Master Vocabulary List

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BIOLOGY CHAPTER 1 VOCABULARY

Scientific Theories have a lot of data to support them from different branches but are not definitive, or often can never be definitive, they are in essence hypotheses with lots of supportive evidence

Scientific Laws have no evidence that disputes or calls into question their validity or predictive accurac

The Steps of the Scientific Method

Observe a phenomenon and pose a question.“What is the relationship between X and Y”?

Formulate a Hypothesis (an answer your question)-“I think that the relation ship between X & Y (direct/indirect relationship)”

Test Hypothesis -Most often we survey existent data (do research) but we can also…

Experiment -A Good Experimental design isolates variables using strictly defined parameters

The

The

Controlled or Dependent Variable-is the thing you change

Uncontrolled or Independent Variable- is the thing that changes in response

Control Setup = Experimental Setup – Controlled Variable

Data Collection and Analysis -

We collect and display datea using Tables & Graphs,

We analyze data using Statistical instruments like mean median, mode

Conclusion -

A conclusion is a concise explanation as to whether your data supports or does not support your hypothesis

Share your work- Scientists publish results and make sure they are replicable

The Metric System- is based on root 10 or decimal system

Important Suffixes to know

Kilo (k) = 1000

Deci (d ) = 1/10

Centi (c) = 1/100

Milli (m)= 1/1000

Nano (n) = 1/1000000000

BiologyIS the study of life

We measure the following quantities

Mass = grams g

Length = meter m

Temperature = o Celsius or Centigrade o C

Volume solid = meter 3 Volume liquid = liter l

Other Branches of Biology include...(this is a short, very incomplete list)

Biochemistry - macromolecules like proteins, lipid, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

Cytology - the study of cells, cell types , their structures and metabolism

Genetics - the study of inherited traits

Microbiology

– the study of unicellular organism, archaebacteria eubacteria, protists and fungi

Evolution - the study of the change in species over time

Botany - plants

Zoology

– animals

Ecology

– the relationship between living and nonliving

The Characteristics of Living things (According to this book) CHHRRGM (CHARGEM!!!)

Homeostasis - the maintenance of a stable inte4rnal environment

Metabolism - the cycling of matter and energy Reproduction - asexual v. sexual

Cells - uni v. multi, and prokaryotic v. eukaryotic

Heredity

– pass traits form parent to offspring via DNA

Response - homeostasis, irritability, evolution

Growth and Development- cell division and cell differentiation

CHAPTER 18 TAXONOMY VOCABULARY

CARROLL LINNAEUS –the father of taxonomy

THE 3 DOMAINS –

ARCHAE- CHEMOSYNTHETIC ANCIENT BACTERIA -PROKARYOTE

BACTERIA – MODERN BACTERIA - PROKARYOTE

EUKARYA – EUKARYOTES INCLUDING THE 4 KINGDOMS= PROTISTA-FUNGI-PLANTAE –ANIMALIA

PROTISTA- UNICELL-AUTO AND HETEROTROPHS

FUNGI- MULTI AND U NICELL- HETEROTROPHS

PLANTAE- MULTICELL AUTOTROPHS

ANIMALIA- MULTICELL HETEROTROPHS

THE ORDER OF THE TAXONOMIC CLASSES –KINGDOM- PHYLUM-CLASS-ORDER –FAMILY- GENUS- SPECIES

SCIENTIFIC NAME Genus species Homo sapiens

CHAPTER 3 THE CHEMISTRY OF LIFE VOCABULARY

ATOMS

What makes up matter?


ATOM - matter is made up of atoms. An atom has a positively charged core surrounded by a negatively charged region.

NUCLEUS of an atom is made up of positively charged protons and uncharged neutrons.

ELECTRONS- Negatively charged electrons have little mass and move around the nucleus in a large region called the electron cloud.

Every living and nonliving thing is made of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that cannot be broken down by chemical means.

ELEMENT is a substance made up of atoms that have the same number of protons.

PROTON

For example, each atom of the element carbon has six protons.

ISOTOPES

Atoms of an element may have different numbers of neutrons. These atoms are called isotopes of elements.

IONS – charged atoms that have lost or gained electrons


CHEMICAL BONDS

OCTET RULE

Chemical bonds form because most atoms become stable when 
they have eight electrons in the valence shell. 


VALENCE ELECTRONS Electrons in the outermost level, or shell. 
Atoms tend to BOND so that eight electrons will be in the valence shell.

CHEMICAL BONDS -When atoms combine, a force called a chemical bond holds them together. 


COMPOUND - When atoms of different elements combine, a compound forms. A compound is a made of the bonded atoms of two or more elements.

COVALENT BOND -One way that atoms bond is by sharing valence electrons to form a covalent bond.

MOLECULE

– a group of atoms held together by covalent bonds.

– A water molecule, H2O, oxygen atom covalent bonds with two hydrogen atoms.

IONIC BONDS - Atoms can achieve a stable valence level by losing or gaining electrons , resulting in a positive or negative charge.

ION an atom that has an electric charge because it has gained or lost electrons.

The attractive force between oppositely charged ions is an ionic bond.

POLARITY - Molecules with partial charges on opposite ends are said to be polar.

WATER IS POLARThe partially charged ends of polar molecules attract opposite charges. Because of this behavior, polar molecules can dissolve other polar molecules and ionic compounds, Water can dissolve sugar and salt.
Nonpolar substances, such as oil, grease, and wax, do not dissolve well

PROPERTIES OF WATER Most of the unique properties of water result because water molecules form hydrogen bonds with each other.

