THE ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
The Argument
An argument uses evidence to support an opinion through a process of reasoning.
Arguments in academic writing are usually complex and take careful effort to develop. The
process of constructing a supported argument leads to further understanding and clarification of
ideas.
In academic contexts, the process is one of rational discourse: claim, evidence, consideration,
and rebuttal of objections and conclusion, all intended to appeal to the open mind and reasoned
judgement of the reader.
In academic circles an argument is regarded as the presentation of an opinion through the
process of reasoning and providing proof. In academic writing an argument is sometimes
called a claim or a thesis statement, backed up with supporting evidence.
Thesis statement:
“A person who knows all the grammar and all the vocabulary of a language does not necessarily ‘know’ that
language.”
Support:
As noted by the sociolinguist Dell Hymes in his essay “On Communicative Competence’, there are rules of use
without which the rules of grammar would be useless (Hymes 1972).
In this case the support is in the form of a quotation from a well-known sociolinguist.
What is not an argument?
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Impossibilities: for example, that men should bear children.
Preferences: because they cannot be subjected to logical process, they too cannot be
argued. For example, musical preferences cannot be subjected to rational debate.
Beliefs: any matters which are outside the bounds of empirical truth, such as religion, are
also beyond the borders of argument, because they cannot be proven
Components of an argument
Terms
There are a great variety of terms used to describe the individual components of an argument.
There are a few models of argument structure, each with their own sequence and structure.
In some cases the individual terms used have slightly different meanings depending on which
model of argument presentation is being used. As the main focus of these materials is on
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development of argument structure in academic writing, the terminology used in this field will be
used.
In brief, a written argument consists of a specific position on an issue with supporting points.
Some of the other terms used are in the box below:
The building blocks:
Argument
Thesis Statement
Main claim
Assertion
Premise
Proposition
Conclusion
Support
E. G. /Examples
Supporting points
Evidence
Reasons
Citations/Experts’ opinions
Strong arguments anchor the thesis statement with evidence
The most important part of any argument is the thesis statement/main claim etc. Normally a
thesis statement will do one of the following three things:
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make a judgement about something,
offer a solution or recommendation, or
explain something
The Toulmin Method
The basic format for the Toulmin Method is as follows:
Claim: The overall thesis the writer will argue for.
Data: Evidence gathered to support the claim.
Warrant (also referred to as a bridge): Explanation of why or how the data supports the claim,
the underlying assumption that connects your data to your claim.
Backing (also referred to as the foundation): Additional logic or reasoning that may be
necessary to support the warrant.
Counterclaim: A claim that negates or disagrees with the thesis/claim.
Rebuttal: Evidence that negates or disagrees with the counterclaim.
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Including a well thought out warrant or bridge is essential to writing a good argumentative essay
or paper. If you present data to your audience without explaining how it supports your thesis they
may not make a connection between the two or they may draw different conclusions.
Don't avoid the opposing side of an argument. Instead, include the opposing side as a
counterclaim. Find out what the other side is saying and respond to it within your own argument.
This is important so that the audience is not swayed by weak, but unrefuted, arguments.
Including counterclaims allows you to find common ground with more of your readers. It also
makes you look more credible because you appear to be knowledgeable about the entirety of the
debate rather than just being biased or uniformed. You may want to include several
counterclaims to show that you have thoroughly researched the topic.
Example:
Claim: Hybrid cars are an effective strategy to fight pollution.
Data1: Driving a private car is a typical citizen's most air polluting activity.
Warrant 1: Because cars are the largest source of private, as opposed to industry produced, air pollution switching
to hybrid cars should have an impact on fighting pollution.
Data 2: Each vehicle produced is going to stay on the road for roughly 12 to 15 years.
Warrant 2: Cars generally have a long lifespan, meaning that a decision to switch to a hybrid car will make a longterm impact on pollution levels.
Data 3: Hybrid cars combine a gasoline engine with a battery-powered electric motor.
Warrant 3: This combination of technologies means that less pollution is produced. According to ineedtoknow.org
"the hybrid engine of the Prius, made by Toyota, produces 90 percent fewer harmful emissions than a comparable
gasoline engine."
Counterclaim: Instead of focusing on cars, which still encourages a culture of driving even if it cuts down on
pollution, the nation should focus on building and encouraging use of mass transit systems.
Rebuttal: While mass transit is an environmentally sound idea that should be encouraged, it is not feasible in many
rural and suburban areas, or for people who must commute to work; thus hybrid cars are a better solution for much
of the nation's population.
Induction and deduction
Induction and deduction are the processes of reasoning used to arrive at a conclusion based
upon available evidence.
A logical argument can take two shapes:
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Inductive
In inductive reasoning individual points are presented and a conclusion is reached based on the
sum of the evidence that is presented. In effect evidence is presented and then a conclusion is
arrived at based on the evidence. This strategy is particularly useful if it is unsure whether the
audience will agree with your arguments. In fact one is showing them how one has gone from
particular evidence to a conclusion. This is just like detective work where individual clues lead to
a decision about a crime. It goes from specific to general. It is a process of drawing conclusions
or making generalizations based on several examples. It is the process of reasoning from the
particular to the general. Induction is used widely in areas where there is collection of
information and the creation of conclusions based upon that information. Arguments that rely for
the persuasiveness of its conclusion on collection of data, on measurement on information
collected in any way are generally inductive arguments. Much of the work done at undergraduate
level will be using inductive methods: you need to identify and use what counts as evidence in
the particular field: collect the information, classify it and reach an appropriate conclusion based
on the evidence collected.
