Assistive Technology in Higher Education for the New Millennium

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Assistive Technology in Higher Education for the New Millennium
Carla L. Lewis-Irizarry, MPA
City University of New York (CUNY)
School of Professional Studies (SPS)
2011 Association for Education and Rehabilitation for the Blind and Visually Impaired
(AER)
Regional Conference
Boston Park Plaza, Boston, MA
August 12-14, 2011
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to the topic of assistive technology and
students with disabilities. To set the context, we will begin by briefly examining the definitions,
incidence, and characteristics associated with students with disabilities. Next, we consider the
challenge of recognizing and responding to academic performance problems. Once we are
motivated to act, we need to locate technology interventions that will enhance academic
performance. However, the form and function of some forms of assistive technology will
challenge our conceptions of technology-enhanced performance. Finally we will briefly discuss
the process of assessing claims of technology-enhanced performance and what work with blind
and visually impaired students.
Key Words: Assistive Technology, Disability, Blind/Visually Impaired, and Students
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Assistive Technology for the New Millennium
Until recently, little attention has been devoted to the assistive technology needs of
students with disabilities. However, the federal mandate in the 1997 reauthorization of IDEA, 1 to
consider assistive technology when planning the IEP2 of every student, has been described as an
event that marked the dawn of a new era of assistive technology for the new millennium for
individuals with disabilities (Edyburn, 2005a, 2000).
Typically when we look at assistive
technology it was referred to students with mild or learning disabilities but as time grew many
more students with other disabilities like blindness and visual impairments. Typically, mild
disabilities are considered to be learning disabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders, and mental
retardation. These disabilities are defined as follows in the IDEA ‘97 Final Regulations specific
learning disability is defined as follows: (i) General. The term means a disorder in one or more of
the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or
written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell,
or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain
injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (ii) Disorders not
included. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual,
hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or have
environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (Edyburn, 2006).
1
2
IDEA-Individuals with Disability Education Act of 1975
IEP-Individualized Education Program
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Technology is used in almost every educational, employment, community, and
recreational setting. Access to technology can promote positive postsecondary academic and
career outcomes for students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities and, for those who
have interest and aptitude, open doors to high-tech career fields that were once unavailable to
people with disabilities. The benefits of technology use may be even greater for people with
disabilities than for those without disabilities.
More than 130,000 students with disabilities attend college in this country, and the
number continues to increase (Levinson & Ohler, 1998). One reason for the influx with students
with Disabilities into college is section 504 of the rehabilitation act of 1973. This act requires
colleges receiving federal funds to provide services and programming to individuals with
disabilities. Postsecondary institutions (education) are required by law to make reasonable
accommodations to ensure the services of students with disabilities.
However, fewer individuals with disabilities own computers and use the Internet. In
addition, some people with disabilities cannot access web pages, instructional and applications
software, telecommunications equipment; and other electronic equipment because the designs of
these products erect barriers to them. The full potential of using technology to prepare students
with disabilities for postsecondary education and beyond is not being realized (National Council
on Disability & Social Security Administration, 2000), perhaps because accessibility is rarely
defined as an important factor when purchasing or developing educational technology.
Legislations and Regulations of Assistive Technology:
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The Assistive Technology Act of 1998 was amended on October 25, 2004 to support
programs of grants to States to address the assistive technology needs of individuals with
disabilities, and for other purposes. Over 54,000,000 individuals in the United States have
disabilities, with almost half experiencing severe disabilities that affect their ability to see, hear,
communicate, reason, walk, or perform other basic life functions. Disability is a natural part of
the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to:

