Running Head: THE IMPACT OF PARENT AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
The Impact of Parent and Peer Relationships on Adolescents' Academic Success and
Engagement in Drug Use
Michael Frye
George Mason University
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THE IMPACT OF PARENT AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
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Abstract
The relationships that students have permeate their lives, inside and outside of the classroom. It
is expected, therefore, that these relationships would affect the success that students attain in
school. The purpose of this literature review is to synthesize findings from empirical studies
analyzing the influence that relationships – with parents and with peers – have on adolescent
students’ academic success and drug use. The review focuses on empirical studies that employ
quantitative methods to explore these influences. Findings indicate that relationships with
parents – typically operationalized by involvement and expectations as indicated by survey
instruments – have positive influence on academic success and on drug use (i.e. a negative
correlation relationship). The peer groups that adolescents identify with also can have a positive
influence on their academic success and drug use, when these groups share benevolent
motivations and attitudes toward education. Negative peer influences, however, such as peer
pressure, can have adverse effects. The influence that peers have on academic achievement has
been shown to mediate the influence that parental relationships have. Further studies should
explore the interactions between parental and peer relationships, while also including teacher
relationships.
THE IMPACT OF PARENT AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
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Introduction
Adolescence is a time in a person's life where there are concurrent transformations
occurring in cognitive, social, and physiological domains (Anderman, 2012). The ways in which
these transformations shape the lives of these adolescents are shaped by environmental factors
such as relationships with parents and peers. The purpose of this literature review is to
synthesize findings from studies that explore the impact that adolescents' relationships with
parents and peers have on their valuing of learning and education as well as their engagement in
drug use. Because this valuing of learning and education is latent in nature, that is, it cannot be
directly observed, other proxy variables may be used. These include – academic engagement,
self-efficacy, and academic performance in general. The negative correlation between drug use
and school performance (Jeynes, 2002) warrants the inclusion of both outcomes in the review, as
they both reflect on the ways in which relationships with parents and peers impact an
adolescent's ultimate quality of life.
Importance of Relationships
The importance of research on these variables is highlighted by the reliance of children
on their family to be prepared for education. Coleman (1987) referred to the resources provided
to the child by the family as social capital, and defined it as essential to the child's academic
success. The ability of families to effectively prepare children for education has been in decline
(Coleman, 1987).
The influence of parents is qualitatively different for adolescents than for children. In
addition to the influence of parents, adolescents are influenced by the peers they associate with,
who tend to share similar attitudes (Anderman, 2012). The focus on adolescents in this review
stems from the importance that relationships with parents and peers have in their lives,
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particularly during the volatile transition periods that they experience during this developmental
period in which they enter middle school and high school (Anderman, 2012; Isakson &
Jarvis,1999; Lord, Eccles, & McCarthy, 1994). The purpose of this review is to synthesize
findings that explore the ways in which adolescents' relationships influence their valuing of
education and drug use to inform decisions that are made on how parental involvement and peer
culture are incorporated into school policy and practice.
Method: Search Procedures
To locate literature on this topic, databases (primarily Google scholar and ERIC) were
searched on a combination of relevant keywords. Examples of keywords include – adolescents,
relationships, parents, peers, engagement, achievement, and self-efficacy. The target of the
literature search was empirical studies from peer-reviewed journals utilizing quantitative
measurement techniques. The studies generated by the keyword search were used to iteratively
search the literature by searching their reference lists for additional relevant studies.
Review of Existing Research
This review is divided by the focus on parental relationships and peer relationships. Each
section begins with a definition of relevant concepts, followed by a discussion of existing
research on the ways in which relationships w influences adolescents' valuing of learning and
education. This is followed by a discussion of the measurement techniques utilized in the studies
reviewed. After the review of research, implications will be discussed. The review will
conclude by highlighting some of the key findings from the synthesis of this research, as well as
implications for further research.