Deductive
Deductive reasoning or a deductive argument moves from general to specific. First a general idea
or principle is presented followed by more specific arguments. Applying a generalization to a
particular case. Deduction is often used when we begin an argument with something that about
which there is general agreement and then this is applied to a particular case, or interpreted that
example in the light of that general truth.
Logical reasoning
Some kinds of logical evidence are more convincing than others
More convincing:
Deductive reasoning
inductive reasoning
referenced facts
statistics
opinion of experts
examples
analogies
Less convincing:
Hearsay evidence
Unreferenced facts
Non-expert opinion
Anecdotal evidence
Syllogisms
The simplest form of deduction is a syllogism. A syllogism consists of three parts: the major
premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion. The major and minor premises are based on
underlying assumptions from which one makes a point. By considering the two together a logical
conclusion can be reached. The reasoning process dictates that if both premises are true, the
conclusion must also be accepted as true.
The term syllogism is used to describe the three part structure that is often used in deductive
arguments.
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Linguistics is a challenging field of study (general idea)
I enjoy challenging work (general idea)
I will enjoy linguistics (specific argument)
If all humans are mortal,
And all Greeks are human,
Then all Greeks are mortal.
Argumentative essay structure
The introduction
The purpose of the introduction is to lead the reader into the topic and focus on the specific area
or arguments to be presented in the essay.
Introducing the Topic: The first step is to capture the readers’ attention and provide orientation to
the topic to be discussed. This can be referred to as the Introducing the Topic or IT move.
Readers need to be convinced of the importance of the issue.
Narrowing the Focus: The topic needs to be defined and limited if necessary, so the second
move of an introduction is Narrowing the Focus or NF, which may consist wholly or partly of
definitions of key terms used throughout your essay. The introduction normally should lead from
general to specific in content.
Central Idea (CI) The thesis statement, or Central Idea (CI), placed at the end of the
introduction, states the position to be presented in the essay by giving a concise summary of the
arguments that will be defended and supported in the essay. It should provide a precise viewpoint
to be argued in the essay.
Example:
Introducing the topic – I T
The English Language is normally considered to be based in the United Kingdom and the United States of America,
with its other centres in Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa.
Narrowing the focus – N F
However, in this globalized era where English has become a world language, a case can be made for English being
even more pluricentric and not just the property of its ‘native speakers’.
Central Idea – C I
This essay will evaluate the arguments in favour of English, or rather ‘Englishes’ being the property of the majority
who speak it alongside their other languages.
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The essay body
The body of the essay is the section in which the arguments are presented and supported with
relevant details. The body contains the details that will attempt to persuade the reader of the
validity and veracity of the arguments. As a rough guide it is advisable to write at least one
paragraph presenting and supporting each of the arguments. The arguments need to be divided
into separate meaningful categories. The support for each point will be in the form of reasons,
specific example, facts, cases or expert testimony. The structure for each point or paragraph is
Main Idea (MI) followed by Support (S), which may take the form of examples, evidence,
statistics, quotations or references.
Counterarguments/Refutation
In order to display a balanced and a deeper understanding of an issue, it is necessary to
acknowledge the objections to the arguments that you intend to present. Ignoring the opposing
views can be counterproductive because the audience will be aware of the opposing arguments
and will doubt the credibility of an essay that ignores them rather than dealing with them openly
and honestly. Considering one or two counterarguments in depth is better than merely presenting
a long list of all the possible counterarguments. It may appear contradictory to show the
opposing arguments, but there are a number of reasons for doing so. It shows the reader that no
information or information has been neglected. The creditability of the write is also enhanced as
the reader sees that the opposite views have been carefully considered.
The conclusion
The conclusion is a very important part of the essay because it sums up the thesis and support for
it. In the conclusion you should restate and summarise, in brief, the main arguments. This is
called the CC move (Commitment to the Central Idea). It is best to rephrase the thesis statement
as the essay has focussed on arguing and supporting the point. Give the reader a clear picture of
your position and reasons for taking it. Avoid adding any new arguments that have not been
presented in the body of the essay. In contrast to the introductory paragraph, the conclusion
moves from specific to more general matters. The wider implications of the issue can be
discussed briefly culminating in a final appeal to the reader, known as the Expansion (Ex) move.
Model Essay Structure
A model for the structure of an academic essay, which can be used as part of your planning
process, might look like this:
Introduction
IT – Introduction of topic
NF – Narrowing of focus
CI - Central idea
Body
M1 (Main idea) Support 1
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M1 2 Support 2
MI 3 (Counterargument 1) Support/ refutation 3
MI 4 (Counterargument 2) Support/ refutation 4
Conclusion
CC – Commitment to Central Idea
Ex - Expansion
Sources:
http://cedar.humanities.curtin.edu.au/TeachingMat/OLLD/Argument/6-0.cfm
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/2/
http://www2.winthrop.edu/wcenter/handoutsandlinks/classica.html
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