding of an argument;
12. analyze and assess the relative strengths of arguments and supporting evidence
13. analyze and assess arguments made by visual texts; incorporate visual images into their
documents;
14. craft well-reasoned arguments for specific audiences
15. edit their writing for the grammar and usage conventions appropriate to each writing
situation;
16. assign significance to the arguments that they read;
17. reflect on how they wrote their papers, and revise arguments and findings based on
critical reflection.
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Assignments
ASSIGNMENT # 1:
Length 5-6 pages
CONSTRUCTING AN ACCOUNT & ANALYSIS OF AN ARGUMENT
Due: Thursday October 03
Jared Diamond addresses some of the “big” questions of human history, such as why history
unfolded differently on different continents, and the role geographical factors played in the rise
and dominance of particular societies. Diamond’s “Why Did Human History Unfold Differently
On Different Continents For The Last 13,000 Years?” is based on a talk he gave in 1997 to
members of Edge Educational Foundation, an interdisciplinary association of scholars and
technologists. His text summarizes some of the arguments set forth in his book Guns, Germs and
Steel.
Criteria for Evaluation:
1. Describe Diamond’s project and argument, and what you see as his most important or
interesting sub-claims, explaining how these sub-claims relate to the main claim.
2. Describe how Diamond organizes his text and how this influences what he has to say.
3. Analyze the ways in which he supports his claims, and the moves or strategies he employs
to advance these claims.
4. Write the paper as if addressing a reader unfamiliar with Diamond’s text.
5. Comment on how this text is significant—what difference it might make to readers.
6. Use an effective structure that carefully guides the reader from one idea to the next, and be
thoroughly edited so that sentences are readable and appropriate for an academic
audience.
Key learning outcomes: students will be able to describe and analyze an author’s argument,
claims, project, support and rhetorical strategies.
ASSIGNMENT #2: GATHERING INFORMATION AND MANAGING SOURCES
Length 7 – 8 pages Due: Thursday, November 07
In “Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges?” Kevin Carey examines the growth of
for-profit universities. He claims that these institutions need to be reformed, but also have an
important role to play in higher education. For this paper you will select at least two outside texts
that make arguments that connect with Carey’s. You will use these texts to illustrate, clarify,
42
challenge, qualify, extend, or complicate one of the arguments advanced in ““Why Do You Think
They're Called For-Profit Colleges?”
Criteria for Evaluation:
1. accurately describe Carey’s project and argument, and what you see as his most important
or interesting claims, explaining how these claims relate to the argument.
2. signal the topic and give a clear indication of how the paper will proceed
3. locate claims and/or evidence from (at least) 2 outside sources that connect with the
argument
4. analyze these claims/evidence in order to show how they illustrate, challenge, extend, or
complicate arguments found in “The Moral Instinct.”
5. present evidence that explains in detail how these texts illustrate, clarify, extend, or
complicate Carey’s argument
6. use an effective structure that carefully guides the reader from one idea to the next and be
thoroughly edited so that sentences are readable and appropriate for an academic paper
Key learning outcomes: students will be able to construct an account of an author’s project and
argument and carry out small, focused research tasks to find information that helps clarify,
illustrate, extend or complicate that argument; use appropriate reference materials in order to
clarify their understanding of an argument.
ASSIGNMENT 3:
EXPLAINING RHETORICAL STRATEGIES
Length 6 pages
Due: Tuesday, December 10
The tragic shooting at Sandyhook Elementary school in 2012 led to a national discussion about
gun rights and regulations. One of the most prominent speeches was given by Wayne LaPierre,
executive vice president of the National Rifle Association. A number of other authors added their
voices to the debate, including Sam Harris, who wrote “The Riddle of the Gun.”
Criteria for Evaluation
Successful papers will:
1. accurately describe the authors’ project and argument
2. signal the topic and give a clear indication of how the paper will proceed
3. describe the strategy/strategies, provide interpretation and analysis of how the strategy works,
and explain why the authors chose to use this strategy (purpose and audience).
4. explain how the strategy/strategies advances the authors’ arguments.
5. Analyze the effectiveness of the claims and strategies
6. present ample evidence to support the analysis of rhetorical strategies
7. use an effective structure that carefully guides the reader from one idea to the next and be
thoroughly edited so that sentences are readable and appropriate for an academic paper
Key learning outcomes: construct an account of authors’ projects and arguments and explain
rhetorical strategies that these authors—and by extension other writers—use to engage readers
in thinking about their arguments;
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Sample Assignment 1 Prompt
Part 1. Introduction (1-2 paragraphs)
1. Introduce the author and his project. Questions to consider:
a) Who is s/he?
b) What is his project? (What sort of work does he set out to do, how, and why?)
2. Describe the author’s main argument - what is he trying to get us to believe?
3. State the direction of your analysis and the steps you will take to get us there
(“metadiscourse.”) (E.g., “In my analysis of Gladwell’s text I will examine X and
show Y.”)
Part 2. The Body, in which you present your central analysis
In this section, you will analyze 3 or 4 major claims that support the author’s argument.
For each claim, you will:
 Identify the claim in your own words.
 Use quotations to illustrate this claim. Introduce, integrate and explain the
quotations (see Graff et al,. 39 – 49).
 Identify the evidence the author presents to support this claim
 Identify a strategy, appeal, or some aspect of the organization/use of evidence,
and discuss how this supports the claim/argument.
Part 3: Your conclusion, which tells us “So What?” (2-3 paragraphs)
In this section, you will discuss issues of significance or effectiveness. There are several
things you can choose to emphasize in this section.
 What is the significance of the argument – why does it matter (at this moment/to
you/in general)?
 Has the author impacted your thinking/views on this topic? If so, in what way?
