Moral Philosophy in Classical China
Doing an introduction to Chinese history civilization and culture is something vast that is beyond the
scope of this course. We will look at one important aspect of classical Chinese philosophy, which on its
own is extremely complex and laden with controversy. The word ‘classical’ itself can be misleading when
applied to China. The development of Classical thought in the West roughly coincides with the ‘Golden
Age’ of Greece: Pericles, Socrates, Plato, and Alexander etc. However Classical Chinese philosophy had
its origins during a period of political strife and turmoil. The Chinese ‘Golden Age’ is usually associated
with a later period: the Han Dynasty (202 B.C. – 222 A.D.).
At this point we have been introduced to the ‘Western’ classical model, and so we should start by
highlighting similarities and differences. One of the major similarities is with the idea of virtue. Both
classical Western and Chinese moral thought focus on what we can call virtue or moral excellence.
However the two cultures emphasize different starting and ending points for achieving virtue. In the
Western model excellence in the individual is a focus, while in China it is the excellence of the whole
that is the primary concern. Both models could be seen as complementary.
If we look primarily at central China at the same period in history and roughly at the same stage of
cultural development as Classical Greece we wind up in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty during the so-called
Spring and Autumn period roughly around 771 B. C. It is at this stage that we have the origins of the
‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ including the great classical schools with the most longevity such as
Confucianism and Taoism. It was this period that saw the political turmoil of the Warring States Period
that was probably the prime mover for much of Chinese classical political and moral philosophy. From
Neolithic (Longshan Period beginning ca. 3000 BC) times archaeologists and anthropologists tell us that
in Chinese culture there was a predictable emphasis on structured society founded on class and
hierarchy probably maintained for the usual reasons: the division of labor meant success, particularly in
an agrarian society. Certainly the intricate mechanics of rice production required a stable, organized,
and efficient society. As we might expect the more successful members of the society became the ruling
elite and chiefly saw to the organization of society to benefit the ruling elite – also not surprising. Class
could be divided along clan, racial, or other lines. A noticeable difference between the Chinese and
Western early culture, for our purposes, is the approach to mythology. In China there were many
different approaches to myth and many myths that are similar to Western myths – mostly focused on
how spirits, gods and so forth can be can be invoked then motivated to provide good fortune. However
a structure or hierarchy to the deities that was prominent in Egypt, Greece, or Rome is lacking. There is a
focus in Chinese mythology on concerns relating to government, ethics, and social organization, with
ancestor worship being important. Thus many Chinese myths focus on legendary (as with all legends
these may have some basis in fact) emperors and law-givers, such as the so called Yellow Emperor, that
brought government and social organizations to humanity.
A speculation: Chinese philosophy is different from the Western/Greek model in that Chinese
Philosophy focuses more on practicalities such as politics, government and ethics, and seems to neglect
or downplay metaphysical or epistemological problems. The Greek model demonstrates interest in both
politics and metaphysics, but as we could note from studying Plato, metaphysics and epistemology play
a central role especially in the study of politics and ethics. There is in Western thought often a symbiotic
relationship between metaphysical conclusions and moral principles. For many, philosophy in the West
has primarily meant metaphysics, epistemology, and even theology, with politics as an afterthought. In
addition to other considerations this difference in philosophical development may be linguistic in origin.
The logical nature of the Chinese language may preclude the generation of the same concerns and
problems found in Greek and Romance languages – at least to the same degree. For example in English
we would have to say ‘I have two books’ when we are talking about more than one. If we think about it
(as philosophers have since the time of Plato), this construction begs a question: what is the relationship
between the individual book and the class book. Unfortunately the class of all books is not a book. But if
it is not part of the book we see, then how do we come by our knowledge of what now looks to be a
very peculiar thing – the class? We never experience the class by itself so where do we even get the idea
of class in the first place. Further the class is a real thing but a little reflection shows that the class is not
like a material thing because every material thing is a singular. Even if we did somehow collect all the
books that are, were, or will be, we would still not have anything like the class of all books because a
collection is not the same thing as a class. We need the rules that embody the class to distinguish which
objects belong in the collection. We certainly seem to have a spooky entity, and we still have not
touched the question of how the individual gets to be part of the group – what definitely distinguishes
between a book and e.g. a long letter. We must save this discussion for a later date, but for right now
we should notice that these problems don’t automatically occur in the Chinese language, which
sidesteps the whole issue by saying simply “I have two book.” Once you have said the word ‘two’ you
are already in the plural and nothing further need be added. Although you could go looking for it, the
‘philosophical confusion’ about the nature of classes need never arise.
