Robinson 1
Andrew Lawler: Writing Gets a Rewrite
Summary
Mesopotamian legend has credited a high priest from Uruk as the inventor of writing. However,
new discoveries in Egypt and Pakistan are starting to disprove this theory. The invention of
writing is now thought to have been a complex process rather than invented by one person. Clay
spheres with markings were found in Iraq, Syria, and Iran and for many years were dismissed by
researchers as games. Pierre Amiet began to examine the small spheres and began to suspect that
they were actually used as a method to count trade goods. She suspected that the marks were the
predecessors to what eventually became cuneiform. Her theory was eventually dismissed due to
the lack of evidence and curators not wanting to destroy their artifacts with testing.
Hieroglyphics were thought to have been created a century after cuneiform. However, the
discovery of a royal tomb in 1989 changed that theory. The tomb contained objects with
inscriptions that were dated to be at least a hundred years older than the oldest writing found in
Egypt previously. The inscriptions would mean that Egypt had created a writing system about
the same time as Mesopotamia. The exact date of the inscriptions cannot be calculated due to the
stratigraphic record being a disaster. However, there is another civilization that may have
developed a writing system around the same time. The Harappan’s system was not as complex as
the other two, but it still developed and there was a grouping of signs. The three civilizations
interacted through trade in pre-history. Therefore, the long held theory of Mesopotamia creating
writing is now in question with the possibility that another group created it first. There is also the
chance that all three writing systems were created independently around the same time.
Analysis
Andrew Lawler was quite informative about the different systems of writing. He explained each
reason for not having enough proof fairly well. However, he could have gone into more detail
about the writing systems of the Harappan civilization. He cannot talk about a third system that
has been proposed when there is not enough evidence to support the claim.
Vocabulary
Periphery- the outward bounds of something as distinguished from its internal regions or center
Coalesce- to unite for a common end: join forces
Situ- in the natural or original position or place
Tomography- a method of producing a three-dimensional image of the internal structures of a
solid object (as the human body or the earth) by the observation and recording of the differences
in the effects on the passage of waves of energy impinging on those structures
Robinson 2
Robert Draper: Black Pharaohs
Summary
Piye the king of Nubia decided it was time for a change in Egypt. After a yearlong campaign he
had overthrown Egypt’s leaders and made himself Pharaoh. Unfortunately, his face and what he
looked like has been lost. There is only one detail about him that is known from a destroyed
statue that is only his legs. His skin was dark and he was the first black pharaoh. The black
pharaohs reunited a torn apart Egypt. They built monuments and even built their own set of
pyramids in Sudan. Racism did not play a role in the ancient role; dark skin did not make anyone
inferior to anyone else. However, European researchers did not feel the same about the Nubians’
dark skin. Racism led to the neglecting of the Nubians’ chapter in history. The Nubians did so
much for Egypt and they embraced the ways and beliefs of Egypt. Egypt flourished under
Nubian rule, they had large harvests and were very economically well off. Eventually the
Assyrians took over what the Nubians had fixed and their hold on Egypt was lost. Still to this
day their history remains largely a mystery.
Analysis
Robert Draper did a really good job of laying out the history of the Nubian’s rule in Egypt.
Draper equalized them despite their skin color, and showed that they contributed to Egypt
without a second thought to the color of their skin. He gave a detailed history and established
them as a civilization worth a second look.
Vocabulary
Capitulated- to surrender often after negotiation of terms
Embattled- ready to fight: prepared to give battle
Harem- a group of females associated with one male
Geopolitical- a study of the influence of such factors as geography, economics, and demography
on the politics and especially the foreign policy of a state
Cartouches- an oval or oblong figure (as on ancient Egyptian monuments) enclosing a
sovereign's name
Uraeus- a representation of the sacred asp appearing in ancient Egyptian art and especially on the
headdress of rulers and serving as a symbol of sovereignty
Robinson 3
Andrew Lawler: Beyond the Family Feud
Summary
“The Olmec, were the Sumerians of the New World.” Archaeologist Michael Coe said this about
the Olmec civilization, a very advanced people who were before the Mayans. It was a remote
civilization that is famous for their giant stone heads. They shunned maize and preferred to use
aquatic resources. Scholars argue whether or not the Olmecs formed the first Mesoamerican
civilization. Pottery they made has been found all over Mesoamerica to further the argument that
they were first. They also established a writing system, but there has been no way to translate the
symbols. However, a discovery of ballcourts, terraces, and ceremonial buildings in another part
of Mesoamerica that predates the Olmec may confirm that the Olmecs did not form
Mesoamerican civilization. New world archaeologists have started looking into the day to day
lives of the Olmecs hoping to one day understand the stone heads and tell the story of the
Olmecs.