ICE IS LESS DENSE = FLOATS - the crystal structure formed due to hydrogen bonding makes ice less dense than liquid water.

LATENT HEAT - Water can absorb a large amount of heat without changing temperature. -helps organisms maintain a constant internal temperature.

COHESION- The attraction of particles of water . Cohesion keeps water from evaporating easily- water is a liquid at ordinary temperatures.

ADHESION- Water molecules also stick to other polar molecules.

SOLUTIONS- A solution is a mixture in which ions or molecules of one or more substances are evenly distributed in another substance.

DISSOCIATION OF WATER water molecules break apart to form H+ and hydroxide ions in equal numbers.= pH 7

Acids are compounds that form extra H+ ions when dissolved in water.

Bases are compounds that form extra OH- ions when dissolved in water. pH is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is.

Each one-point increase in pH represents a 10-fold decrease in hydronium ion concentration.

Pure water has a pH of 7. Acidic solutions have a pH below 7, and basic solutions have a pH above 7.

The pH of solutions in living things must be stable. For a stable pH the solutions in living things contain buffers.

A BUFFER is a substance that reacts to prevent pH changes in a solution.

CARBON Compounds BUILDING BLOCKS OF CELLS

POLYMERS Large, complex biomolecules are built from a few smaller, simpler, repeating units arranged in an precise way.

BIOMOLECULES The parts of a cell are made up of large, complex molecules,

CARBON COMPOUNDS = ORGANIC COMPOUNDS- biomolecules contain carbon. Carbon atoms form covalent bonds with as many as four atoms.

CARBOHYDRATES Cells use carbohydrates for sources of energy , structural materials, and cellular identification.

Carbohydrates are molecules made of sugars. A sugar contains carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a ratio of 1:2:1.

Carbohydrates are a major source of energy for many organisms, including humans. Chitin is found in the shells of insects

and the cell walls of mushrooms.

– Cellulose is found in the cell walls of plants. 


LIPIDS –POLYMERS OF FATTY ACIDS The main functions of lipids include storing energy and controlling water movement.

Lipids includes fats, phospholipids, steroids, and waxes. consist of chains of FATTY ACIDS

ENERGY STORAGE- The main purpose of fats is to store energy. Fats can store energy even more efficiently than carbohydrates.

PHOSPHOLIPIDS - CELL MEMBRANE is made of phospholipids. The structure of membranes depends on how this molecule interacts with water.

Waxes, found on the surfaces of plants and aquatic bird feathers, help prevent evaporation of water from the cells of the organism.

PROTEINS- POLYMERS OF AMINO ACIDS Proteins are chains of amino acids that twist and fold into certain shapes that determine FUNCTION

Proteins are involved in structure, support, movement, communication, transportation, and carrying out chemical reactions.

A protein is a molecule made up of amino acids, building blocks that link to form proteins.

Every amino acid has an amino group and a carboxyl group. Units of amino acids can form links called PEPTIDE

BONDS

For each type of protein, amino acids are arranged in a specific order, the protein’s primary structure.

– The interactions of the various side groups may form coils and folds, the protein’s secondary structure.

– The overall shape of a single chain of amino acids is the protein’s tertiary structure.

The quaternary structure is the overall shape that results from combining the chains to form proteins.

NUCLEIC ACIDS – DNA & RNA ARE POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES ATP IS A NUCLEOTIDE TOO!!

Nucleic acids store and transmit hereditary information.A nucleic acid is a long chain of nucleotide units.

A nucleotide is a molecule made up of three parts: a sugar, a base, and a phosphate group.

Nucleotides of deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, contain the sugar deoxyribose.

– Nucleotides of ribonucleic acid, or RNA, contain the sugar ribose.
DNA molecules CARRY GENES act as “CODES FOR PROTEIN

– DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides that spiral around each other. – RNA also interacts with

DNA to help decode the information.

ATP – Energy is released in the reaction that breaks off the third phosphate group.

Other single nucleotides transfer electrons or hydrogen atoms for other life processes.

Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, is a nucleotide that has three phosphate groups and supplies energy to cells.

Section 4: Energy and Metabolism CHANGING MATTER

Matter is neither created nor destroyed in any change. This observation is called the 
 law of conservation of mass.

Energy may change from one form to another, but the total amount of energy does not 
change. This is called the law of

conservation of energy.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS


Chemical reactions can only occur when the activation energy is available and the correct


atoms are aligned. 


During this process, bonds between atoms are broken, and new ones are formed. 


REACTANT is a substance that is changed in a chemical reaction. 


PRODUCT is a new substance that is formed. 


CHEMICAL REACTION can only occur under the right conditions. To form new bonds, the particles must collide fast enough to overcome the repulsion between their negatively charged electron clouds.

ACTIVATION ENERGYof a reaction is the minimum kinetic energy required to start a chemical reaction. When the reactant particles collide, the correct atoms must be brought close 
together in the proper orientation. 


BIOLOGICAL REACTIONS

ENZYMES -By assisting in necessary biochemical reactions, enzymes help organisms maintain homeostasis.

In living things, chemical reactions occur between large, complex biomolecules. Many of these reactions require large activation energies.

An enzyme is a molecule that increases the speed of biochemical reactions.

Enzymes hold molecules close together and in the correct orientation.

- An enzyme lowers the activation energy of a reaction.

Each enzyme has an active site, the region where the reaction takes place.