Live independently

Enjoy self-determination and make choices

Benefit from an education

Pursue meaningful careers

Enjoy full inclusion and integration in the economic, political, social, cultural, and
educational mainstream of society in the United States (Public Law 108-364 108th
Congress).
Technology is one of the primary engines for economic activity, education, and innovation in
the Nation, and throughout the world. The commitment of the United States to the development
and utilization of technology is one of the main factors underlying the strength and vibrancy of
the economy of the United States.
As technology has come to play an increasingly important role in the lives of all persons
in the United States, in the conduct of business, in the functioning of government, in the
fostering of communication, in the conduct of commerce, and in the provision of education, its
impact upon the lives of individuals with disabilities in the United States has been comparable to
its impact upon the remainder of the citizens of the United States. Any development in
mainstream technology will have profound implications for individuals with disabilities in the
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United States. Substantial progress has been made in the development of assistive technology
devices, including adaptations to existing devices that facilitate activities of daily living that
significantly benefit individuals with disabilities of all ages.
These devices, including
adaptations, increase involvement in, and reduce expenditures associated with, programs and
activities that facilitate communication, ensure independent functioning, enable early childhood
development, support educational achievement, provide and enhance employment options, and
enable full participation in community living for individuals with disabilities. Access to such
devices can also reduce expenditures associated with early childhood intervention, education,
rehabilitation and training, health care, employment, residential living, independent living,
recreation opportunities, and other aspects of daily living.
Over the last 15 years, the Federal Government has invested in the development of
comprehensive statewide programs of technology-related assistance, which have proven
effective in assisting individuals with disabilities in accessing assistive technology devices and
assistive technology services. This partnership between the Federal Government and the States
provided an important service to individuals with disabilities by strengthening the capacity of
each State to assist individuals with disabilities of all ages meet their assistive technology needs.
Despite the success of the Federal-State partnership in providing access to assistive technology
devices and assistive technology services, there is a continued need to provide information about
the availability of assistive technology, advances in improving accessibility and functionality of
assistive technology, and appropriate methods to secure and utilize assistive technology in order
to maximize the independence and participation of individuals with disabilities in society. The
combination of significant recent changes in Federal policy (including changes to section 508 of
the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29 U.S.C. 794d), accessibility provisions of the Help America
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Vote Act of 2002 (42 U.S.C. 15301 et seq.), and the amendments made to the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq.) by the No Child Left Behind Act of
2001) and the rapid and unending evolution of technology require a Federal-State investment in
State assistive technology systems to continue to ensure that individuals with disabilities reap the
benefits of the technological revolution and participate fully in life in their communities
(http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_public_laws&docid=f:pu
bl364.108).
Assistive Technology as a Universal Design (UD):
Precollege and college students come from a wide variety of ethnic and racial
backgrounds. For some, English is not their first language. Represented in most classes are
many types of racial/ethnic backgrounds, ages, native languages, and learning styles, including
visual and auditory learners. In addition, increasing numbers of students with disabilities are
included in regular precollege and postsecondary courses. Their disabilities include blindness,
low vision, hearing impairments, mobility impairments, learning disabilities, and health
impairments. Students are in school to learn and instructors share this goal. How can educators
design instruction to maximize the learning of all students? The field of universal design 3 can
provide a starting point for developing a framework for instruction. You can apply this body of
knowledge to create courses where lectures, discussions, visual aids, videos, printed materials,
labs, and fieldwork are accessible to all students.
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Universal Design- The term universal design (UD) was coined by the architect Ronald Mace, who challenged
the conventional approach of designing for the average user and provided a design foundation for more
accessible and usable products and environments. Mace and other visionaries developed the definition of UD
used by the Center for Universal Design (CUD) at North Carolina State University: "the design of products and
environments to be usable to the greatest extent possible by people of all ages and abilities" (Story, Mueller, &
Mace, 1998). Universal design puts high value on both diversity and inclusiveness.
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In contrast, universal design (UD) is “the design of products and environments to be
usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or
specialized design” (http://www.design.ncsu.edu/cud/univ_design/ud.htm).
For example, a
standard door is not accessible to everyone. If a large switch is installed, the door becomes
accessible to more people, including some wheelchair users. However, applying universal design
principles could lead to the installation of sensors that signal the door to open when anyone
approaches, making the building accessible to everyone.
According to Getzel & Wehman (2005), they define Assistive technology as the meaning
of any item, piece of equipment or system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or
customized, that is commonly used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of
individuals with disabilities (Getzel & Wehman, 2005, pp. 181). Assistive Technology helps
people with disabilities live a productive life, accomplish daily routines, communicate, succeed
in education, and secure employment.
When developers created universal design (UD)
principles as they created information technology; they minimize the need for assistive
technology and, in situations where assistive technology was needed, they ensured new products
and services are compatible with commonly used assistive hardware and software. There are
many ways universal design technology benefits students with disabilities.
There are three important facets to the way student accesses information. These include
how the information is accessed, how available the information is and how affordable it is to
access. These facets can affect a student’s college experience in many ways. In this paper, the
efficiency, availability and affordability of assistive technology available for blind students to
perform their academic tasks will be compared. There are three types of assistive technology:
specialized devices, adapted mainstream devices and devices that are universally designed. Each
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of the three types will be defined and analyzed. The costs, efficiency, and availability of specific
devices from each of the three categories will be compared in order to better understand which
types of assistive technology are best suited to providing a college experience that students with
visual disabilities can have equal access to in classrooms and at home.
Universal design web pages allow students who are blind and using text-to-speech
systems to gain access to information, communicate with peers and teachers, and take
advantages of distance learning options. Accessible instructional software’s (on disks, CD’s, or
other media) allows students with many types of disabilities and students without disabilities to
participate side by side in simulations and other computer-based activities.
As under the ADA there is no specific mention of assistive technology, the U.S.
Department of Justice clarified that the ADA applies to technology resources: “Covered entities
that use the internet for communications regarding their programs, goods, or services must be
prepared to offer those communications through accessible means as well” (Patrick, 1996p. 1).
Technology can help people with disabilities fully participate in academic and
employment offerings. Unfortunately, sometimes technology is employed in a very narrow
range of ways to enhance the education of students with disabilities (if used at all). For example,
a computer and assistive technology can be available in to a student in a special education
resource room but not in general education classrooms where, if available, the technology could
be used to complete in-class assignments. It is also true that assistive technology is not always
readily available to students who, with it, might be able to participate in work-based learning
experiences, such as summer internships, Educators, service providers, and parents should ensure
that appropriate technology is available when and where students with disabilities need it.
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Students with disabilities should be taught to use technology in ways that (1) maximize
their independence, productivity, and participation in all academic and employment activities, (2)
facilitate successful transitions between academic settings and employment and (3) lead to
successful, self determined adult lives (Getzel & Wehman, 2005). Technology can be used to
support mentoring relationships, gaining access to information, participating in science labs,
communicating in class discussions, practicing in self-advocacy, conducting independent living
skills, and work-base learning opportunities. The following are some examples and the many
ways that technology can be used creativity by students with disabilities to maximize their
independence, productivity, and participation in academic studies and careers.