Analysis
Andrew Lawler made a strong case for the Olmecs creating the first Meroamerica civilization.
However, he then horribly contradicts himself by referring to evidence that they may have not.
He also refers to a lot of theories, but does not refer a whole lot to cold, hard facts that have been
established by researchers.
Vocabulary
Rudiments- a basic principle or element or a fundamental skill
Fracas- a noisy quarrel
Nuanced- a subtle distinction or variation
Palisades- a long strong stake pointed at the top and set close with others as a defense
Basalt- a dark gray to black dense to fine-grained igneous rock that consists of basic plagioclase,
augite, and usually magnetite
Robinson 4
Paul Cartledge: Alexander the Great: Hunting for a New Past?
Summary
Alexander the Great is well known for his conquests and battles. However, little is known about
his personal life. The records about it are not every extensive or reliable. His mother’s name was
Olympias and his father’s name was Philip. She was a Greek princess and he was from Macedon.
Olympias would later go on to claim that Alexander’s actual father was the Egyptian god
Ammon. He was appointed a regent of Macedon at the age of sixteen. He soon after passed the
two crucial tests of Macedonian manhood. Alexander became an alcoholic and even murdered a
personal companion during a drunken rage. He was married to several women in order to further
his military conquests. However, it is said that Alexander preferred men to women sexually wise.
Then there are others who say that fighting battles and conquering satisfied the same sexual
pleasures as other men. Alexander only suffered defeat during battle twice and it was by his own
men’s desire to travel no further than they already had. The people he conquered thought him to
be a God. The Egyptians went as far as to call him Pharaoh. He ended the Achaemenid Persian
Empire, developed territorial kingdoms, and thus he changed the world. However, his victory
was short lived. He died at the age of thirty-two, and without an heir his kingdom crumbled.
Analysis
Paul Cartledge was very thorough with his history on the personal life of Alexander the Great.
His facts were a little out of order at times. He also got a little sidetracked when he discussed
how the countries he conquered saw Alexander. Overall it was well written and a good start to
learning more about the conqueror.
Vocabulary
Patricide- one who murders his or her own father
Regicide- a person who kills a king
Extirpate- to destroy completely
Inchoate- being only partly in existence or operation
Robinson 5
Chris Hardman: Woman Power in the Maya World
Summary
In 2004 there was a discovery and excavation of a tomb. It was discovered to belong to a woman
of uncommon power and status. There was greenstone everywhere which was used to signify
royalty. Jewels and jade were found everywhere in the tomb. They also found a helmet, which
may have meant that she had a higher rank than her husband, who was a king. Woman had the
job of summoning up war gods and placing sacred magical power in the gear used for battle.
They would then present the helmet when she was finished preparing for war. There was another
tomb later found, it too is believed to have belong to women of royal standing. However, these
women were thought to have been sacrificed by an invading ruler who wanted to wipe out the
previous royal family. These discoveries were almost lost due to illegal logging, slash-and-burn
agriculture, and drug smuggling. There is now a partnership with Guatemala to protect the
rainforest that surrounds the tombs with the hope of finding more hidden treasures.
Analysis
Chris Hardman could have done a better job discussing the role of the woman in the Maya world.
He mostly discussed the architecture of the city, who the women in the tombs were, how they
were understood to be royalty, and what was in the tombs. Hardman said very little about the
power the women possessed.