The shape of the active site determines which reactants, or substrates, will bind to it. Each different enzyme acts only on specific substrates.

Binding of the substrates causes the enzyme’s shape to change. This change causes bonds in the substrates to break and new bonds to form.

– Most enzymes need a certain range of temperatures and pH.


Cells get most of the energy needed for metabolism by breaking down food 
molecules. 


The release of energy from food molecules occurs in a series of reactions using many enzymes to capture energy in the form of ATP molecules. 


The enzymes reduce the activation energy so much that only a little energy is needed to start the reactions. In this process, very little energy is lost as heat.

CHAPTERS 4-5-6 ECOLOGY VOCABULARY

ECOLOGY Living things do not live in vacuums, their daily lives are based on interactions with both living BIOTIC and nonliving ABIOTIC components.

BIOSPHERE- all the areas of the earth occupied by organisms

BIOME- a specific area of the biosphere identified by climate elevation soil type and precipitation

ECOSYSTEM- Groups of populations and their physical environment

POPULATION – a group of organisms of the same species in an identifiable region that interbreed

SPECIES- organisms that can interbreed to produce viable offspring

AUTOTROPHS are producers that produce food through PHOTSYNTHESIS or CHEMOSYNHTESIS

HETEROTROPH are consumers that take in premade food.

Herbivores – animals that eat plants

Carnivores – animals that eat other animals

Omnivores – animals that eat plants and animals

Decomposers - bacteria and fungi, that break down dead organic waste.

Detritus - partially decomposed organic matter in the soil and water; beetles, earthworms, and termites are detritus feeders.

Consumers

Consumer Levels

Primary consumer – an organism that gets its energy from plants (producers)

Secondary consumer – an organism that gets its energy from primary consumers

Tertiary_ consumer – carnivores that eat other carnivores; a top-level consumer, usually the top predator in the food chain

ENERGY FLOW- The movement of energy through the organisms in ecosystem- Sun  Producers  consumers

As energy flows from autotrophs to heterotrophs MOST is lost as HEAT before the consumer can use it.

FOOD CHAIN - diagram that links organisms together by who eats whom

Starts with _plant life_ and ends with an animal_.Most food chains have no more than _4 or 5_ links

Arrows show the direction energy is flowing_EXAMPLE: grass

zebra

lion

FOOD WEB- Most consumers feed on and are eaten by more than one other organsim

A combination of several food chains showing all of the possible energy pathways

TROPHIC LEVEL All of the organisms that feed at a particular link of the food chain/web

Grazing food web – The upper portion of a food web based on a living plant as the FOUNDATION

Detrital food web –The lower portion of a food web based on detritus

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS- Only about 10% of energy is useable from one trophic level to the next

NUMBERS- The number organisms drastically DECREASE as you go up in level of a food chain

A series of blocks representing the biomass of particular organisms on a particular trophic level

BIOMASS -The amount of living material in the population of an organism

Biochemical cycles- The path by which important nutrients/molecules travel through an ecosystem.

3 Important Cycles: Water Cycle, Carbon Cycle, Nitrogen Cycle

The Water Cycle

Water movement:

Land

Atmosphere:Liquid

Gas

EVAPORATION from rivers, lakes and oceans

TRANSPIRATION from plant

Atmosphere

Land:Gas

Liquid

PRECIPITATION over land and bodies of water

RUNOFF forms bodies of water (lakes, rivers, oceans)

Ground water

SEEPAGE/INFILTRATION/PERCOLATION into aquifer

The Carbon Cycle CARBON MOVEMENT

Land/Water

Atmosphere

RESPIRATION

COMBUSTION

Atmosphere

Land/Water

PHOTSYNTHESIS

Dissolved CO

2

** Carbon is stored as fossil fuels from decaying organisms.

The Nitrogen CycleNitrogen Movement:

Nitrogen Fixation

BACTERIA found in legume roots converts N

2

gas into _Ammonia (NH

4

)_

Decomposers_ break down waste and organic remains into _Ammonia (NH

4

)_

Nitrification

bacteria convert ammonia into _Nitrite (NO

2

) and _Nitrate (NO

3

)_ to be used by plants

Denitrification  Bacteria converts _ammonia_ back into Nitrogen gas (N

2

)

CHAPTER 7 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION VOCABULARY

The Cell Theory

Robert Hooke Observed cork (called them cells)

The Cell Theory

1 All organisms composed of one or more cells

Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek

Matthias Schleiden All plants MADE of separate cells

Limitations to Cell Size single-celled organisms "animalcules" 2. Cell is smallest living organizational unit

3. Cells arise only from division of other cells

Faster passage through small cells

More efficient communication

Increase size, greater increase in volume -surface area

Interaction with outside occurs only at surface

THE STRUCTURE OF EUKARYOTIC CELLS: AN OVERVIEW OF CELL STRUCTURE

The Plasma Membrane Surrounds the Cell- Phospholipid bilayer contains embedded protein

The Central Portion of the Cell Contains the Genetic Material

Genetic material in prokaryotes-Single, circular molecule of DNA

Genetic material in eukaryotes- Contained within the nucleus- Surrounded by two membranes

The Cytoplasm Comprises the Rest of the Cell's Interior- Cytoplasm is a semifluid matrix

Eukaryotes Are More Complex Than Prokaryotes

Key to organization is compartmentalization- Possess internal membrane-bound organelles

