Running head: Gender Differences in Psychological Distress and the Interaction of Age 1
Gender Differences in Psychological Distress and the Interaction of Age
Nicole Sagullo
Trinity College
RDA, Psyc221
Fall 2012
Running head: Gender Differences in Psychological Distress and the Interaction of Age 2
Distress is discussed in the DSM-IV in terms of its function as a determinant of
depressive, anxiety, and personality disorder (Phillips, 2009). Psychological distress and
its correlation to multiple factors have been examined and explored using multiple
methods of screening and testing. Kessler et al developed a short 6-question survey for
the 1997 and 1998 U.S. National Health Survey (Choi & Nitto, 2001). When developed
Kessler et al noted that the K6 was able to identify discrete cases from non-cases
involving distress as diagnosed using the DSM-IV (2002). Looking at different variables
of the National Survey on Drug Use and Health from 2010, correlations between
variables can be analyzed.
Gender was once thought of as a biological fact and has recently been studied as a
cultural construct based on gender schemas and gender typing. Gender differences have
been explored using multiple dependent variables, such as aggression, emotional strength
and expression, and psychological status. Females have been reported to experience
depressive symptoms in much higher rates than males (Nolen-Hoeksema, 2010).
Hoeksema examined factors, such as vulnerability, biological predisposition, coping
styles, and other stressors and reactivity that may be causes or correlates to women’s
susceptibility to depression. In a study conducted by Eaton et al., researchers used the
National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) data to
explore gender differences in mental disorders looking at DSM-IV diagnoses made using
the Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated Disabilities Interview Schedule (AUDADUSIV). Eaton et al reported that mood and anxiety disorders were more prevalent in women
and that men showed higher rates of antisocial mannerisms and substance abuse (2012).
Anxiety and mood disorders may be more visible using the K6 score over antisocial
Gender Differences in Psychological Distress
3
tendencies and substance abuse. Our hypothesis was that females would report higher
rates of psychological distress on the k6 than males.
The main effect of age on depression, anxiety, and social impairment is not seen
in the literature as much as its interactions with other independent variables. Brown et al
looked at racial-ethnic correlation to psychological distress with gender and age as
considerations (2007). The study found parallel that psychological distress scores reduced
over time for all racial-ethnic categories as well as in both genders (Brown, 2007).
Harkness noted that depression history was higher in early adulthood (18-29 years old)
than late adulthood (30-49 years old) in their study of gender and age as independent
variables on depression (2010). For our second hypothesis, age was operationalized by
the NSDUH grouping of ages with early adulthood defined as ages 18-25 and late
adulthood as 26-34 year olds. The prediction was that early adults would have higher k6
scores reported than late adults.
Looking at the study conducted by Harkness et al, this study further examined the
interaction of age on gender differences in depression. Harkness reported a larger gender
difference contrast in young adulthood than late adulthood (2010). Using slightly
different operational definitions of age, this study hypothesized that the gender difference
would be greater in early adulthood; both males and females would experience
decreasing psychological distress between early and late adulthood, but the females
would experience a greater decrease than males.
Methods
Participants
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Participants were 57, 873 non-institutionalized civilians of the United States. Age
groups included 12 years and older, with 32% aged 12-17, 33% were 18-25 years old,
and 35% were older than 26 years. Gender was self-reported with 48% males and 52%
females. Housing situations included college dormitories, group homes, shelters, rooming
houses, and civilians dwelling on military installations. Racial composition included 65%
White, 13% Black, 17% Hispanic, 4% Asian, and 2% “other.” For the data analysis of
psychological distress, the age 12-17 year old group was omitted because the participants
were not asked to fill out the k6.
Materials
The NSDUH examines illicit drug and alcohol use, importance of religion, and
psychological health, as well as reports demographics. Gender is self-reported as well as
age. For this study, age was operationalized as early adulthood including age 18-24 years
and late adulthood including ages 25-29 as is stratified in the NSDUH data set. The
NSDUH uses the Kessler scale as a psychometric measure of psychological distress. K6
scores are based on participant responses on questions regarding how often they felt
distressed (e.g., nervous, or so sad that nothing could cheer them up) in the past month on
a scale of 0 (none of the time) to 4 (all the time). Six questions are included, so the
maximum possible score is 24.
Procedure
The NSDUH includes a series of national surveys to provide annual and quarterly
estimates of correlates of drug use. Each participant was given an incentive payment of
$30 to increase response rates. The demographics were reported; some post-hoc grouping
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was applied, as was the case with age. The 12-17 year old category was not asked certain
questions or sections of the survey.
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Works Cited
Brown, J., Meadows, S. O., & Elder, G. r. (2007). Race-ethnic inequality and
psychological distress: Depressive symptoms from adolescence to young
adulthood.Developmental Psychology, 43(6), 1295-1311. doi:10.1037/00121649.43.6.1295
Choi, N. G. and DiNitto, M. D. (2011). Psychological Distress, Binge/Heavy Drinking,
and Gender Differences among Older Adults. The American Journal on
Addictions, 20: 420–428. doi: 10.1111/j.1521-0391.2011.00149.x
Harkness, K. L., Alavi, N., Monroe, S. M., Slavich, G. M., Gotlib, I. H., & Bagby, R.
(2010). Gender differences in life events prior to onset of major depressive
disorder: The moderating effect of age. Journal Of Abnormal Psychology, 119(4),
791-803. doi:10.1037/a0020629
Kessler, R. C., Andrews, G., Colpe, L. J., Hiripi, E., Mroczek, D. K., Normand, S.-L.T.,
Walters, E. E., et al. (2002). Short screening scales to monitor population
prevalences and trends in non-specific psychological distress. Psychological
Medicine, 32(6), 959–976. doi:10.1017/S0033291702006074
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2001). Gender Differences in Depression. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 10:173. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00142
Phillips, M. R. (2009). Is distress a symptom of mental disorders, a marker of
impairment, both or neither? World Psychiatry, 8(2), 91–92.