Consider the effectiveness of the argument – focus on a key strength or weaknesses
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Sample Detailed Schedule for Unit 1
Week Tuesday
1
 Syllabus
 Deal with crashers
 Introductions/ice breakers
 In class: Writer’s Autobiography
(students write about their
backgrounds as writers and readers)
 Assign email assignment (via BB)
Thursday
 Review email assignment
 Watch subtext (if have Smart
Classroom)
 Discuss writing as a series of “moves”
employed by writers
 Begin discussion on rhetorical
situation/strategies, pass out “Key
Terms and Concepts—PACES”
worksheet
 Chart their email assignment
 Hmwk: Read David Foster Wallace’s
(DFW) commencement speech (or
other short text)
2
 As class, address questions posed in
worksheet “Rhetorical Analysis:
Group Inquiry”
 Introduce critical reading/charting,
perhaps use “Critical Reading”
worksheet on overhead
 In groups, chart text. Each will fills
out an “Articulating the Argument”
worksheet
 Review argument/claims/evidence
as a class
 Hmwk: (to segue into writing with
templates) Read They Say/I Say
(TS/IS) Preface and Introduction
 Review/finish DFW project and
argument
 Review TS/IS
 Begin rhetorical analysis/writing with
“Warm-Up Assignment”
 Students begin to write in class
 Review DFW’s claims that connect to
Gladwell
 Hmwk: Read Gladwell (perhaps divide
the 12 questions on the group inquiry
worksheet and have the assigned
students answer them via BB before
next class), finish Warm-Up
Assignment, print “P1_Prompt”
3
 Collect Precis
 Group work: Divide class into 7-8
groups, each in charge of charting a
section of the text. Groups share their
work on the board and begin to fill out
the “Articulating the Argument”
worksheet as we go (or, have each
group submit its findings via BB and I
can compile/copy a complete version
for whole class).
(Add/drop deadline on 9/14)
 Collect Warm-Up Assignment
 Review P1 Prompt
 Discuss text
 Review rhetorical précis form
 Hmwk: Rhetorical Precis on
Gladwell
4
9/22
 Continue articulating Gladwell’s
45
9/24
 Address student questions as an FAQs
argument
 In class-writing: Introductions with
“Outline for Intro”
 Ask students to anonymously write
any questions they still have about
P1 on a piece of paper and turn it in
at the end of class.
 Hmwk: Begin pre-reading,
questionnaires, “moral puzzles,”
and online questions about moral
reasoning; print “P2 Prompt”
 Review P2 Prompt
 Introduction to Pinker—transition from
Gladwell
 Hmwk: Pinker’s “The Moral Instinct,”
write P1 paper, bring four copies to
class for Peer Review
 First half: Begin discussion on
Pinker’s “The Moral Instinct”
 Second half: Peer Review
 P1 due
 Sign up for conferences (MTW)
 Discuss Pinker’s “The Moral Instinct,”
Hmwk: TBD
5
6
Class canceled for conferences (P1
revisions due next class)
Sample “Short” Schedule Fall 2013
Please note that the following schedule is approximate, as dates and topics may shift as the
semester continues. Please refer to Blackboard for current information regarding your assignment
due dates. With the exception of Food Inc., all readings are expected to be completed outside of
class before the first class discussion date.
Week 1
Syllabus; What is Rhetoric?
Key Terms and Concepts (read pgs. 1-11 in Reader)
Introduction to the first project
Week 2
Apply concepts to short texts.
Introduce PACES and charting
Pre-reading strategies
Week 3
Begin discussion of Chart sections, find claims and evidence
Rhetorical précis
Week 4
Draft introduction and body paragraph; quotations
Rough Draft Due; Workshop (bring 3 copies to class)
Week 5
Conferencing – meet professor outside of class to work on draft
Revise Diamond paper
Week 6
Paper #1 Due
Introduction to the second project
Show College Inc. as preamble to Carey
Discuss Carey
Week 7
Chart Carey
Groups of 5 present on major section (evidence, claims, strategies)
46
Week 8
Template phrases for discussing connections between texts
Present prospectus for assignment 2
Library Orientation to Research Carey
Week 9
Working with multiple sources
Drafting introduction and body paragraphs; template phrases
Week 10
Paper #2 Rough Draft Due; Workshop (bring original plus 3 copies to class)
Revising
Week 11
Paper #2 Due;
Introduction to the third project
Food Inc. and rhetorical strategies
Week 12
LaPierre
LaPierre
Week 13
How to identify and analyze strategies
Writing about strategies
Group presentations – claims, evidence and strategies for major chapters
Week 14
[OPTIONAL conferencing for 15 minutes with me outside of class regarding your rough draft]
Paper #3 Rough Draft Due
Week 15
Workshop (bring 3 copies to class)
LaPierre
Week 16
LaPierre.
Final paper due
Wrap Up
FINAL CLASS Writing journals and final work due at this time.
47
3 MAIN TEXTS
Edge.org
To arrive at the edge of the world's knowledge, seek out the most complex and sophisticated minds, put
them in a room together, and have them ask each other the questions they are asking themselves.
Diamond: “Why Did Human History Unfold Differently On
Different Continents For The Last 13,000 Years?”
A Talk By Jared Diamond.3 [4.22.97]
[1] I've set myself the modest task of trying to explain the broad pattern of human history,
on all the continents, for the last 13,000 years. Why did history take such different
evolutionary courses for peoples of different continents? This problem has fascinated me
for a long time, but it's now ripe for a new synthesis because of recent advances in many
fields seemingly remote from history, including molecular biology, plant and animal
genetics and biogeography, archaeology, and linguistics.
[2] As we all know, Eurasians, especially peoples of Europe and eastern Asia, have spread
around the globe, to dominate the modern world in wealth and power. Other peoples,
including most Africans, survived, and have thrown off European domination but remain
3
http://www.edge.org/conversation/why-did-human-history-unfold-differently-on-different-continents-for-thelast-13000-years. This text summarizes some of the arguments set forth in Diamond’s book Guns,
Germs and Steel. The talk itself was given by Diamond to members of Edge Educational Foundation,
an interdisciplinary association of scholars and technologists. There is a “response” to the talk that
includes comments from scholars at http://www.edge.org/discourse/diamond_evolution.html. The
responses could be used to model the "extend, complicate, etc." moves for unit 2.
48
behind in wealth and power. Still other peoples, including the original inhabitants of
Australia, the Americas, and southern Africa, are no longer even masters of their own
lands but have been decimated, subjugated, or exterminated by European colonialists.
Why did history turn out that way, instead of the opposite way? Why weren't Native
Americans, Africans, and Aboriginal Australians the ones who conquered or exterminated
Europeans and Asians?
[3] This big question can easily be pushed back one step further. By the year A.D. 1500,
the approximate year when Europe's overseas expansion was just beginning, peoples of
the different continents already differed greatly in technology and political organization.
Much of Eurasia and North Africa was occupied then by Iron Age states and empires,
some of them on the verge of industrialization. Two Native American peoples, the Incas
and Aztecs, ruled over empires with stone tools and were just starting to experiment with
bronze. Parts of sub-Saharan Africa were divided among small indigenous Iron Age states
or chiefdoms. But all peoples of Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific islands, and many
peoples of the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa, were still living as farmers or even still
as hunter/ gatherers with stone tools.