Mitochondria and chloroplasts associated with cellular energy

Central vacuole in plants stores protein and wastes

Vesicles in animals store and transport many materials

Cytoskeleton is an internal scaffold of proteins

Cell walls: cellulose/chitin fibers embedded in polysaccharides, proteins

THE ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM : COMPARTMENTALIZATION OF THE CELL

General Characteristics- Thin membranes not visible in light microscope

Divide interior into compartments

Translate RNA copies of genes into proteins

Exported proteins contain signal sequences

Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins

Rough ER: Manufacturer of Proteins for Export

Ribosomes assist manufacture of proteins

Aggregates of protein and RNA

THE NUCLEUS : INFORMATION CENTER FOR THE CELL

Smooth ER: Organizer of Internal Activities

Lack ribosomes

Contain embedded enzymes

Detoxification, carbohydrate and lipid synthesis

The Nuclear Envelope- Double layer of membranes, outer continuous with ER

The Chromosomes of Eukaryotes Are Complex Proteins Are Synthesized on the Ribosomes

Contain hereditary information

Divided into chromosomes associated with histone protein

Read mRNA to direct synthesis of protein

The Nucleolus - Location of ribosome synthesis

Dark-staining region visible in protein producing cells

THE GOLGI APPARATUS : THE DELIVERY SYSTEM OF THE CELL Function in Molecule Collection, Packaging, Distribution

Golgi Bodies- flattened stacks of membranes-Abundant in glandular secretory cells- called the Golgi complex or apparatus

LYSOSOMES : PRODUCERS OF DIGESTIVE ENZYMES FOR THE CELL- Membrane-Bound Organelles Containing Hydrolytic Enzymes

Enzymes catalyze breakdown of macromolecules within cell Eliminate Other Substances Including Whole Cells

Digest worn-out cell components Digest pathogens engulfed by white blood cells

Mitochondria : The Cell's Chemical Furnaces- Possesses own genome

Occur in all organisms

Bounded by double membrane

Chloroplasts : Where Photosynthesis Takes Place

Occur in photosynthetic organisms, plants and algae

Inner membrane is folded into layers called cristae

Divides into inner matrix and outer compartment

Centrioles : Microtubular Assembly Plants

Internal membranes form disk-shaped thylakoids

Photosynthetic pigments on thylakoid surface

Stack of thylakoids called granum

Possess own genome

Present in animal cells, NOT plant cells

Occur in pairs near nuclear envelope, forms the centrosome

Associated with assembly and organization of microtubules

Form basal bodies that anchor flagella and cilia

THE CYTOSKELETON : INTERIOR FRAMEWORK OF THE CELL

Network of Protein Fibers

Provide Mechanical Support for Cell

Actin fibers determine cell shape

Rapid changes in filament length changes cell shape quickly

FLAGELLA AND CILIA : MOTILITY FOR THE CELL

Eukaryotic Flagella9+2 structure of microtubules

Cilia and Centrioles Also Show 9+2 Arrangement

SYMBIOSIS AND THE ORIGIN OF EUKARYOTES

Eukaryotes Have Radically Different Cell Structure

Possess organelles that resemble bacteria, endosymbiont theory

Symbionts Provided Metabolic Advantage to Host

Mitochondria are energy factories

Chloroplasts photosynthesize

Evidence Supporting Theory

Numerous, short projections called cilia

Have functions other than locomotion

Mitochondria and chloroplasts surrounded by double membrane

Mitochondria and bacteria have similar size

Mitochondrial ribosomes resemble bacterial ribosomes

Mitochondria and chloroplast DNA circular like bacteria

Mitochondria divide by simple fission

CHAPTER 8 CELL TRANSPORT

HOMEOSTASIS -Homeostasis is the maintenance of stable internal conditions in a changing environment.

LIPID BILAYER -The phospholipids form a barrier through which only small, nonpolar substances can pass.

The cell membrane is made of phospholipids made of a phosphate “head” and two fatty acid “tails.” head is polar and is attracted to water, fatty acid tails are nonpolar and are repelled by water. the phospholipids form a double layer called the lipid bilayer.

Only certain substances can pass through the lipid bilayer.

Ions and most polar molecules are repelled by the nonpolar interior of the lipid bilayer.

MEMBRANE PROTEINS include cell-surface markers, receptor proteins, enzymes, and transport proteins.

Cell-surface markers act like a name tag, carbohydrates attached to the surface by proteins called glycoproteins.

Receptor proteins enable a cell to sense its surroundings by binding to certain substances outside the cell.

Enzymes in the cell membrane help SPEED biochemical reactions inside the cell by lowering activation energy

Cell Transport
- 2 TYPES PASSIVE OR ACTIVE

EQUILIBRIUM In solution, randomly moving molecules fill up a space, as the space is filled evenly equilibrium is reached.

CONCENTRATION The amount of a particular substance in a given volume

CONCENTRATION GRADIENT When one area has a higher concentration than another area does

DIFFUSION The movement of substances down a concentration gradient is called diffusion.

OSMOSIS- the diffusion of water across a membrane

CELL MEMBRANE separates the cytoplasm from the fluid outside the cell made of phospholipids

PASSIVE TRANSPORT - substances cross the cell membrane down their concentration gradient. NO ATP used

The direction of movement depends on the concentration gradient and does not require energy.

– Some substances diffuse through the lipid bilayer. Other substances diffuse through transport proteins.