Relationships with parents
Defining the Relationships
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Parental involvement, in the context of adolescence, is defined as the ways in which the
parent and child interact that define the restrictions set forth by the parent, the autonomy of the
child, and the ways in which the child is supported by the parent. The likelihood of asynchrony
in the parent-child relationship increases as these issues of control and autonomy are restructured
in adolescence (Eccles et al., 1993). Despite the negative connotation of these stresses, the
change in parent-child relationships during adolescence does not typically deteriorate them.
More commonly, the adolescent increases their sense of individualization while continuing to be
overseen and supported by their parents. Parental involvement comes to be a more peer-like
relationship, rather than the vertical relationship structure it is during childhood, as the
relationships between the parent and child are restructured in adolescence (Paikoff & BrooksGunn, 1991).
The communication of parents' educational expectations, in conjunction with the parents'
beliefs regarding the utility and value of education, construct the adolescent child's academic
socialization. The level of academic socialization influences the child's educational aspirations
and future plans (Hill &Tyson, 2009). Parent educational expectations for adolescent children
are typically operationalized as how far the parent expects their child to go in school (i.e.
complete high school, college, or a graduate level degree) (Seginer, 1983). Researchers have
used surveys to gauge parent educational expectations of just parents (Lee & Bowen, 2006) or
parents and children (Easton, 2010).
Impacts on Academic Achievement
The following discussion explores empirical findings on the influence that parental
involvement has on academic achievement and other positive academic indicators. While
parental involvement typically declines as children grow older (into adolescence), the positive
THE IMPACT OF PARENT AND PEER RELATIONSHIPS
relationship between parental involvement and learning outcomes remains strong (Anderman,
2012). Findings from a longitudinal study of adolescents corroborated this, showing that
parental involvement in 7th grade is negatively correlated with problem behaviors in the 8th
grade, and positively correlated with college aspirations in high school (Hill et al., 2004).
Regarding the kinds of parental involvement that are beneficial – the parent-child
communication and parental expectations have been shown to positively influence academic
achievement of high school students, while parents monitoring homework and setting of rules is
negatively correlated with achievement (Easton, 2010). Younger students – in grades 3 through
5, the older of which are in the early stages of adolescence – with higher levels of parental
involvement and education expectations have higher levels of academic achievement; while
receiving parental homework help, once again, is negatively correlated with academic
achievement (Lee & Bowen, 2006). In their meta-analysis, Hill and Tyson (2009) found that
academic socialization had the greatest positive influence on middle school student academic
achievement. Similarly to the previous studies, they also showed that parental help on
homework had a negative influence on middle school student academic achievement (Hill &
Tyson, 2009). Increased parental control, in general, during adolescence is believed to decrease
intrinsic motivation in school (Eccles et al., 1993).
In a longitudinal study, Simons-Morton and Chen (2009) explored the relationships
between authoritative parenting practices, problem-behaving friends, and school engagement
across the middle school years. Authoritative parenting was defined by establishing high
expectations, monitoring behavior, and being involved and supportive. Findings indicated that
high instances of problem-behaving friends predict a decrease in school engagement across
middle school years. Authoritative parenting practices, meanwhile, positively predict growth in
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school engagement. The negative effects of having problem-behaving friends are partially
mediated by the authoritative parenting practices variable (Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).
Empirical studies have also explored the ways that parental relationships affect the
transitions that adolescents make to middle and high school. For middle school students, a
perceived democratic family environment – as indicated by the student being provided decision
making opportunities by the parent – contributes to a smooth transition to middle school, and
growth in self-esteem across middle school years (Lord et al., 1994). Regarding the transition to
high school, Isakson and Jarvis (1999) demonstrated that parental involvement is positively
correlated with students' sense of school belonging when entering high school.
Impacts on Drug Use
The associations between parental involvement and drug use, as considered in the
empirical studies reviewed in this paper, are explored in conjunction with the effects of peer
relationships. For instance, Ary, Duncan, Duncan, and Hops (1999) demonstrated that perceived
involvement of parents and other family members by adolescents is associated with lower
problem behavior – a latent construct including factors related to antisocial behavior, high risk
sex, academic failure, and substance use. This association was mediated by two latent variables
– inadequate parental monitoring and peer deviance (Ary et al., 1999).