[4] Obviously, those differences as of A.D. 1500 were the immediate cause of the modern
world's inequalities. Empires with iron tools conquered or exterminated tribes with stone
tools. But how did the world evolve to be the way that it was in the year A.D. 1500?
[5] This question, too can be easily pushed back a further step, with the help of written
histories and archaeological discoveries. Until the end of the last Ice Age around 11,000
B.C., all humans on all continents were still living as Stone Age hunter/gatherers.
Different rates of development on different continents, from 11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1500,
were what produced the inequalities of A.D. 1500. While Aboriginal Australians and
many Native American peoples remained Stone Age hunter/gatherers, most Eurasian
peoples, and many peoples of the Americas and sub-Saharan Africa, gradually developed
agriculture, herding, metallurgy, and complex political organization. Parts of Eurasia, and
one small area of the Americas, developed indigenous writing as well. But each of these
new developments appeared earlier in Eurasia than elsewhere.
[6] So, we can finally rephrase our question about the evolution of the modern world's
inequalities as follows. Why did human development proceed at such different rates on
different continents for the last 13,000 years? Those differing rates constitute the broadest
pattern of history, the biggest unsolved problem of history, and my subject today.
[7] Historians tend to avoid this subject like the plague, because of its apparently racist
overtones. Many people, or even most people, assume that the answer involves biological
differences in average IQ among the world's populations, despite the fact that there is no
evidence for the existence of such IQ differences. Even to ask the question why different
peoples had different histories strikes some of us as evil, because it appears to be
justifying what happened in history. In fact, we study the injustices of history for the same
reason that we study genocide, and for the same reason that psychologists study the minds
of murderers and rapists: not in order to justify history, genocide, murder, and rape, but
49
instead to understand how those evil things came about, and then to use that understanding
so as to prevent their happening again. In case the stink of racism still makes you feel
uncomfortable about exploring this subject, just reflect on the underlying reason why so
many people accept racist explanations of history's broad pattern: we don't have a
convincing alternative explanation. Until we do, people will continue to gravitate by
default to racist theories. That leaves us with a huge moral gap, which constitutes the
strongest reason for tackling this uncomfortable subject.
Let's proceed continent-by-continent. As our first continental comparison, let's consider
the collision of the Old World and the New World that began with Christopher
Columbus's voyage in A.D. 1492, because the proximate factors involved in that outcome
are well understood. I'll now give you a summary and interpretation of the histories of
North America, South America, Europe, and Asia from my perspective as a biogeographer
and evolutionary biologist - all that in ten minutes; 2 minutes per continent. Here we go:
[8] Most of us are familiar with the stories of how a few hundred Spaniards under Cortes
and Pizarro overthrew the Aztec and Inca Empires. The populations of each of those
empires numbered tens of millions. We're also familiar with the gruesome details of how
other Europeans conquered other parts of the New World. The result is that Europeans
came to settle and dominate most of the New World, while the Native American
population declined drastically from its level as of A.D. 1492. Why did it happen that
way? Why didn't it instead happen that the Emperors Montezuma or Atahualpa led the
Aztecs or Incas to conquer Europe?
[9] The proximate reasons are obvious. Invading Europeans had steel swords, guns, and
horses, while Native Americans had only stone and wooden weapons and no animals that
could be ridden. Those military advantages repeatedly enabled troops of a few dozen
mounted Spaniards to defeat Indian armies numbering in the thousands.
[10] Nevertheless, steel swords, guns, and horses weren't the sole proximate factors
behind the European conquest of the New World. Infectious diseases introduced with
Europeans, like smallpox and measles, spread from one Indian tribe to another, far in
advance of Europeans themselves, and killed an estimated 95% of the New World's Indian
population. Those diseases were endemic in Europe, and Europeans had had time to
develop both genetic and immune resistance to them, but Indians initially had no such
resistance. That role played by infectious diseases in the European conquest of the New
World was duplicated in many other parts of the world, including Aboriginal Australia,
southern Africa, and many Pacific islands.
[11] Finally, there is still another set of proximate factors to consider. How is it that
Pizarro and Cortes reached the New World at all, before Aztec and Inca conquistadors
could reach Europe? That outcome depended partly on technology in the form of
oceangoing ships. Europeans had such ships, while the Aztecs and Incas did not. Also,
those European ships were backed by the centralized political organization that enabled
Spain and other European countries to build and staff the ships. Equally crucial was the
role of European writing in permitting the quick spread of accurate detailed information,
50
including maps, sailing directions, and accounts by earlier explorers, back to Europe, to
motivate later explorers.
[12] So far, we've identified a series of proximate factors behind European colonization of
the New World: namely, ships, political organization, and writing that brought Europeans
to the New World; European germs that killed most Indians before they could reach the
battlefield; and guns, steel swords, and horses that gave Europeans a big advantage on the
battlefield. Now, let's try to push the chain of causation back further. Why did these
proximate advantages go to the Old World rather than to the New World? Theoretically,
Native Americans might have been the ones to develop steel swords and guns first, to
develop oceangoing ships and empires and writing first, to be mounted on domestic
animals more terrifying than horses, and to bear germs worse than smallpox.
[13] The part of that question that's easiest to answer concerns the reasons why Eurasia
evolved the nastiest germs. It's striking that Native Americans evolved no devastating
epidemic diseases to give to Europeans, in return for the many devastating epidemic
diseases that Indians received from the Old World. There are two straightforward reasons
for this gross imbalance. First, most of our familiar epidemic diseases can sustain
themselves only in large dense human populations concentrated into villages and cities,
which arose much earlier in the Old World than in the New World. Second, recent studies
of microbes, by molecular biologists, have shown that most human epidemic diseases
evolved from similar epidemic diseases of the dense populations of Old World domestic
animals with which we came into close contact. For example, measles and TB evolved
from diseases of our cattle, influenza from a disease of pigs, and smallpox possibly from a
disease of camels. The Americas had very few native domesticated animal species from
which humans could acquire such diseases.
[14] Let's now push the chain of reasoning back one step further. Why were there far more
species of domesticated animals in Eurasia than in the Americas? The Americas harbor
over a thousand native wild mammal species, so you might initially suppose that the
Americas offered plenty of starting material for domestication.
[15] In fact, only a tiny fraction of wild mammal species has been successfully
domesticated, because domestication requires that a wild animal fulfill many
prerequisites: the animal has to have a diet that humans can supply; a rapid growth rate; a
willingness to breed in captivity; a tractable disposition; a social structure involving
submissive behavior towards dominant animals and humans; and lack of a tendency to
panic when fenced in. Thousands of years ago, humans domesticated every possible large
wild mammal species fulfilling all those criteria and worth domesticating, with the result
that there have been no valuable additions of domestic animals in recent times, despite the
efforts of modern science.