1.SIMPLE DIFFUSION

Small, nonpolar molecules can pass directly through the lipid bilayer. Like O2 or CO2

Oxygen moves down its concentration gradient into the cell. Carbon dioxide 
diffuses out of the cell.

2. CARRIER FACILITATED DIFFUSION - proteins help substances diffuse through the cell membrane.

Two types of transport proteins are channel proteins and carrier proteins. 


CHANNEL PROTEINS ions and polar molecules important for cell function diffuse through channel proteins.

TRANSPORT PROTEINS sometimes called pores, serve as tunnels through the lipid bilayer.

3.OSMOSIS

Water can diffuse across a selectively permeable membrane in a process called OSMOSIS.

Osmosis in cells is a form of facilitated diffusion. The direction of water movement depends on the concentration of the environment.

HYPERTONIC SOLUTION has a higher solute concentration than the cytoplasm does, water moves out of the cel

ISOTONIC SOLUTION or has the same solute concentration that the cytoplasm does, water diffuses into and out of the cell at

HYPOTONIC SOLUTION or has a lower solute concentration than the cytoplasm does, water moves into the cell.

The cell gains water and expands in size. If left unchecked, the swelling caused by a hypotonic solution could cause a cell to burst.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT Active transport requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradients.

In order to move substances against their concentration gradients, cells must use energy.ATP.

1. PUMPS -In active transport, the carrier proteins do require energy to “pump” substances against their concentration gradient.

The sodium-potassium pump is a carrier protein that actively transports three sodium ions out of the cell and two potassium ions into the cell.

2.ENDO/EXOCYTOSIS- some materials cross the cell membrane in vesicles, which are membrane-bound sacs.

The movement of a large substance into a cell by means of a vesicle is called endocytosis.

The movement of material out of a cell by means of a vesicle is called exocytosis.

Section 3: Cell Communication

How do cells use signal molecules?


RESPONDING TO SIGNALS - cell may respond to signal by changing membrane permeability, activating enzymes, or by forming a second messenger.

PERMEABILITY CHANGE- Transport proteins may open or close in response to a signal.

ENZYME ACTIVATION- Some receptor proteins are enzymes or they activate enzymes in the cell membrane.

SECOND MESSENGER Binding of a signal molecule outside the cell may cause a second messenger to form. The second messenger acts as a signal molecule within the cell and causes changes in the cytoplasm and nucleus.

CHAPTER 9 CELL RESPIRATION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS VOCABULARY

LEVEL 1 YOU MUST KNOW THIS !!!

Solar energy in

CO

2

+ H

2

O -------------------- > C

6

H

12

O

6

+ O

2

PHOTOSYNTHESIS - OCCURS IN CHLOROPLAST

C

6

H

12

O

6

+ O

2

-------------------- > CO

2

+ H

2

O CELL RESPIRATION – OCCURS IN MITOCHONDRIA

ATP out

LEVEL 2 YOU SHOULD KNOW THIS TOO!!!!

PHOTOSYNTHESIS 2 REAXNS

Solar energy in

CO

2

+ H

2

O --------------------> C

6

H

12

O

6

+ O

2

LIGHT REACTIONS H

2

O ----> O

2

HAPPENS IN THE THYLAKOID OF THE CHLOROPLAST!!

DARK/CALVIN CO

2

----> C

6

H

12

O

6

C

6

H

12

O

6

IS STORED SOLAR ENERGY!!!

CELL RESPIRATION 5??REAXNS

C

6

H

12

O

6

+ O

2

-------------------- > CO

2

+ H

2

O

ATP out

1. GLYCOLYSIS

2. KREBS TCA CYCLE

C

6

H

12

O

6

----> PYRUVATE ANAEROBIC + 2 ATP

PYRUVATE+ O

2

----> CO

2

+ H

2

O AEROBIC (+ O

2

) + 2 ATP

3. ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

DON’T WORRY BOUT IT AEROBIC (+ O

2

) + 32-34 ATP TOTAL 36-38??

OR IF NO O

2

IS PRESENT PYRUVATE -----

FERMENTATION 4. LACTIC ACID AND/OR 5. ALCOHOL

ELECTRON TRANSPORT MOLECULES INCLUDE NADH, NADPH, FADH2, ATP

TOGETHER PHOTSYNTHESIS AND CELL RESP MAKE UP THE CARBON CYCLE!

ENZYMES –PROTEINS THAT SPEED CHEMICAL REACTIONS BY LOWERING ACTIVATION ENERGY

THEY CAN BE AFFECTED BY HEAT pH or changes in enzyme or substrate concentration

ACTIVE SITE- SPECIAL REGION OF ENZYME THAT BINDS SUBSTRATE

SUBSTRATE- REACTANT THATIS ACTED UPON

ENZYMES ARE NOT AFFECTED- THEY KEEP BEING REUSED OVER AND OVER AGAIN

CHAPTER 10 -11 MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS VOCABULARY

MITOSIS- CELL DIVISION- for growth, to repair injuries and replace worn out cells

SURFACE AREA/VOLUME ratio- cells undergo mitosis to maintain an ideal ration

CELL CYCLE- G1, S, G2, M, C

G1- GAP1-normal cell growth

S- Synthesis DNA is REPLICATED

G2- GAP2 – celluar organelles are replicated as the cell prepares to divide

INTERPHASE- INCLUDES G1, S, AND G2

MITOSIS- aka NUCLEAR DIVISION includes prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase

PROPHASE –nucleus dissolves , chromosomes appear

METAPHASE- mitotic spindle forms, chromosomes align at equatorial plane of cell

ANAPHASE- centrosome pull fibres which cause chromosomes to separate and move towards cell poles

TELOPHASE- nuclear envelope reappears, chromosomes unwind, cell enters cytokinesis

CYTOKINESIS- CELL DIVISION cells separate completely

CHROMOSOME- condensed DNA and histones (proteins) aka CHROMATIN

CENTROMERE –joins sister chromatids

SISTER CHROMATID –homologous chromosomes joined by centromere

CHROMATIN – histones and DNA

HISTONE – a protein DNA coils around to condense

DNA –genetic Nucleic Acid with approximately 23,000 genes

HOMOLOGOUS –the same

AUTOSOMES- chromosomes that do not code for gender, 22 pairs

SEX CHROMOSOMES- chromosomes that determine gender XX female XY male, 1pair

SPINDLE FIBER- composed of cytoskeletal elements like microtubules and filaments- pulls chromosomes apart

CENTROSOME – site of mitotic spindle formation, anchors normally found near nucleus

GENDER- sex male or female

DIPLOID - having 2 copies of each chromosome in humans all somatic cells are diploid with 46 chromosomes

HAPLOID – havnig 1 copy of each chromosome, gametes sperm eggs are Haploid

SPERM - male gamete or germ cell

EGG/OVUM- female gamete or germ cell

PROKARYOTE – single celled anucleate bacterium

BINARY FISSION – the primary method fro prokaryotic cell division, and reproduction-

UNICELLULAR- single celled

SPINDLE(MITOTIC) fibre formation seen in metaphase that aligns chromosomes along equator of cell and pulls chromosomes apart

NUCLEUS- control cent of cell

DAUGHTER CELLS- the product of mitosis

CLEAVAGE FURROW- the barrier that occurs between animal cells undergoing telophase and cytokinesis

CELL PLATE- the barrier that occurs between plant cells undergoing telophase and cytokinesis

ZYGOTE- a fertilized egg

GAMETE- sperm or egg

FERTILIZATION- the joining of sperm and egg

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION –the joining of gametes to produce a genetically unique individual

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – the reproduction of organisms to produce offspring with identical genetics

MEIOSIS –gamete formation includes Meiosis I and Meiosis II

TETRAD – the joining of 2 pairs (4 ) homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis

SYNAPSIS – the alignment of homologues during tetrad formation allowing the exchange of chromosome parts

CROSSING OVER- the exchange of chromosome sections between homologous chromosomes during tetrad formation

REPLICATION –the copying of DNA necessary for Mitosis and Meiosis to occur

CONDENSATION the formation of chromatin as they coil to form dense dark bodies or chromosomes

MEIOSIS I & II- are like two cycles of mitosis, one cell becomes 2 and the 2 cells become 4- those 4 cells are HAPLOID GAMETES!!

If you see a I or II with prophase, metaphase, anaphase or telophase it Meiosis! If not its MITOSIS

CHAPTER 12 MENDEL AND HEREDITY VOCABULARY

CLASSICAL GENETICS-the study of the inheritance of traits and their patterns

MODERN GENETICS - the study of the biochemical basis of inheritance

HEREDITY is the passing of traits from parents to offspring

GENETICS is the study of how traits are inherited through the action of alleles

GREGOR MENDEL – “Father of Genetics,” responsible for laws governing the inheritance of traits

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION The production of new organism by combing DNA

Plants normally reproduce 2 ways

SELF POLLINATION-pollen from one plant fertilizes ova of same plant

CROSS POLLINATION-pollen from one plant fertilizes another

SELECTIVE BREEDING- The practice of human intervention in creating specific breeds

PURE BREED or TRUE BREEDING STRAIN

– organism that ALWAYS produces offspring of the same type when bred with a member of its “breed.”

SPECIES –organisms that are so similar that they can reproduce VIABLE offspring

HYBRID – the mix of two true breeding strains- extreme examples include ligers or mules

CHARACTER– An identifiable feature of an organism, like flower color or height

TRAITS– any specific characteristic that can be passed from parents to offspring

EXPRESSION – refers to traits that are observed,

HEREDITY– the passing of traits from parents to offspring

DOMINANT– is always expressed; masks a recessive trait

RECESSIVE– can only be expressed if there are no dominant alleles present

ALLELE– one form (dominant or recessive) of a gene

GAMETE- Sex cells (have ONE form of a gene on their chromosomes)

SOMATIC or Body cells have TWO alleles for a single gene

DOMINANT alleles are represented by a capital letter, are expressed in both Homo and heterozygote

RECESSIVE alleles are represented by a lower case letter, only expressed in homozygote

HOMOZYGOUS- two copies of the same allele

BB (homozygous dominant) bb (homozygous recessive)

HETEROZYGOUS,

Bb Organism with two different alleles

GENOTYPE: the alleles present in the organism, BB, Bb, or bb (THE TYPE OF GENES)

PHENOTYPE: the expression of the genes; observed traits (THE TYPE OF TRAITS)

GENETIC CROSSES- Mating trials between organisms

MONOHYBRID CROSS: cross involving ONE trait, e.g., eye color

DIHYBRID CROSS: cross involving TWO traits, e.g., eye color and hair color

PUNNETT SQUARE – Model to determine offspring’s genotype and phenotype

PARENTAL GENERATION (P1 0r Po) = the parental generation in a breeding experiment

FIRST FILIAL GENERATION (F1) = the first generation of offspring in a breeding experiment