Beginning in the Zhou Dynasty there are certain ideas that make their presence felt and become a
permanent part of the philosophies with the most longevity. These ideas are: correlative thinking, the
permanence of change (the unity of opposites), and the Mandate of Heaven, none of which, as ideas,
are complete strangers to Western thought. Correlative or metaphorical thinking relies primarily on
nature imagery to convey an idea. While nature imagery is not a stranger to the West (e.g. ‘My love is
like a red, red, rose’ – Robert Burns), this type of thinking permeates Chinese language and culture.
Whereas many letters in western alphabets developed from pictograms, the alphabets became
phonetic. The Chinese never developed a phonetic alphabet and a few Chinese characters still retain
something of a relationship to the natural objects they represent. Most characters are connected by
semantics exhibiting a grammatical or logical relationship like math or musical notation (e.g. tree plus
several = machine). Chinese culture has maintained its agrarian roots and exhibited an interest in the
harmony of nature throughout the classical period. In contrast Western thought is dominated by the
questions of physics and technology from an early phase. But in China this type of correlative thinking
extends well beyond pleasant metaphors, and indicates an essential harmony between ourselves and
natural world to which we belong. The attitude embodies more than an appreciation of nature. What
we have here is seeing the human person and the human community as completely natural objects – as
essentially part of the natural landscape and integrated with nature.
Another idea is the constancy of change (the only thing permanent is change): again this idea is familiar
in the West. The Greek philosopher Heraclitus (fl. 500 BC) opined that you can’t step in the same river
twice. He thought this characteristic was part of the elemental nature of the universe on the level of
physics – fire rather than water or air was the ultimate element. Chinese thinkers of this period also
considered change to be an elemental part of nature, but they did not develop a scientific
understanding in this regard, focusing instead on ethics and politics. The opposites are seen to be a
symbiotic and integral part of the whole like male and female. Western thinkers typically want to
overcome contradiction or sidestep and discard contradiction. In Chinese thought the idea is prevalent
that opposites complement one another and are a necessary part of a larger whole.
The Mandate of Heaven also permeates Chinese thinking. This idea is similar to the Egyptian Ma’at or
the Greek Logos – an overriding logic, wisdom, or law to the universe. This idea could refer to the
actions or desires of the gods or spirits but it may refer to the overall law-like regularity of the universe
at large – what you see when you look up at the night sky or the order that is perceived in natural events
(summer follows spring, and so on). An important idea is that the mandate’s manifestation in human
affairs could change depending on the actions of the people involved. For example the rule of a
particular emperor could be seen as in accord with the mandate of heaven. However if the emperor
becomes corrupt his mandate to rule ceases. Likely this action should not be seen as the caprice or
judgement of a deity, but rather as a failure on the part of the emperor to maintain the original
harmony. By becoming corrupt the emperor has stepped outside the natural harmony.
Taoism
The principle text of Taoism is TAO TE CHING (trans: The Way and Its Virtue – The Way and its Power),
and it is reputed to be the work of the Chinese sage Lao Tzu. Lao Tzu (trans: Old Man – Wise Man) is
probably a title of respect and the actual identity of the author is a matter of debate and conjecture.
Some scholars argue that he never existed and that the book is a compilation of the writings of multiple
authors. However, it seems that Lao Tzu’s existence and authorship of the book was never doubted in
antiquity. Tradition states that Lao Tzu was an older contemporary of Confucius (551-479), placing him
in the sometime in the 6th century B. C. According to legend he was a keeper of records at the court, and
because he was fed up with the political chaos of the time, he decided to head for western China,
possibly Tibet. On his way out of town a gatekeeper noted his reputation for wisdom and asked him for
a book explaining his philosophy. TAO TE CHING was the result. Many legends have been associated with
Lao Tzu: he was already 62 years old when he was born, he taught the Buddha, he was the Buddha, he is
immortal and so on. Though it is difficult for us in the 21st century to give credence to these legends, we
should note that they clearly indicate that the author of TAO TE CHING has been uniquely venerated as a
wise man over the centuries.
The major problem in understanding the book is understanding what is meant by the Tao. The difficulty
is compounded because Lao Tzu clearly indicates that the Tao defies our efforts to define or limit it. The
Tao is described as eternal, infinite, inexhaustible, ever changing, ever present, unnamable, and so on.