[16] Eurasia ended up with the most domesticated animal species in part because it's the
world's largest land mass and offered the most wild species to begin with. That preexisting
difference was magnified 13,000 years ago at the end of the last Ice Age, when most of
the large mammal species of North and South America became extinct, perhaps
51
exterminated by the first arriving Indians. As a result, Native Americans inherited far
fewer species of big wild mammals than did Eurasians, leaving them only with the llama
and alpaca as a domesticate. Differences between the Old and New Worlds in
domesticated plants, especially in large-seeded cereals, are qualitatively similar to these
differences in domesticated mammals, though the difference is not so extreme.
[17] Another reason for the higher local diversity of domesticated plants and animals in
Eurasia than in the Americas is that Eurasia's main axis is east/west, whereas the main
axis of the Americas is north/south. Eurasia's east/west axis meant that species
domesticated in one part of Eurasia could easily spread thousands of miles at the same
latitude, encountering the same day-length and climate to which they were already
adapted. As a result, chickens and citrus fruit domesticated in Southeast Asia quickly
spread westward to Europe; horses domesticated in the Ukraine quickly spread eastward
to China; and the sheep, goats, cattle, wheat, and barley of the Fertile Crescent quickly
spread both west and east.
[18 In contrast, the north/south axis of the Americas meant that species domesticated in
one area couldn't spread far without encountering day-lengths and climates to which they
were not adapted. As a result, the turkey never spread from its site of domestication in
Mexico to the Andes; llamas and alpacas never spread from the Andes to Mexico, so that
the Indian civilizations of Central and North America remained entirely without pack
animals; and it took thousands of years for the corn that evolved in Mexico's climate to
become modified into a corn adapted to the short growing season and seasonally changing
day-length of North America.
[19] Eurasia's domesticated plants and animals were important for several other reasons
besides letting Europeans develop nasty germs. Domesticated plants and animals yield far
more calories per acre than do wild habitats, in which most species are inedible to
humans. As a result, population densities of farmers and herders are typically ten to a
hundred times greater than those of hunter/gatherers. That fact alone explains why farmers
and herders everywhere in the world have been able to push hunter/gatherers out of land
suitable for farming and herding. Domestic animals revolutionized land transport. They
also revolutionized agriculture, by letting one farmer plough and manure much more land
than the farmer could till or manure by the farmer's own efforts. Also, hunter/gatherer
societies tend to be egalitarian and to have no political organization beyond the level of
the band or tribe, whereas the food surpluses and storage made possible by agriculture
permitted the development of stratified, politically centralized societies with governing
elites. Those food surpluses also accelerated the development of technology, by
supporting craftspeople who didn't raise their own food and who could instead devote
themselves to developing metallurgy, writing, swords, and guns.
[20] Thus, we began by identifying a series of proximate explanations - guns, germs, and
so on - for the conquest of the Americas by Europeans. Those proximate factors seem to
me ultimately traceable in large part to the Old World's greater number of domesticated
plants, much greater number of domesticated animals, and east/west axis. The chain of
causation is most direct in explaining the Old World's advantages of horses and nasty
52
germs. But domesticated plants and animals also led more indirectly to Eurasia's
advantage in guns, swords, oceangoing ships, political organization, and writing, all of
which were products of the large, dense, sedentary, stratified societies made possible by
agriculture.
[21] Let's next examine whether this scheme, derived from the collision of Europeans with
Native Americans, helps us understand the broadest pattern of African history, which I'll
summarize in five minutes. I'll concentrate on the history of sub-Saharan Africa, because
it was much more isolated from Eurasia by distance and climate than was North Africa,
whose history is closely linked to Eurasia's history. Here we go again:
[22] Just as we asked why Cortes invaded Mexico before Montezuma could invade
Europe, we can similarly ask why Europeans colonized sub-Saharan Africa before subSaharans could colonize Europe. The proximate factors were the same familiar ones of
guns, steel, oceangoing ships, political organization, and writing. But again, we can ask
why guns and ships and so on ended up being developed in Europe rather than in subSaharan Africa. To the student of human evolution, that question is particularly puzzling,
because humans have been evolving for millions of years longer in Africa than in Europe,
and even anatomically modern Homo sapiens may have reached Europe from Africa only
within the last 50,000 years. If time were a critical factor in the development of human
societies, Africa should have enjoyed an enormous head start and advantage over Europe.
[23] Again, that outcome largely reflects biogeographic differences in the availability of
domesticable wild animal and plant species. Taking first domestic animals, it's striking
that the sole animal domesticated within sub-Saharan Africa was [you guess] a bird, the
Guinea fowl. All of Africa's mammalian domesticates - cattle, sheep, goats, horses, even
dogs - entered sub-Saharan Africa from the north, from Eurasia or North Africa. At first
that sounds astonishing, since we now think of Africa as the continent of big wild
mammals. In fact, none of those famous big wild mammal species of Africa proved
domesticable. They were all disqualified by one or another problem such as: unsuitable
social organization; intractable behavior; slow growth rate, and so on. Just think what the
course of world history might have been like if Africa's rhinos and hippos had lent
themselves to domestication! If that had been possible, African cavalry mounted on rhinos
or hippos would have made mincemeat of European cavalry mounted on horses. But it
couldn't happen.
[24] Instead, as I mentioned, the livestock adopted in Africa were Eurasian species that
came in from the north. Africa's long axis, like that of the Americas, is north/south rather
than east/west. Those Eurasian domestic mammals spread southward very slowly in
Africa, because they had to adapt to different climate zones and different animal diseases.
[25] The difficulties posed by a north/south axis to the spread of domesticated species are
even more striking for African crops than they are for livestock. Remember that the food
staples of ancient Egypt were Fertile Crescent and Mediterranean crops like wheat and
barley, which require winter rains and seasonal variation in day length for their
germination. Those crops couldn't spread south in Africa beyond Ethiopia, beyond which
53
the rains come in the summer and there's little or no seasonal variation in day length.
Instead, the development of agriculture in the sub-Sahara had to await the domestication
of native African plant species like sorghum and millet, adapted to Central Africa's
summer rains and relatively constant day length. Ironically, those crops of Central Africa
were for the same reason then unable to spread south to the Mediterranean zone of South
Africa, where once again winter rains and big seasonal variations in day length prevailed.