SECOND FILIAL GENERATION (F2) = the second generation of offspring in a breeding experiment

MENDELS LAW OF RANDOM SEGREGATION

Each pair of alleles segregates independently during gamete formation in 50/50 proportions

MENDELS LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT

Traits are not connected in any way to each other, ie pea color and pod color aren’t connected

Mendel is a little wrong on this one

GENETIC CROSS FORMULA –determines the number of possible genotypes in a genetic cross

Formula: 2 n (n = # of heterozygotes)

TEST CROSS – Cross that allows you to deduce Parental Genotype by Breeding a dominant with a recessive

ALTERNATIVE MODES OF INHERITANCE – the dominant recessive pattern is not the only way genes are expressed

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE - Heterozygotes have BLENDED TRAITS -appearance is between the phenotypes of the two parental varieties.

CODOMINANCE- BOTH ALLELES are expressed in heterozygote BOTH TRAITS are observed

SEX LINKED TRAITS - Traits (genes) located on the sex chromosomes, Many sex-linked traits carried on X chromosome

CHAPTER 13: DNA, RNA, and Proteins VOCABULARY

The Central Dogma of Biology DNA is transcribed into RNA->RNA is translated into Proteins

Griffith - Discovered the transformation of harmless R strain Bacteria by heat killed S bacteria

Avery – Identified DNA as the transformative agent

Hershey & Chase –Studied bacteriophages and proved DNA was the source of hereditary information

James Watson & Francis Crick deduced the structure of DNA

Rosalind Franklin used x ray crystallography to image the structure of DNA

DNA- Deoxyribonucleic Acid

DNA is a polymer of Nucleotides- remember a polymer is like a chain of beads

DNA is made of 2 chains, twisted together and coiled into an alpha double helix

DNA Double Helix is composed of 2 interconnected nucleotide chains

Nucleotide Chains are composed of a Sugar-Phosphate backbone, with bases in the middle

Phosphodiester bonds join nucleotides

Nucleotide contains 1 Nitrogenous base + 1 phosphate group + 1 sugar

Deoxyribose the sugar in DNA

4 different Nucleotides abbreviated as A, T G, or C

The pyrimidines -Adenine Guanine

The purines -Cytosine Thymine

Chargraff’s Rules

- A binds T, G binds C according to

Hydrogen bonds .- join the bases across the helix

MITOSIS Cell division

MEIOSIS gamete formation

DNA Replication- is semi conservative!

Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds in the middle of the strand, creating a replication fork

DNA Polymerase , creates 2 identical DNA molecules

Transcription- DNA copied to RNA, occurs in nucleus

RNA - A nucleic acid that is similar to DNA, Ribose is the sugar, instead of thymine , URACIL , single stranded

Steps of Transcription

RNAPolymerase (RNApol)– Unwinds DNA strand and copies it into RNA

Uracil RNA base replacing Thymine

Messenger RNA (mRNA) DNA transcript or copy moves to the ribosome in the cytoplasm (or on the Rough ER)

Translation (Protein Synthesis) - The Conversion of mRNA to Amino Acids which make up proteins

The Genetic code (ATCG) is translated into a amino acids

CODON- a 3 letter sequence of mRNA that codes for a particular Amino Acid

Amino Acid -the components that make Proteins tRNA (transferRNA) the RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome

Anti-Codon – the 3 letter sequence of tRNA that corresponds to the mRNA CODON

AUG - the start codon

Translation – conversion of mRNA into a Protein

Initiation - Ribosome attaches to mRNA (each 3 bases is called a codon), tRNA brings anticodon and AA to ribosome

Elongation-

More tRNA’s bring more AA’s to ribosome, AA’s connected together to make polypeptides (by peptide bonds)

Termination- Ribosome reaches a STOP signal on mRNA

Enzymes - the most common type of protein

CHAPTER 14: Genes in Action VOCABULARY

Gene -a segment of DNA whose nucleotide sequence codes for a protein.

Mutation - Changes in the nucleotide sequence of a gene’s DNA

Mutagens cause mutations, include environmental factors ike chemicals, X-rays, and UV light

Genetic Mutations – single or small changes to individual genes DNA sequence

Point mutations include; silent, missense and nonsense

SILENT mutation - the change in the codon results in the same amino acid- UAU

UAC both code for tyrosine

NONSENSE mutation - a codon is changed to a stop codon; protein may be too short to function -UAC

UAG (a stop codon)

MISSENSE mutation - involves the substitution of a different amino acid,

Frameshift mutations may be caused by additions or deletions, they create missense or nonsense mRNA

Genetic Diseases ( aka genetic disorders) like: CF, Duchennes MD, ColorBlindness are caused by point or frameshift mutations

Sickle Cell Anemia : MISSENSE MUTANT -Defective Hemoglobin Gene-You can’t carry oxygen well

Cystic Fibrosis: DELETION MUTANT -Defective Protein is made that creates excess mucus; clogs lungs.

Color Blindness : SEX LINKED - Inablity to distinguish colors (8% of male population)

Hemophilia: SEX LINKED - Inablity of blood to clot

Muscular Dystrophy: SEX LINKED -Loss of muscle that begins in early childhood

Chromosomal Mutations . Large scale change in the gene sequence including deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

Tetrad formation in Prophase I of Meiosis when Chromosomal changes occur

Chromosomal or Genetic Syndromes – caused by chromosomal mutations, include; Williams, Alagille, or Downs

Chromosomal Deletion : Chromosome loses a segment, ex. Williams Syndrome- Chromosome 7 loses an end piece

Chromosomal Duplication: chromosome segment being REPEATED in the same chromosome, ex inv Dup 15 syndrome

Chromosome Translocation: exchange of chromosomal segments between two, NON-HOMOLOGOUS chromosomes. ex.