This situation has generated a number of interpretations of what the word “Tao” means. On the
mystical side there are those that see the Tao as some sort of universal force or spiritual energy ( think
the Force in Star Wars) that is available to us and that we can tap for all sorts of positive benefits –
generally making what you do turn out well. Against this view are the many verses that warn us that
force of any kind is contrary to the Tao. The person that understands the Tao does not push, force,
dominate or try to control anyone or anything. Lao Tzu advocates “wu wei” which might be translated as
effortless action – action without forcing (think of the action of the Colorado River carving out the Grand
Canyon simply by doing what comes naturally – not even trying, or the power of the sun providing light
and energy). Hence I think that associating the Tao with a mystical power of some kind is not quite
correct. Some associate the Tao with God, but if you are thinking of a benevolent, providential, creator
God who is active in history and our personal lives then I would say that this is also not quite correct.
The Tao is not portrayed a personal, intelligent, moral deity, nor as a creator. There are no judgments of
any kind associated with the Tao. It is available to everyone – good and bad alike. However if you
interpret God in Neo-platonic or Aristotelian terms then there may be some similarities. For Aristotle,
since God was perfect, He did the most perfect thing: which was to contemplate the most perfect thingHimself. Thus God took no active role in history or in our everyday lives. Since the universe was eternal
God was not the creator, rather more like the eternal battery (prime mover) that kept the universe in
motion. Neoplatonism, beginning in the second century A.D., echoed these sentiments. There may also
be some similarities to Parmenides’ treatment of being in that for Parmenides being is common to
everything, and since it is one, eternal, unchanging, it defies description and understanding because
thought and language requires multiplicity. There may also be some similarities to the Greek concept of
the Logos – a wisdom that pervades the universe The Egyptian concept Ma’at is similar. In this regard
the overall meaning of the Tao may be connected to the idea of the Mandate of Heaven.
The explanation I have read that I think is most consistent with the text states the Tao is the way of the
virtuoso. When a person has mastered something whether it is an intellectual discipline, a sport or a
musical instrument – they make it look easy and effortless. Once a great musician has mastered an
instrument they make playing look as natural as breathing or talking. The struggle to attain mastery is
often monumental. But once achieved all the diverse elements have clicked into place and a harmony
that was actually there all along has manifested itself. All the essential elements for great music were
already in place. I think Lao Tzu’s point is that the harmony was already there – you did not invent it but
you can find your place in it. You found out how to be a part of all the elements in their proper order.
Just as the conductor understands a piece of music and how an orchestra works and how to get the best
out of the musicians – this is how the politicians or moralists should lead. The answer is already there –
you have to understand how the mechanism works. Ultimately if you are trying to force something or a
group of people into place it means that you don’t understand the right way.
Confucianism
It is worthwhile noting that during The Song Dynasty (960-1279) Chinese culture was markedly more
advanced than Europe in the same time period. Hydraulics, gunpowder, navigation, clocks, movable
type and paper money are among the many advancements in China during this period, while
technologically Europe lagged far behind. A possible contributing factor to this high level of
development is the lack of a cultural collapse or a Dark Age such as Europe experienced after the Fall of
Rome. It is a further possibility that adherence to moral ideas, particularly those of Confucius, greatly
contributed to political stability in China. Although it must be said that by this period the great schools
of thought – particularly Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism - tended to converge in the popular mind.
Confucianism has a long and complex history, beginning with Confucius (Latinized form of Kongzi Fu Tzu)
who flourished in the 6th century B.C. during the Warring States period and the flowering of the
Hundred Schools of thought. Confucius himself wrote nothing so we must rely on the writings of
students and disciples to gain an understanding of Confucian ideas.
Confucian thought focus on a virtue ethics that is often compared to Socratic ideas. However the
Socratic ideal of virtue developed from a long tradition stretching back to Homer. A constant in the
Greek version of virtue ethics is that individual excellence requires freedom and self-determination.
After an infusion of Judeo-Christian Salvation History and Natural Law this version of virtue also included
the idea of inalienable rights. Human beings were uniquely created by a provident God who gave them
the skills of intellect and will that enabled them to fulfill their individual responsibility and destiny of
salvation. Thus in the Greek version of Virtue Ethics people are responsible for the ultimate condition of
their lives and the initial focus is individual eudemonia or well-being. The success of society ‘bubbles up’
from the successful individuals. Modern Social Contract democracy is a natural outgrowth of this kind of
virtue ethics. For example in Locke’s version of the social contract your right of self-preservation is given
to you by God, and the right to turn natural resources into your property and determine the disposition
of your property follows from your right to self-preservation. Ultimately the duties of government
(legislation and reparation) are established to protect these individual rights. However classical Chinese
political philosophy places more emphasis on the good of the community and less on individual selfdetermination. Good means the good of the group: family, community, and nation. The good of the
individual ‘trickles down’ from the good of the group. It is possible that these ideas – East and West - can
be seen as complementary.