The southward advance of native African farmers with Central African crops halted in
Natal, beyond which Central African crops couldn't grow - with enormous consequences
for the recent history of South Africa.
[26] In short, a north/south axis, and a paucity of wild plant and animal species suitable
for domestication, were decisive in African history, just as they were in Native American
history. Although native Africans domesticated some plants in the Sahel and in Ethiopia
and in tropical West Africa, they acquired valuable domestic animals only later, from the
north. The resulting advantages of Europeans in guns, ships, political organization, and
writing permitted Europeans to colonize Africa, rather than Africans to colonize Europe.
[27] Let's now conclude our whirlwind tour around the globe by devoting five minutes to
the last continent, Australia. Here we go again, for the last time.
[28] In modern times, Australia was the sole continent still inhabited only by
hunter/gatherers. That makes Australia a critical test of any theory about continental
differences in the evolution of human societies. Native Australia had no farmers or
herders, no writing, no metal tools, and no political organization beyond the level of the
tribe or band. Those, of course, are the reasons why European guns and germs destroyed
Aboriginal Australian society. But why had all Native Australians remained
hunter/gatherers?
[29] There are three obvious reasons. First, even to this day no native Australian animal
species and only one plant species (the macadamia nut) have proved suitable for
domestication. There still are no domestic kangaroos.
[30] Second, Australia is the smallest continent, and most of it can support only small
human populations because of low rainfall and productivity. Hence the total number of
Australian hunter/gatherers was only about 300,000.
[31] Finally, Australia is the most isolated continent. The sole outside contacts of
Aboriginal Australians were tenuous overwater contacts with New Guineans and
Indonesians.
[32] To get an idea of the significance of that small population size and isolation for the
pace of development in Australia, consider the Australian island of Tasmania, which had
the most extraordinary human society in the modern world. Tasmania is just an island of
modest size, but it was the most extreme outpost of the most extreme continent, and it
illuminates a big issue in the evolution of all human societies. Tasmania lies 130 miles
54
southeast of Australia. When it was first visited by Europeans in 1642, Tasmania was
occupied by 4,000 hunter/gatherers related to mainland Australians, but with the simplest
technology of any recent people on Earth. Unlike mainland Aboriginal Australians,
Tasmanians couldn't start a fire; they had no boomerangs, spear throwers, or shields; they
had no bone tools, no specialized stone tools, and no compound tools like an axe head
mounted on a handle; they couldn't cut down a tree or hollow out a canoe; they lacked
sewing to make sewn clothing, despite Tasmania's cold winter climate with snow; and,
incredibly, though they lived mostly on the sea coast, the Tasmanians didn't catch or eat
fish. How did those enormous gaps in Tasmanian material culture arise?
[33] The answer stems from the fact that Tasmania used to be joined to the southern
Australian mainland at Pleistocene times of low sea level, until that land bridge was
severed by rising sea level 10,000 years ago. People walked out to Tasmania tens of
thousands of years ago, when it was still part of Australia. Once that land bridge was
severed, though, there was absolutely no further contact of Tasmanians with mainland
Australians or with any other people on Earth until European arrival in 1642, because both
Tasmanians and mainland Australians lacked watercraft capable of crossing those 130mile straits between Tasmania and Australia. Tasmanian history is thus a study of human
isolation unprecedented except in science fiction - namely, complete isolation from other
humans for 10,000 years. Tasmania had the smallest and most isolated human population
in the world. If population size and isolation have any effect on accumulation of
inventions, we should expect to see that effect in Tasmania.
[34] If all those technologies that I mentioned, absent from Tasmania but present on the
opposite Australian mainland, were invented by Australians within the last 10,000 years,
we can surely conclude at least that Tasmania's tiny population didn't invent them
independently. Astonishingly, the archaeological record demonstrates something further:
Tasmanians actually abandoned some technologies that they brought with them from
Australia and that persisted on the Australian mainland. For example, bone tools and the
practice of fishing were both present in Tasmania at the time that the land bridge was
severed, and both disappeared from Tasmania by around 1500 B.C. That represents the
loss of valuable technologies: fish could have been smoked to provide a winter food
supply, and bone needles could have been used to sew warm clothes.
[35] What sense can we make of these cultural losses?
[36] The only interpretation that makes sense to me goes as follows. First, technology has
to be invented or adopted. Human societies vary in lots of independent factors affecting
their openness to innovation. Hence the higher the human population and the more
societies there are on an island or continent, the greater the chance of any given invention
being conceived and adopted somewhere there.
[37] Second, for all human societies except those of totally-isolated Tasmania, most
technological innovations diffuse in from the outside, instead of being invented locally, so
one expects the evolution of technology to proceed most rapidly in societies most closely
connected with outside societies.
55
[38] Finally, technology not only has to be adopted; it also has to be maintained. All
human societies go through fads in which they temporarily either adopt practices of little
use or else abandon practices of considerable use. Whenever such economically senseless
taboos arise in an area with many competing human societies, only some societies will
adopt the taboo at a given time. Other societies will retain the useful practice, and will
either outcompete the societies that lost it, or else will be there as a model for the societies
with the taboos to repent their error and reacquire the practice. If Tasmanians had
remained in contact with mainland Australians, they could have rediscovered the value
and techniques of fishing and making bone tools that they had lost. But that couldn't
happen in the complete isolation of Tasmania, where cultural losses became irreversible.
[39] In short, the message of the differences between Tasmanian and mainland Australian
societies seems to be the following. All other things being equal, the rate of human
invention is faster, and the rate of cultural loss is slower, i n areas occupied by many
competing societies with many individuals and in contact with societies elsewhere. If this
interpretation is correct, then it's likely to be of much broader significance. It probably
provides part of the explanation why native Australians, on the world's smallest and most
isolated continent, remained Stone Age hunter/ gatherers, while people of other continents
were adopting agriculture and metal. It's also likely to contribute to the differences that I
already discussed between the farmers of sub-Saharan Africa, the farmers of the much
larger Americas, and the farmers of the still larger Eurasia.
[40] Naturally, there are many important factors in world history that I haven't had time to
discuss in 40 minutes, and that I do discuss in my book. For example, I've said little or
nothing about the distribution of domesticable plants (3 chapters); about the precise way
in which complex political institutions and the development of writing and technology and
organized religion depend on agriculture and herding; about the fascinating reasons for the
differences within Eurasia between China, India, the Near East, and Europe; and about the
effects of individuals, and of cultural differences unrelated to the environment, on history.
But it's now time to summarize the overall meaning of this whirlwind tour through human
history, with its unequally distributed guns and germs.