Vocabulary
Salient- standing out conspicuously: prominent; especially: of notable significance
Posit- to assume or affirm the existence of
Osteologist- someone that studies the bony structure of an organism
Robinson 6
Evan Hadingham: Secrets of a Desert Metropolis
Summary
Petra is a large, empty canyon that has been labeled as a “city of the dead” or a “tent city”.
Researchers recently have come to find that it was actually a very wealthy city, full of life, and it
ruled the incense trade. It was full of pools, shops, gardens, and the walls are lined with more
than eight hundred tombs. The Nabataeans have been described in one of two ways. They were
said to be nomadic shepherds or fun-loving, pleasure-seeking people. Historians do not know for
sure, but they do know that they were big into trading. Researchers have found different artifacts
to support the claim of a nomadic people. They have also discovered “stone tents”, which were
used in the early days of Petra before they were replaced by actual stone houses. An
amphitheater was found in 1997, researchers do not know exactly what it was used for yet. They
also uncovered an open-air pool which originally was thought to be a marketplace. It had a
pipeline that supplied the pool, public baths, and fountains with water. It is believed that some of
Petra’s first monarchs were wanted their people to settle down. The settlements established help
the trading caravans to not be plundered. However, this did not stop the Romans from diverting
the caravans and gradually drained the wealth from Petra. Then, in 363 A.D., it is thought that an
earthquake finished off the Nabataeans. Recent findings have found that the Nabataeans thrived
well into the Roman era. Scrolls were found in 1993 that may further prove that the Nabataeans’
beliefs may have even thrived until the coming up Islam in 631 A.D.
Analysis
Evan Hadingham did a fairly decent job of talking about the city of Petra. He brought the
Nabateans into the discussing without really explaining who they were until later in the article.
Hadingham is all over the place in the article. His paragraphs should be in a better order to where
the point he is trying to makes comes across more clearly.
Vocabulary
Succored- to go to the aid of
Pastoralists- someone part of a social organization based on livestock raising as the primary
economic activity
Robinson 7
T.R. (Joe) Sundaram: Ancient Jewel
Summary
India is a land of rich cultural inheritance and may be the oldest continuing civilization that still
exists. They developed their own writing system, traded extensively, several religions, and many
other things. India could easily be compared to Egypt and Greece in developments and culture.
The Upanishads were a compilation of their ancient philosophical texts. Upon its translation it
influenced European philosophers and American writers. The texts spoke of three central tenets
by which Indians think. They believed in assimilation, which is the belief that new ideas and
experiences are just absorbed into the old ones. They believed in cycles of life, which is the
belief that all changes in the world take place in cycles. The final one is the belief in the
acceptance of the coexistence of opposites, which is the belief that contradictory ideas are a
natural part of their way of life. India has also contributed the Pythagorean Theorem, the concept
of zero, the modern numerical system, areas of science and astronomy, concept of black holes,
and impacts on music and film. They have even contributed to the foods people eat, how to dye
fabrics, chess, yoga, and meditation.
Analysis
T.R. (Joe) Sundaram did a really great job at showing people how India’s past achievements
affects people in the modern world today. He brought The Upanishads into a modern light and
made them easy for people to understand. Sundaram defiantly gave people a reason to be
thankful for what India has done.
Vocabulary
Zenith- culminating point
Quintessential- the essence of a thing in its purest and most concentrated form
Albeit- conceding the fact that: even though
Robinson 8
Toby Lester: What is the Koran?