The Confucian version of the above holds that the position of leadership should be reserved for the
person of moral excellence, and the failure of government is usually the result of corruption – the
leaders fail to practice virtue. Confucian ideas are complex and debated by scholars, but some key points
are:
The so-called “Silver Rule” – essentially the same thing as the “Golden Rule” but usually expressed using
a negative formula: Don’t do anything to someone else that you would not want done to yourself.
The idea of Ren. We might translate Ren as virtuousness, righteousness, or good character which would
include benevolence and compassion for others. Ren is achieved through practice and begins at home
with what we might describe as filial piety. You are charitable and good first to your family and then
gradually through practice one extends this virtue to the society at large. This attitude is sometimes
described as ancestor worship but that may be a misunderstanding, and a more correct understanding
might be great respect and devotion to family or sometimes called ‘filial piety’. Apparently Confucians
would agree that the family is the basic social unit and that a good society is the result of a good family
structure which is then extended to the society at large.
The idea of LI. Li might be translated as ritual. Confucians place an emphasis on public formality and
strict adherence to ritual, for which they are often criticized. Some schools of thought argue that
Confucians insist on an empty formalism that lacks content (style without substance). However
Confucians would argue that it is the public practice of ritual that is responsible for extending our virtues
to the whole community. While it is true we can get caught up in the display of a ritual – the beauty of
the ceremonial dress for example – or we can simply go through the motions and forget about the
meaning, when properly done a ritual can make us better people. For example a couple may think their
life together is nobody else’s business. But unless they plan to live alone on a deserted island they have
to interact with society and vice versa. The beginning of the couples’ interaction with society is
accomplished through a public ritual. They declare a status that everyone else joins them in recognizing.
Also when you make your intentions public and ask the public to recognize your intentions, this
strengthens your commitment – you are enlisting the support of the community. You are also asking
that the community respect your intentions and the sanctity of your commitment. The same can be said
for other rituals such as funerals, baptisms, and graduations. All of these public actions serve to
strengthen our resolve and clarify our intentions.
Yi might be translated as etiquette. This idea includes much more then, for example, knowing which fork
to use at a formal dinner. It means interacting with each other in a polite way by observing certain social
norms and graces, thus publically extending your practice of virtue. This can be something as simple as
saying please and thank you or holding a door for someone to knowing how to participate in a State
Dinner. Again even simple marks of respect show others that they are important and they matter.
Etiquette is a public version of kindness and compassion. We all want to be treated with respect so
extend that same respect to others (the Silver Rule).
Buddhism
The Buddha (Enlightened One) also lived during the 6th Century B.C., and like Confucius he wrote
nothing. Again to understand the main ideas of Buddhism we have to rely on an oral tradition handed
down by disciples that was written down later. Buddhism itself migrated to China from India sometime
during the Han Dynasty (202 B.C. – 220 A.D.). The Chinese version of Buddhism apparently underwent
some modifications – such as the addition of filial piety, but in general was seen as complementary in
nature to the already established Confucian and Taoist schools.
According to the reports Buddha began life as a Prince shielded from the outside world. Encountering
poverty one day he renounced his privileged life, eventually opting instead for a religious asceticism.
However this course of action did not produce the insight he was seeking: the causes of suffering and
the means to end it. He abandoned asceticism and after a period of intense meditation became
enlightened and found what he was seeking: how to end suffering. The key to suffering and its cessation
can be found in the 4 Noble Truths, The Eightfold Path and The Middle Way. These principle should be
thought of as distinct not separate.
The Four Noble Truths are basically:
Suffering is a part of life
Suffering is the result of craving
Ending craving will eliminate suffering
The Eightfold Path and the Middle Way are the keys to ending craving. One should neither be overly
ascetic or overly indulgent but practice moderation and a moral life.
The Eightfold Path has a variety of interpretations but basically the person should strive to:
Avoid saying evil about someone else
Clear your mind of evil thoughts
Practice meditation
Practice a moral occupation
Aspirations and intentions should be moral
Actions should be moral
Always aim at improvement
Again, Buddhism has become complex and somewhat factional – so the above summary is subject to a
variety of interpretations. However it is easy to see why the above ideas with their emphasis on leading
a life of virtue would find support among Taoists and Confucians in China. Ultimately these ideas would
generally converge into a generally unified classical viewpoint among the general public.
After a protracted struggle the Song Dynasty gave way to the Yuan Dynasty under the leadership of the
Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan in 1271. The Yuan Dynasty fell in 1368 and the Chinese Ming Dynasty was
established in 1368 and lasted until 1644. The Ch’ing dynasty lasted from 1644-1912.