[41] The broadest pattern of history - namely, the differences between human societies on
different continents - seems to me to be attributable to differences among continental
environments, and not to biological differences among peoples themselves. In particular,
the availability of wild plant and animal species suitable for domestication, and the ease
with which those species could spread without encountering unsuitable climates,
contributed decisively to the varying rates of rise of agriculture and herding, which in turn
contributed decisively to the rise of human population numbers, population densities, and
food surpluses, which in turn contributed decisively to the development of epidemic
infectious diseases, writing, technology, and political organization. In addition, the
histories of Tasmania and Australia warn us that the differing areas and isolations of the
continents, by determining the number of competing societies, may have been another
important factor in human development.
56
[42] As a biologist practicing laboratory experimental science, I'm aware that some
scientists may be inclined to dismiss these historical interpretations as unprovable
speculation, because they're not founded on replicated laboratory experiments. The same
objection can be raised against any of the historical sciences, including astronomy,
evolutionary biology, geology, and paleontology. The objection can of course be raised
against the whole field of history, and most of the other social sciences. That's the reason
why we're uncomfortable about considering history as a science. It's classified as a social
science, which is considered not quite scientific.
[43] But remember that the word "science" isn't derived from the Latin word for
"replicated laboratory experiment," but instead from the Latin word "scientia" for
"knowledge." In science, we seek knowledge by whatever methodologies are available
and appropriate. There are many fields that no one hesitates to consider sciences even
though replicated laboratory experiments in those fields would be immoral, illegal, or
impossible. We can't manipulate some stars while maintaining other stars as controls; we
can't start and stop ice ages, and we can't experiment with designing and evolving
dinosaurs. Nevertheless, we can still gain considerable insight into these historical fields
by other means. Then we should surely be able to understand human history, because
introspection and preserved writings give us far more insight into the ways of past humans
than we have into the ways of past dinosaurs. For that reason I'm optimistic that we can
eventually arrive at convincing explanations for these broadest patterns of human
history.
57
Carey: “Why Do You Think They're Called For-Profit Colleges?”
Kevin Carey. The Chronicle of Higher Education, July 25, 2010.
Commentary.4
[1] Michael Clifford believes that education is the only path to world peace. He never
went to college, but sometimes he calls himself "Doctor." Jerry Falwell is one of his
heroes. Clifford has made millions of dollars from government programs but doesn't seem
to see the windfall that way. Improbably, he has come to symbolize the contradictions at
the heart of the growing national debate over for-profit higher education.
[2] Until recently, for-profits were mostly mom-and-pop trade schools. Twenty years ago,
a series of high-profile Congressional hearings, led by Senator Sam Nunn, revealed
widespread fraud in the industry, and the resulting reforms almost wiped the schools out.
But they hung on and returned with a vengeance in the form of publicly traded giants like
the University of Phoenix.
[3] Entrepreneurs like Clifford, meanwhile, have been snapping up dying nonprofit
colleges and quickly turning them into money-making machines.
[4] Most of that money comes from the federal government, in the form of Pell Grants and
subsidized student loans. Phoenix alone is on pace to reap $1-billion from Pell Grants this
year, along with $4-billion from federal loans. A quarter of all federal aid goes to forprofits, while they enroll only 10 percent of students.
[5] Unfortunately, a large and growing number of graduates of for-profit colleges are
having trouble paying those loans back. Horror stories of aggressive recruiters' inducing
students to take out huge loans for nearly worthless degrees are filling the news. The
Obama administration, flush with victory after vanquishing the student-loan industry this
year, has proposed cutting off federal aid to for-profits that saddle students with
unmanageable debt. Congress has rolled out the TV cameras for a new round of hearings
4
See comments that follow article: http://chronicle.com/article/Why-Do-You-Think-Theyre/123660/
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that are putting for-profits on the hot seat. One observer called the event "the Nunn
hearings on steroids."
[6] The new scrutiny of for-profits is welcome. Without oversight, the combination of
government subsidies and financially unsophisticated consumers guarantees outright fraud
or programs that, while technically legitimate, are so substandard that the distinction of
legitimacy has no meaning. For-profit owners and advocates have a hard time admitting
that.
[7] I spoke with Michael Clifford recently as he was driving down the California coast to
meet with a higher-education charity he runs. He's an interesting man—sincere,
optimistic, a true believer in higher education and his role as a force for good. A musician
and born-again Christian, he learned at the knee of the University of Phoenix's founder,
John Sperling. In 2004, Clifford led the sale of a destitute Baptist institution called Grand
Canyon University to investors. Six years later, enrollment has increased substantially,
much of it online. The ownership company started selling shares to the public in 2008 and
is worth nearly $1-billion today, making Clifford a wealthy man. He has since repeated
the formula elsewhere, partnering with notables like General Electric's former chief
executive, Jack Welch. Some of the colleges that Clifford has purchased have given him
honorary degrees (thus "Doctor" Michael Clifford).
[8] Clifford will concede, in the abstract, to abuses in the for-profit industry. But he rejects
the Obama administration's proposal to cut off federal aid to for-profits at which studentdebt payments after graduation exceed a certain percentage of the graduates' income. In
fact, he denies that colleges have any responsibility whatsoever for how much students
borrow and whether they can pay it back. He won't even acknowledge that student
borrowing is related to how much colleges charge.
[9] That refusal is the industry line, and it is crazy nonsense. As a rule, for-profits charge
much more than public colleges and universities. Many of their students come from
moderate- and low-income backgrounds. You don't need a college degree to know that
large debt plus small income equals high risk of default. The for-profit Corinthian
Colleges (as of mid-July, market cap: $923-million) estimated in official documents filed
with the Securities and Exchange Commission that more than half the loans it makes to its
own students will go bad. Corinthian still makes a profit, because it gets most of its money
from loans guaranteed by Uncle Sam.
[10] Other industry officials, like the for-profit lobbyist Harris Miller, would have you
believe that government money that technically passes through the hands of students on its
way from the public treasury to the for-profit bottom line isn't a government subsidy at all.
In that regard, for-profits lately have been trying to rebrand themselves as "market based"
higher education. To understand how wrong this is, look no further than the "90/10 rule,"
a federal rule that bars for-profits from receiving more than 90 percent of their revenue
from federal aid. The fact that the rule exists at all, and that Miller is working to water it
down (it used to be the 85/15 rule), shows that for-profits operate in nothing like a
subsidy-free market.
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[11] The federal government has every right to regulate the billions of taxpayer dollars it
is pouring into the pockets of for-profit shareholders. The sooner abusive colleges are
prevented from loading students with crushing debt in exchange for low-value degrees,
the better.