Similar findings were produced by Mounts and Steinberg (1995), who explored the
impact that authoritative parenting – as defined by two scales: strictness-supervision and
acceptance-involvement – has on use. They found that in student groups that reported their
parents were in the low or middle authoritative categories, high levels of peer drug use were
associated with high levels of drug use in the individual. However, in the student group that
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reported a high level of authoritative parenting, the levels of peer drug use did not influence the
levels of drug use in the individual (Mounts & Steinberg, 1995).
Measurement Strategies
Surveys are a reasonable instrument to use in a study where the aim is to measure
relationships between adolescents and their parents. This is due to the latent nature of these
relationships; direct measurement will not suffice.
In Hill et al.'s (2004) study of the longitudinal effects of parental involvement on
adolescent student success, parental academic involvement was gauged by questionnaires
administered to teachers, parents, and students. The teachers were administered the 21-item
Parent –Teacher Involvement Questionnaire, which was developed on a large-scale sample and
has demonstrated psychometric properties (The Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group,
1995). The students were administered an eight item questionnaire, and parents were asked two
questions about their participation in school activities. Reliability estimates generated for the
teacher and student questionnaires were .91 and .67, respectively. The parent questionnaire had
insufficient items to generate a reliability estimate (Hill et al., 2004).
In a study of how parental involvement affects achievement of high school students,
Easton (2010) similarly administered questionnaires to parents, teachers, and students. Many
survey items were duplicated across parents, teachers, and students in an effort to corroborate
findings. Reliability estimates for these surveys were not reported (Easton, 2010).
Lee and Bowen (2006) used parent survey instruments that assessed parental involvement
on four scales (dimensions) – participation in school events (asked of parents and teachers);
educational discussion between parent and student; homework help; and time management.
Reliability estimates were between .69 and .78 (Lee & Bowen, 2006).
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In their longitudinal study of the relationships between authoritative parenting practices,
problem-behaving friends, and school engagement, Simons-Morton and Chen (2009)
administered a survey instrument to the student participants. The survey was made up of
researcher developed scales, some of them adapted from previous research, on the following
constructs – school engagement, peer influences, parent involvement, parental monitoring, and
parental expectations. Reported reliability estimates for these scales were between .68 and .84.
Latent growth curve analysis was used to explore the interaction of these variables across the
middle school years (Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).
Relationships with peers
Defining the Relationships
The relationships that adolescents have with their peers serve as the developmental
grounds for their identity (Zarrett & Eccles, 2006). The peer groups to which these adolescents
belong are where these relationships are formed. Peer groups can range in size from a small,
intimate social group (i.e. one or two best friends) to a school-wide social network. In the
context of this review, peer groups refer to the small (about five to ten) number of peers with
which an adolescent frequently interacts. Researchers (Faircloth & Hamm, 2005; Cook, Deng,
& Morgano, 2007; Ryan, 2001) have operationalized these groups as peer networks – the groups
of students that self-identify as friends. Peer network connections are established by the
identification of friends by the adolescent respondent, and strengthened by reciprocated
friendship nominations by others in the group.
The nature of the relationships within these peer groups varies greatly. Certain qualities
of these relationships can help to inform their nature and how they influence the academic
outcomes of interest. Quality of friendship, for instance, is defined as how the adolescents
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perceive the friends in their peer group valuing and respecting them; as well as being someone
they can rely on. Sense of belonging is a quality that is comprised of belonging to a peer group,
participating in extracurricular activities, and an overall sense of inclusion in the school
community. Peer group motivation is defined as the scores of a peer group on a motivation
questionnaire that gauges their value and expectations regarding schooling.
Peer pressure is an aspect of peer relationships defined as the ways in which peers
influence each other to act or behave in certain ways. In empirical studies, it can be
operationalized as the correlation of behaviors (e.g. academic, disciplinary, engagement in
certain activities) among friends (Santor, Messervey, & Kusumakar, 2000).