Alagille Syndrome

Chromosome Inversion- a segment of a chromosome being turned 180 degrees.

Williams Syndrome - Children have a pixie look Poor academic skills, good verbal and musical abilities-Chromosomal Deletion inv Dup 15 syndrome- Poor muscle tone, mental retardation, seizures, curved spine, and autistic characteristics, Chromosomal Duplication

Alagille Syndrome - Distinctive face, abnormalities of eyes & internal organs, and severe itching. Translocation

Saethre-Chotzen syndrome - Chromosome Inversion

Polyploidy when extra chromosomes are found in an individual, for example trisomy 21 or Downs syndrome

Non disjunction event during Anaphase of Meiosis in which chromosomes fail to separate that can lead to polyploidy

DOWNS SYNDROME =TRISOMY21 (3 copies of a chromosome 21) mental delays, changes in blood vessels and connective tissue

DNA Technology - Genetic Engineering – the use of technology to understand and change gene function

The Human Genome Project Decoded an entire length of DNA in 2003

Genetic Sequencing

– decoded nucleotide sequence for the 23,000+ human genes, allows for the detection and treatment of genetic disease and cancer.

Gene Therapy -good copies of a gene are introduced into those individuals affected by genetic disease, often using viruses

Virus – a non-living vector that infects cells with DNA and uses the cells machinery to reproduce toil the cell lyses or explodes

BIOLOGY CH16 Evolution VOCABULARY

CHARLES DARWIN : The Father of Evolution through Natural Selection, he observed change through “Descent with Modification.” Wrote on the Origin of Species in 1859

SPECIES : Organisms so similar they can interbreed and produce VIABLE (fertile) offspring

NATURAL SELECTION: greater reproductive success displayed by individuals with ADAPTIVE traits

VARIATION: differences within a population

ADAPTATIONS: traits that are selected for because they help an organism survive and reproduce

EVOLUTION: Changes in species over time- Occurs when genes in a population change/shift to enhance survival and reproduction

JEAN BAPTISTE LAMARCK: Observed organisms change/evolve by passing down AQUIRED TRAITS

LYELL AND HUTTON: Geologists who proposed GRADUALISM as the source of change

CUVIER: Geologist who proposed CATASTROPHISM as the source of change

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION: Comes from Fossils, Comparative Anatomy, Embryology, Biochemistry, Biogeography, and others!

FOSSIL EVIDENCE: Records of past organisms show common ancestry

COMPARATIVE ANATOMY: the study of similarities in organisms of common ancestry

Vestigial Structures- appendix, whale pelvis Analogous Structures – bee wing v. bird wing

Homologous structure - your hands-whale flipper

EMBRYOLOGY: The study of how embryos develop to show common ancestry- you had gills and a tail!

BIOCHEMISTRY: The similarity in gene sequence

BIOGEOGRAPHY: The study of how organisms are distibuted today and in the fossil record

3 TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS

STRUCTURAL ADAPTATIONS: Physical feature like a wing to fly or fins to swim

PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATION: Body functions like the production of venom or the ability to tolerate heat

BEHAVIORAL ADAPTATION: When organisms work together like a wolf pack, or school of fish

3 TYPES OF NATURAL SELECTION

DIRECTIONAL SELECTION: When a direction in phenotypes is favored- bigger brains

STABILIZING SELECTION: When 1 average phenotype is selected for – 7 lb babys

DISRUPTIVE SELECTION: When 2 extreme phenotypes are selected for simultaneously- different colored butterflies

SPECIATION: The formation of new species through evolution

Chapter 17 Population Genetics and Speciation VOCABULARY

MICROEVOLUTION: the study of changes in allele frequency of a population

POPULATION: A group of organism of the same species that are breeding

PHENOTYPIC VARIATION: the allele frequencies within a population

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: the bell curve

ALLELE FREQUENCY: the ratio of specific alleles in a population

GENETIC VARIATION: the different forms of alleles and traits in a population

HARDY WEINBERG EQUILIBRIUM: IS an IDEAL condition (IMPOSSIBLE) in which no evolution or allele frequency change occurs

(EQUILIBRIUM)- when all of the following DO NOT HAPPEN

GENE FLOW: the gain or loss of new alleles through immigration or emmigration

MUTATION: change in DNA sequence

NONRANDOM MATING: reproductive selection, females choose mates selectively

GENETIC DRIFT: small populations can have major changes in allele frequency

NATURAL SELECTION: when the environment favors a particular allele over another

FOUNDER EFFECT: the initial alleles/individuals in a population have great effect on allele frequency

POPULATION SIZE: the larger the population the smaller the impact of individual changes in allele frequency

SPECIATION: the development of new species through directional, disruptive or stabilizing selection

REPRODUCTIVE ISOLATION: a barrier to reproduction amoung individuals that leads to new species

Geography: physical barriers like rivers, canyons, oceans –squirrels in grand canyon

Ecological Niche: organisms are performing different roles in an ecosystem – Darwin Finches

Mating Behavior and Timing: migrations, mating dances in birds

Polyploidy: changes in chromosome number

Hybridization : pairings between similar species- liger

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