But that doesn't mean for-profit higher education is inherently bad. The reputable parts of
the industry are at the forefront of much technological and organizational innovation. Forprofits exist in large part to fix educational market failures left by traditional institutions,
and they profit by serving students that public and private nonprofit institutions too often
ignore. While old-line research universities were gilding their walled-off academic citystates, the University of Phoenix was building no-frills campuses near freeway exits so
working students could take classes in the evening. Who was more focused on the public
interest? Some of the colleges Clifford bought have legacies that stretch back decades.
Who else was willing to save them? Not the government, or the church, or the more
fortunate colleges with their wealthy alumni and endowments that reach the sky.
[12] The for-profit Kaplan University recently struck a deal with the California
community-college system to provide courses that the bankrupt public colleges cannot.
The president of the system's faculty senate objected: The deal was not "favorable to
faculty," she said. Whose fault is that? Kaplan, or the feckless voters and incompetent
politicians who have driven California to ruin?
[13] Wal-Mart recently announced a deal with the for-profit American Public University
to teach the giant retailer's employees. What ambitious president or provost is planning to
make her reputation educating $9-an-hour cashiers?
[14] Traditional institutions tend to respond to such ventures by indicting the quality of
for-profit degrees. The trouble is, they have very little evidence beyond the real issue of
default rates to prove it. That's because traditional institutions have long resisted
subjecting themselves to any objective measures of academic quality. They've pointed
instead to regional accreditation, which conveniently allows colleges to decide for
themselves whether they're doing a good job.
[15] But many for-profit institutions have regional accreditation, too. That's what people
like Clifford are buying when they invest in troubled colleges. Accreditation has become
like a taxicab medallion, available for bidding on the open market. As a result, longestablished public and private nonprofit colleges are left with no standards with which to
make the case against their for-profit competitors. At one recent Congressional hearing,
the Senate education committee's chairman, Tom Harkin, said of the for-profits, "We don't
know how many students graduate, how many get jobs, how schools that are not publicly
traded spend their [federal] dollars, and how many for-profit students default over the long
term." All true—and just as true when the words "for profit" are removed. There's no
doubt that the worst for-profits are ruthlessly exploiting the commodified college degree.
But they didn't commodify it in the first place.
[16] For-profits fill a void left by traditional institutions that once believed their world was
constant. Fast-developing methods of teaching students over the Internet have given the
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velocity of change a turbo boost. In such a volatile situation, all kinds of unexpected
people make their way into the picture. And once they get there, they tend to stick around.
Traditional institutions hoping that Congress will rid them of for-profit competition will
very likely be disappointed.
Kevin Carey is policy director of Education Sector, an independent think tank in
Washington.
LaPierre: Transcript of speech on Newtown massacre
12/ 21/2012
NRA Executive Vice President Wayne LaPierre addressed the media following the shooting
rampage at a Connecticut elementary school that left 26 children and staff dead.
[1]"The National Rifle Association's 4 million mothers, fathers, sons and daughters join the
nation in horror, outrage, grief and earnest prayer for the families of Newtown, Connecticut …
who suffered such incomprehensible loss as a result of this unspeakable crime.
[2]Out of respect for those grieving families, and until the facts are known, the NRA has
refrained from comment. While some have tried to exploit tragedy for political gain, we have
remained respectfully silent.
[3]Now, we must speak … for the safety of our nation's children. Because for all the noise and
anger directed at us over the past week, no one — nobody — has addressed the most important,
pressing and immediate question we face: How do we protect our children right now , starting
today, in a way that we know works ?
[4] The only way to answer that question is to face up to the truth .
[5] Politicians pass laws for Gun-Free School Zones. They issue press releases bragging about
them. They post signs advertising them. And in so doing, they tell every insane killer in
America that schools are their safest place to inflict maximum mayhem with minimum risk.
[6] How have our nation's priorities gotten so far out of order? Think about it. We care about
our money, so we protect our banks with armed guards. American airports, office buildings,
power plants, courthouses — even sports stadiums — are all protected by armed security.
[7]We care about the president, so we protect him with armed Secret Service agents. Members
of Congress work in offices surrounded by armed Capitol Police officers.
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[8]Yet when it comes to the most beloved, innocent and vulnerable members of the American
family — our children — we as a society leave them utterly defenseless, and the monsters and
predators of this world know it and exploit it. That must change now.
[9]The truth is that our society is populated by an unknown number of genuine monsters —
people so deranged, so evil, so possessed by voices and driven by demons that no sane person
can possibly evercomprehend them. They walk among us every day. And does anybody really
believe that the next Adam Lanza isn't planning his attack on a school he's already identified at
this very moment?
[10] How many more copycats are waiting in the wings for their moment of fame — from a
national media machine that rewards them with the wall-to-wall attention and sense of identity
that they crave — while provoking others to try to make their mark?
[11] A dozen more killers? A hundred? More? How can we possibly even guess how many,
given our nation's refusal to create an active national database of the mentally ill?
[12] And the fact is, that wouldn't even begin to address the much larger and more lethal
criminal class: Killers, robbers, rapists and drug gang members who have spread like cancer in
every community in this country. Meanwhile, federal gun prosecutions have decreased by 40%
— to the lowest levels in a decade.
So now, due to a declining willingness to prosecute dangerous criminals, violent crime
is increasing again for the first time in 19 years! Add another hurricane, terrorist attack or some
other natural or man-made disaster, and you've got a recipe for a national nightmareof violence
and victimization.
[13]And here's another dirty little truth that the media try their best to conceal: There exists in
this country a callous, corrupt and corrupting shadow industry that sells, and sows, violence
against its own people.
[14] Through vicious, violent video games with names like Bulletstorm, Grand Theft Auto,
Mortal Kombat and Splatterhouse. And here's one: it's called Kindergarten Killers. It's been
online for 10 years. How come my research department could find it and all of yours either
couldn't or didn't want anyone to know you had found it?
[15] Then there's the blood-soaked slasher films like "American Psycho" and "Natural Born
Killers" that are aired like propaganda loops on "Splatterdays" and every day, and a thousand
music videos that portray life as a joke and murder as a way of life. And then they have the
nerve to call it "entertainment."
[16]But is that what it really is? Isn't fantasizing about killing people as a way to get your kicks
really the filthiest form of pornography? In a race to the bottom, media
conglomerates compete with one another to shock, violate and offend every standard of
civilized society by bringing an ever-more-toxic mix of reckless behavior and criminal cruelty
into our homes — every minute of every day of every month of every year.