Impacts on Academic Achievement
The importance of peer relationships in the lives of adolescents, in turn, has implications
for their academic success. The effects of peer group motivation have been shown to positively
predict middle school students' expectancy for success, intrinsic value of schooling, and their
academic achievement (Ryan, 2001). The positive effects on academic achievement are more
pronounced for low-achieving students as compared to high-achieving students (Altermatt &
Pomerantz, 2005).
In a study of the effects of peer group influences, Nelson and DeBacker (2008) reported
that middle and high school (6th, 7th, and 9th grade) students who perceive having high quality of
friendship with peers are more likely to report adaptive achievement motivation – as indicated by
mastery and performance-approach orientations, and self-efficacy. At the high school (9th
through 12th grades) level, Faircloth and Hamm (2005) showed that students' sense of belonging
positively influences efficacy beliefs, valuing of school, and academic achievement. In contrast,
peer influences can have a negative impact on the academic success of adolescents. Peer
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pressure, for instance, is predictive of lower academic success and higher instances of absences
in high school (Santor et al., 2000).
In a study looking at multiple facets of peer relationships, Cook, Deng, and Morgano
(2007) assessed the following friendship constructs – friendship groups, social behavior, school
performance, and closeness. These constructs, taken together as a peer summary score,
contribute to higher academic success, as indicated by the following – higher academic
achievement; lower absences; lower instances of misbehavior and drug use; and higher
participation in extracurricular activities (Cook et al., 2007).
Impacts on Drug Use
Peer pressure has been shown to be associated with more frequent engagement in risk
behavior (Gardner & Steinberg, 2005). Flannery, Vazsonyi, Torquati, and Fridrich (1994) found
that interpersonal variables related to behavior of peers were more predictive of adolescent drug
use than intrapersonal variables such as aggression, depression, and academic achievement.
Specifically, perceptions of peer pressure and peers' frequency of alcohol use were the most
influential predictors of substance use (Flannery et al., 1994). A similar finding was produced by
D'Amico and McCarthy (2006), who showed that perceived peer use of alcohol and marijuana
not only predicts adolescents' current use of alcohol and marijuana, but their longitudinal use as
well.
Measurement Strategies
Ryan (2001) had students list their friends, then a social network analysis was conducted
which assigned students to peer groups. This assignment took into account whether or not the
indication of friendship was reciprocated by the other student. When a student was assigned to a
peer group they were also assigned with a position within that group – clique member, loose
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group member, dyad member, isolate, or liaison. Hierarchical linear modeling was used to see
how the clustering of students into these groups predicted academic outcomes. A limitation of
this study is that students could belong to only one social group. Faircloth and Hamm (2005)
also used a process where students made 'friendship nominations' and were assigned a social
integration rating. This rating was used in conjunction with items gauging students' engagement
in extracurricular activities and connections with teachers to create the Belonging variable.
Structural equation modeling was used to analyze the relationships between this and other latent
variables.
The Peer Pressure Inventory (Brown, Clasen, and Eicher, 1986) was used by Santor et al.
(2000) to assess perception of peer pressure in a number of domains including peer social
activities, misconduct, conformity to peer norms, involvement in school, and family
involvement. The measure is a validated, reliable survey consisting of 53 Likert-scale items
(Santor et al., 2000).
Nelson and DeBacker (2008) measured the following constructs related to peer
relationships: classroom social goals (including social responsibility, social intimacy, and social
approval), classmates’ involvement, class belongingness, classmates’ resistance to school norms,
best friend’s academic valuing, best friend’s resistance to school norms, and friendship quality.
These scales were adapted from previously developed instruments from a variety of sources.
Adaptations to the scales included the addition/deletion of new items, rewording of existing
items, and the restructuring of scales based on factor analysis results. Confirmatory factor
analyses and reliability analyses were performed on the scales to provide evidence of validity
and reliability. Regression analyses were used to show how outcome variables were influenced
by these scale measures.
