The History of Afghanistan
Ancient Empire and Early Dynasties
Located along the Silk Road (a trade route extending from China to Europe),
Afghanistan has been the Crossroads of Asia since ancient times and thus subject to
repeated invasion. Emperors and conquerors (Persians, Greeks, central Asians, and
others) throughout history have attempted to control or pacify the region's
inhabitants, always finding them fiercely independent and formidable military
opponents aided by the country's natural defense—mountains.
The Great Game and Independence
During Durrani's reign, Afghanistan was caught in the 19th-century struggle for
territory and influence between the Russian and British empires (called the Great
Game); Afghanistan was used by the British as a buffer between Russia and India,
Britain's colony. While Afghanistan was never ruled by a European power, Britain
had nominal control over the country's foreign policy. Afghanistan achieved full
independence from Britain after the Third Anglo-Afghan war in 1919.
Despite the efforts of Shah Amanullah (leader of Afghanistan at independence) to
modernize and Westernize the country, his reforms were largely rejected by the
conservative religious leaders (for his progressive attitudes, including those toward
women) and tribal leaders (who were afraid of a strong centralized government). In
1929, Amanullah abdicated and his elder brother Habibullah II assumed power,
only to be overthrown soon after by Nadir Shah, who tried to pacify the concerns of
the religiously conservative while still implementing reform. In 1973, Muhammad
Zahir Shah, successor and son of Nadir Shah, was ousted by his cousin Prince
Muhammad Daoud Khan. With the support of the army and the Communist Party,
Prince Muhammad Daoud established the Republic of Afghanistan and made
himself prime minister.
Soviet Era
Although Prince Muhammad Daoud was supported by the national Communist
Party, regional powers (including Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and Iran) were concerned
about Soviet influence in Afghanistan. For its part, the Soviet Union was concerned
about Afghanistan's connection with these Islamic states, and five years after
Muhammad Daoud came to power, the Soviets, in coordination with sympathetic
elements in the army, aided in a military coup. Once in power, the Soviet-backed
communists instituted a number of reforms that were strongly opposed by many of
Afghanistan's devoutly Muslim citizens. Soon, an anti-communist rebellion, which
was supported by the U.S., broke out in Afghanistan.
Soviet troops invaded Afghanistan in 1979 to prevent the communist government's
collapse. The resulting Soviet-Afghan War caused widespread destruction, killed
1.5 million people, and drove more than 6 million refugees into Pakistan and Iran.
When Soviet troops withdrew in February 1989, civil war continued between the
communist government and Muslim mujahidin (holy warriors) from several
political parties.
Rise of the Taliban
By 1992, different factions in Kabul began fighting each other for control of the
country. One group, known as the Taliban ("Students," referring to Muslim youth
studying Islam), began punishing mujahidin commanders from other groups for
atrocities they had committed against civilians. These Taliban fighters received
direct support from Pakistan and many war-weary Afghans. Militia factions who
had been fighting for control of Kabul were defeated by Ahmad Shah Massoud,
leader of Shora-Nezar (Northern Alliance), an alliance of militias opposed to the
Taliban. Massoud sought to build a national dialogue including the Taliban but was
rejected in his offers of incorporation.
In 1996, the Taliban captured Kabul, and by 2000, the group controlled 90 percent
of the country. Support for the Taliban slipped after it imposed strict laws based on
its interpretation of shariʿah (Islamic law). A terrorist attack on the World Trade
Center in New York City in September 2001 caused the United States to join with
the Northern Alliance in ousting the Taliban, who were sheltering al-Qaeda
terrorists accused of masterminding the attack. U.S. forces and the Northern
Alliance won control of Kabul and other key cities in November 2001.
Transitional State
Locally elected and tribal officials met in June 2002 to create a two-year
transitional government. They chose Hamid Karzai as president. A constitution was
approved in January 2004, and Karzai won presidential elections in October 2004.
His administration is working to reconstruct a devastated infrastructure, bridge
longstanding differences among the nation's tribes, and combat a lucrative drug
trade. Troops from the United States and other nations continue operations to
establish security and fight Taliban and al-Qaeda militants. Although Karzai won a
second term in 2009, the elections were fraught with allegations of fraud, which
undermined confidence in the results. Karzai went on to issue a decree that gave
him complete control over the Electoral Complaints Commission, which had helped
to expose the fraud in the 2009 elections. He also blamed foreign observers for the
election fraud and accused UN and EU officials of plotting against him.
U.S. Troop Withdrawal and an Increase in Violence
In 2009, President Obama bolstered U.S. troop levels in Afghanistan by 30,000 but
confirmed that troops would begin withdrawal in two years. In mid-2010, the
website WikiLeaks released thousands of classified documents regarding the war in
Afghanistan that damaged diplomatic relations between countries. NATO agreed in
late 2010 to hand over control of Afghanistan's security forces by 2014. U.S. troop
withdrawal began in mid-2011 and continued through 2012.