[17] A child growing up in America witnesses 16,000 murders and 200,000 acts of violence by
the time he or she reaches the ripe old age of 18.
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[18] And throughout it all, too many in our national media … their corporate owners … and
their stockholders … act as silent enablers, if not complicit co-conspirators. Rather than face
their own moral failings, the media demonize lawful gun owners, amplify their cries for more
laws and fill the national debate with misinformation and dishonest thinking that only delay
meaningful action and all but guarantee that the next atrocity is only a news cycle away.
[19] The media call semi-automatic firearms "machine guns" — they claim these civilian semiautomatic firearms are used by the military, and they tell us that the .223 round is one of the
most powerful rifle calibers ... when all of these claims are factually untrue . They don't know
what they're talking about.
[20] Worse, they perpetuate the dangerous notion that one more gun ban — or one more law
imposed on peaceful, lawful people — will protect us where 20,000 others have failed.
[21] As brave, heroic and self-sacrificing as those teachers were in those classrooms, and as
prompt, professional and well-trained as those police were when they responded, they were
unable — through no fault of their own — to stop it.
[22] As parents, we do everything we can to keep our children safe. It is now time for us to
assume responsibility for their safety at school. The only way to stop a monster from killing our
kids is to be personally involved and invested in a plan of absolute protection. The only thing
that stops a bad guy with a gun is a good guy with a gun. Would you rather have your 911 call
bring a good guy with a gun from a mile away ... or a minute away?
[23] Now, I can imagine the shocking headlines you'll print tomorrow morning: "More
guns," you'll claim, "are the NRA's answer to everything!" Your implication will be that guns
are evil and have no place in society, much less in our schools. But since when did the word
"gun" automatically become a bad word?
A gun in the hands of a Secret Service agent protecting the president isn't a bad word. A gun in
the hands of a soldier protecting the United States isn't a bad word. And when you hear the
glass breaking in your living room at 3 a.m. and call 911, you won't be able to pray hard enough
for a gun in the hands of a good guy to get there fast enough to protect you.
[24] So why is the idea of a gun good when it's used to protect our president or our country or
our police, but bad when it's used to protect our children in their schools? They're our kids.
They're our responsibility. And it's not just our duty to protect them — it's our right to protect
them.
[25] You know, five years ago, after the Virginia Tech tragedy, when I said we should put
armed security in every school, the media called me crazy. But what if, when Adam Lanza
started shooting his way into Sandy Hook Elementary School last Friday, he had been
confronted by qualified, armed security?
[26] Will you at least admit it's possible that 26 innocent lives might have been spared? Is that
so abhorrent to you that you would rather continue to risk the alternative?
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[27] Is the press and political class here in Washington so consumed by fear and hatred of the
NRA and America's gun owners that you're willing to accept a world where real resistance to
evil monsters is a lone, unarmed school principal left to surrender her life to shield the children
in her care? No one — regardless of personal political prejudice — has the right to impose that
sacrifice.
[28] Ladies and gentlemen, there is no national, one-size-fits-all solution to protecting our
children. But do know this President zeroed out school emergency planning grants in last
year's budget, and scrapped "Secure Our Schools" policing grants in next year's budget.
[29] With all the foreign aid, with all the money in the federal budget, we can't afford to put a
police officer in every school? Even if they did that, politicians have no business — and no
authority — denying us the right, the ability, or the moral imperative to protect ourselves and
our loved ones from harm.
[30] Now, the National Rifle Association knows that there are millions of qualified active and
retired police; active, reserve and retired military; security professionals; certified firefighters
and rescue personnel; and an extraordinary corps of patriotic, trained qualified citizens to join
with local school officials and police in devising a protection plan for every school. We can
deploy them to protect our kids now . We can immediately make America's schools safer —
relying on the brave men and women of America's police force.
The budget of our local police departments are strained and resources are limited, but their
dedication and courage are second to none and they can be deployed right now.
[31] I call on Congress today to act immediately, to appropriate whatever is necessary to put
armed police officers in every school — and to do it now, to make sure that blanket of safety is
in place when our children return to school in January. Before Congress reconvenes, before we
engage in any lengthy debate over legislation, regulation or anything else, as soon as our kids
return to school after the holiday break, we need to have every single school in
America immediately deploy a protection program proven to work — and by that I mean armed
security .
[32] Right now, today, every school in the United States should plan meetings with parents,
school administrators, teachers and local authorities — and draw upon every resource available
— to erect a cordon of protection around our kids right now. Every school will have a different
solution based on its own unique situation. Every school in America needs to
immediately identify , dedicate and deploy the resources necessary to put these security forces
in place right now. And the National Rifle Association, as America's preeminent trainer of law
enforcement and security personnel for the past 50 years, is ready, willing and uniquely
qualified to help.
[33] Our training programs are the most advanced in the world. That expertise must be brought
to bear to protect our schools and our children now. We did it for the nation's defense industries
and military installations during World War II, and we'll do it for our schools today.
[33] The NRA is going to bring all of its knowledge, dedication and resources to develop a
model National School Shield Emergency Response Program for every school that wants it.
From armed security to building design and access control to information technology to student
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and teacher training, this multi-faceted program will be developed by the very best experts in
their fields.
[34] Former Congressman Asa Hutchinson will lead this effort as National Director of the
National School Shield Program, with a budget provided by the NRA of whatever scope the
task requires. His experience as a U.S. Attorney, Director of the Drug Enforcement Agency and
Undersecretary of the Department of Homeland Security will give him the knowledge and
expertise to hire the most knowledgeable and credentialed experts available anywhere, to get
this program up and running from the first day forward.
[35] If we truly cherish our kids more than our money or our celebrities, we must give them the
greatest level of protection possible and the security that is only available with a properly
trained — armed — good guy.
Under Asa's leadership, our team of security experts will make this the best program in the
world for protecting our children at school, and we will make that program available to every
school in America free of charge .
That's a plan of action that can , and will , make a real, positive and indisputable difference in
the safety of our children — starting right now.
[36] There'll be time for talk and debate later . This is the time, this is the day for
decisive action.
[37] We can't wait for the next unspeakable crime to happen before we act. We can't lose
precious time debating legislation that won't work. We mustn't allow politics or personal
prejudice to divide us.
[38] We must act now.
[39] For the sake of the safety of every child in America, I call on every parent, every teacher,
every school administrator and every law enforcement officer in this country to join us in the
National School Shield Program and protect our children with the only line of positive defense
that's tested and proven to work.
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