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Discussion
Impacts of Parental and Peer Relationships
The empirical research considered in this review indicates that parental involvement has a
positive influence on the academic success of adolescent students (Easton, 2010; Eccles et al.,
1993; Hill et al., 2004; Hill & Tyson, 2009; Lee & Bowen, 2006). Additionally, this parental
involvement contributes to successful transitions to middle school and high school (Isakson &
Jarvis 1999; Lord et al., 1994). Findings did indicate that a parent helping with their adolescent
child's homework is negatively correlated with the child's academic achievement (SimonsMorton & Chen, 2009). This could be a result of the students struggling with their homework
needing to seek assistance from their parents. Further research should explore what prompts
different kinds of involvement of parents in their child's education.
The findings highlight how important the support that adolescent children receive from
their parents is for their educational success. Although it is difficult to create policies and
practices that directly affect parental involvement, policy makers and educators should always be
cognizant of the profound impacts that parental involvement has when working in schools where
it is lacking. Further research should explore how the benefits produced by parental involvement
could potentially be reproduced using the resources that educators have at their disposal.
Similarly to the influences of parental relationships, peer relationships offer adolescent
students positive influences on their academic success. Positive aspects of peer relationships – a
sense of belonging, motivation levels of peer groups, and quality of friendships – have been
shown to positively influence academic success (Altermatt & Pomerantz, 2005; Cook et al.,
2007; Faircloth & Hamm, 2005; Nelson & DeBacker, 2008; Ryan, 2001). Potential negative
effects of peer relationships include the negative influence that peer pressure has on academic
success – as indicated by achievement and attendance (Santor et al., 2000). The potentially
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negative influences that peers have on academic success may, however, be offset by effective
parenting practices (Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).
The implications that these findings on peer relationships have for policy and practice are
more functional to educators than those of parental relationships. This is due to the fact that
interactions between peer groups are largely happening in the schools. Although there are
obvious difficulties to implementing practices that influence with whom and how adolescents
interact, programs that target healthy socialization among middle and high school students may
have a positive impact on the quality of peer group relationships, and thus academic success.
Measurement Issues Regarding Relationships
The characteristics of the measurement strategies highlight some similarities across
studies focusing on parental relationships. For instance, surveys are asked of multiple parties
(i.e. parents, teachers, and/or students) in multiple studies (Easton, 2010; Hill et al., 2004). This
is an effective way to triangulate the information reported by respondents. The instruments also
tend to be researcher developed, with the exception of the 21-item Parent –Teacher Involvement
Questionnaire (Hill, 2004). While researcher developed instruments can produce useful and
reliable information (reported reliability estimates from scales used in studies in this review are
above .68), the validity of findings would be supported by using instruments with demonstrated
psychometric properties.
Measurement of peer groups frequently relies on peer network analyses, in which student
respondents nominate friends, and the responses are used to create peer groups (Faircloth &
Hamm, 2005; Cook, Deng, and Morgano, 2007; Ryan, 2001). This technique allows researchers
to not only inspect what peer groups adolescents form, but analyze what attributes are shared by
members of the groups. Other survey instruments were used with students as well - The Peer
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Pressure Inventory (Brown, Clasen, &Eicher, 1986), used by Santor et al. (2000), is a validated,
reliable instrument. Other studies (Cook et al., 2007; Nelson and DeBacker, 2008, Ryan, 2001)
developed instruments to be used with the students in their studies. Results from these
instruments were used in conjunction with the peer group information to inform how members of
peer groups shared similar characteristics and dispositions.
There are two key similarities across the measurement of parental and peer relationships
that capture the difficulty in quantitatively gauging these constructs. First, researchers frequently
triangulate information by asking multiple parties. For parental relationships, information is
triangulated by asking students, parents, and/or teachers about the level of parents' involvement.
For peer relationships, the peer group is often used to assess the beliefs and behaviors of the
group. This use of multiple sources highlights the difficulty to gather this information reliably.
If it could be demonstrated that one group of participants could be surveyed to reliably capture
this information, the data collection process for researchers would be more feasible.