Summary
Scholars are trying to reinterpret the Koran for the modern world. Parchment papers found in
Yemen are thought to be fragments from some of the first Korans every written. Scholars are
hoping to use these fragments to fortify the Koran as a real book with a history as real as the
Bible’s. However, the Muslim community is against this process, making the Koran a historical
book would unravel their struggle to follow the commandments given in the book. This calls into
question of when exactly the Koran was written and if Muhammad even understood all of the
text. Someone then came up with the idea of looking at the Koran with a literary approach. He
was so afterwards declared an apostate and fled for his life after being forced to divorce his wife
by the government. The founder, Muhammad, was said to have visions where the Angel Gabriel
spoke to him and told him to serve as Messenger of God. He was persecuted and took his
followers with him to Medina. He later gathered up enough support to attack those that had
persecuted him and his followers. When he died, it is said that the Koran was not recorded yet
except on palm leaves, flat stones, and orally. It would be another decade before the writings
were all compiled into what today is the Koran. Soon after, Islam had finally established itself as
a religious and political entity. Those new to reading the Koran are surprised to find that it
contains relatively the same stories as the Bible. The Koran takes great care to stress the belief of
monotheism, but at the same time to separate itself from Judaism and Christianity. However, the
Koran is fairly hard to read and understand. It makes dramatic shifts in the style, voice, and
subject matter. It also said to be incomprehensible at times, and this is due to the fact that it was
written down from oral traditions. In the end, Islam is said to be one of the world’s great
religions due to its original openness to change and new ideas. It is all a matter of being able to
accept people’s ideas and that they are only trying to help.
Analysis
Toby Lester did a very good job of explaining the Koran. He explained everything in great detail.
He broke down what exactly the book was and gave a detailed history of the book. He even
discussed the book with people from Islam and got their opinions. Overall it very well executed
and was not biased.
Vocabulary
Inerrancy- exemption from error
Paleography- the study of ancient writings and inscriptions
Orthography- the art of writing words with the proper letters according to standard usage
Minarets- a tall slender tower of a mosque having one or more balconies from which the
summons to prayer is cried by the muezzin
Robinson 9
Aberrations- the fact or an instance of deviating or being aberrant especially from a moral
standard or normal state
Epistemological- the study or a theory of the nature and grounds of knowledge especially with
reference to its limits and validity
Robinson 10
Karen L. King: Women in Ancient Christianity: The New Discoveries
Summary
Women were followers of Jesus from the beginning. They followed him even after his death.
Women became strong leaders after his death. They held church in their homes, held church
office positions, taught, preached, and even lead prayers. The most prominent female was Mary
Magdalene; she was visionary and was sometimes even a leader to the apostles. She was very
curious and always had questions to ask Jesus. Mary was not the only important woman, there
were many more women, but most of their names have been lost. These women died and were
tortured for their beliefs. However, their accomplishments and roles in the church were
discouraged. The texts were changed; one woman was even turned into a man in text. Mary was
turned into the unnamed sinning woman in almost every story in order to lessen her influence.
Woman were present, but due to sexual biased they were excluded and cut out.
Analysis
Karen L. King did not really discuss the new discoveries found about women in Christianity. She
mostly discussed what Mary Magdalene and the other women did for the church. She stated their
history and how they were under appreciated. She spent a few lines to a paragraph stating some
discoveries that were rather trivial.
Vocabulary
Pseudonymously- bearing or using a fictitious name
Presbyters- a member of the governing body of an early Christian church
Praxis- customary practice or conduct
Martyr- a person who sacrifices something of great value and especially life itself for the sake of
principle
Robinson 11
Arne Emil Christensen: The Age of the Vikings
Summary
The Vikings were the most feared people in Europe for about two hundred fifty years due to their
brutal nature. They plundered, traded, settled lands, and terrorized powerful kingdoms such as
England and France. Their homeland of Scandinavia was fairly unknown to the rest of Europe
when the Viking raids began. They were fierce warriors that eventually settled Iceland and were
the first Europeans to set foot on American soil. However, that was during times of war. They
were mostly farmers and raised live stock. They were adventurous and wanted to explore the
world and expand. Eventually over time, they started to settle down and based their lives on
trading. They eventually adopted Christianity and their raids ended. They became part of
Christian Europe and their lives went on peacefully.
Analysis
Arne Emil Christensen was all over in the discussion of the Vikings. At one point there is a
paragraph on how they were warriors, but the next paragraph would be about how they were
farmers. Then the next one would be about them fighting wars again. It was well written, but it
should have been in a better order.
Vocabulary
Steatite- a massive talc having a grayish-green or brown color
Robinson 12
References
Merriam-Webster.com. 2011. http://www.merriam-webster.com (30 November 2011).