The second characteristic of the measurement techniques used in studies considered in
this review is that they typically use survey instruments that are either created by the researcher
or adapted from previous research. The use of validated instruments with demonstrated
psychometric properties was non-existent, other than the two instances previously mentioned.
This is also indicative of the difficulty in capturing reliable information about relationships.
Further research should focus on developing measures that gauge the quality of parental and peer
relationships with psychometric properties making them applicable across settings. However,
given the latent nature of relationships and their highly contextualized nature, the development of
these measures will be difficult.
Limitations
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Although this review produced useful findings regarding parental and peer relationships,
further reviewing of existing evidence is needed. For instance, the role of teacher relationships
with adolescent students was not considered in this review. These relationships are directly
involved with the students' academic success, and are likely the more feasible to influence with
policy and practice in comparison to parental and peer relationships. Thus, research regarding
teacher relationships would have important implications for educators.
Implications for Further Research
Further review should also explore existing research on how parental, peer, and teacher
relationships interact to influence the academic success of adolescent students. These kinds of
studies are complex due to 1) the difficulties presented when trying to appropriately measure
multiple relationships for one study, and 2) the complexities of the models that appropriately
consider correlations between variables representing relationships. More studies attempting this
complex task should be considered in future reviews to pave the way for similar research that
informs the ways that relationships positively impact academic success, and how we may be able
to craft policies that reap the benefits of these impacts.
An additional complexity to consider when considering an empirical study that explores
the effects of relationships is the influence that these relationships have on each other. Using
traditional statistical models (i.e. regression) with measurements of parent, peer, and/or teacher
relationships entered as independent variables to predict a student outcome may not be
appropriate. This is due to the likelihood of mediated associations between these relationship
variables. For instance, the impact that peer relationships have on a student's academic success
may be significant, but may also be heavily influence by their relationships with their parent(s).
Mediation models can help account for this by estimating (1) the direct effect that parent
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relationships have on student academic success and (2) the indirect effect that parent
relationships have on student academic success through peer relationships (Baron & Kenny,
1986).
Mediation models can be a powerful tool used to explore the relationships between latent
variables. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) is a commonly used method that analyzes
relationships between latent variables, and can be used to estimate mediating relationships. SEM
is an appropriate technique to use in studies where the variables of interest are, for example,
perceived parental involvement, peer relationships, drug use, and perception of school, as these
are latent variables. That is, they cannot be directly measured so they are constructed from
multiple measurable variables, such as survey questions, that area modeled together to form the
latent variables. Relationships between these latent variables can then be explored in ways
similar to the ways that explanatory relationships and correlations are established between
measurable variables (Raykov & Marcoulides, 2006).
Methodologies of some of the empirical studies considered in this review include SEM
with mediating variables (Ary et al., 1999; Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).
However,
researchers should further explore how the relationships that students have with their peers and
parents influence each other and, in turn, affect outcomes such as academic success and drug use.
The inclusion of these outcomes in one model would help to parse out the correlations that the
outcomes have with each other, and what outcomes are most directly impacted by the
relationship variables. This kind of evidence could be used to refine the ways in which services
are targeted for high needs students and the methods used to evaluate these services.
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Conclusion
The findings considered in this review illustrate the profound impact that parental and
peer relationships have on the academic success of adolescent students. They are an integral
piece to adolescent development and educational success. The findings should highlight the
kinds of supports that adolescent students receive from their parents and peers. With further
research and application, it may be possible to craft policies and practices that can provide
students with similar supports.
The issues surrounding measurement are indicative of the need to refine the instruments
that are used to study these relationships. Findings produced in existing studies, however, are
not without merit. They have demonstrated the benefits of positive parental and peer
relationships while providing evidence of reliability and rigor. These kinds of findings showcase
the possibility of studying latent factors like relationships in a standardized way on large
samples. These are the kinds of studies that will be necessary to evaluate the policies and
practices suggested in the previous paragraph, if they are to be put into place.
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