Maximize independence in academic and employment tasks

Participate in classroom discussions

Gain access to peers, mentors, and role models

Self-advocate

Gain access to full range of educational options
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Participate in experiences not otherwise possible

Succeed in work-based learning experiences
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Secure high levels of independent living
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Prepare for transitions to college and careers
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Work side by side with peers
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Master academic tasks that they cannot accomplish otherwise
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Enter high-tech field careers
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Participate in community and recreational activities
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Students who are blind or visually impaired with Assistive Technology:
When selecting technology and well-defined strategies for their use, students with
disabilities can demonstrate and apply their knowledge and fully participate in educational,
career, and recreational activities. Once a student with a disability graduates from high school
he/she along with their advocates should be thinking about technology that they would be using
once they get into college or employment. Technology specialists should work closely with
students to first determine what they need to accomplish by using a computer. Technology
choices for people with disabilities should be driven with short term and long term needs. Once
basic tools and strategies are initially reached/selected, students can test, discard, adapt, and/or
refine them. The end user of the technology should ultimately determine what works best. Here
are some many types of assistive technology organized by disability type to consider for students
with disabilities.
Low Vision:
For some people with visual impairments, the standard size of letters on the screen,
blackboard, white board, or printed documents is too small to read. Some people distinguish one
color from another others have visual field limitations that result in tunnel vision or alternating
areas of total blindness and vision. Some are hypersensitive to light. The most common
computer adaption for people with visual impairments is software to enlarge screen images.
Most screen magnification software can also reverse the screen to black on white to white on
black for people with light sensitivity. Some software programs also provide speech outputs to
reduce the eyestrain associated with reading large blocks of text with screen enlargement alone.
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For individuals with some visual impairments software to adjust the color of the monitor
or change the foreground and background colors is also of value. In addition, antiglare screens
can make screens easier to read. A standard desktop scanner can be combined with screen
enlargement technology to magnify printed text. With this system, each page of text is scanned
and the results are displayed in large print on the computer screen, which saves time and money
to print from a copier machine. Closed circuit television (CCTV) magnifiers available in both
stationary and portable models can be used to magnify printed materials, pictures, and objects.
Blindness:
Individuals who have no functional sight use standard keyboards; however, Braille input
devices are available and Braille key labels can assist with keyboard use. For people who are
blind, speech output is the most popular form of assistive technology. Screen reader software
and a speech synthesizer read text presented on the screen by word processing, web browsers, email, and other software.
Scanners with optical character recognition combined with an
accessible computer system provide independent access to printed materials for students who are
blind. These systems read printed content and store it electronically on computers, where it can
be read using speech synthesizes (like jaws and zoom text) or printed using Braille transition
software and Braille embossers.
Talking calculators, thermometers, and other specialized
devices that provide audio output can enhance the participation and success of students who are
blind, particularly those in science, math, and engineering fields.
Audio books are books that are read verbally and recorded. There are audio books that
are created for all listeners, and there are others that are specifically created for listeners that
have visual or learning disabilities. The ones that are meant for all listeners can be found in any
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bookstore or online venders such as audible. Audio books that are specifically geared towards
listeners with print disabilities are a lot more difficult to attain. They are available from the
National Library of Congress (Home Page for the National Library Service for the Blind and
Physically Handicapped), BookShare.org (Accessible Books and Periodicals for Readers with
Print Disabilities – Bookshare), and Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic (RFB&D: Accessible
Materials for Individuals with Visual and Learning Disabilities). While these books are free for
listeners with print disabilities, a student with a print disability must go through an application
process in order to be approved for them. A student can use the documentation they used for
their accommodations with the disability service office for the application process. The types of
books that are available in NLS, Bookshare, and RFB&D are called DAISY talking books
(DAISY Consortium).
These books are read by a person, recorded, and then indexed. Page and chapter separate
them. This is an advantage over mainstream audio books because it makes them easier to
navigate. The reader can quickly jump to the page number or chapter that they need with the
press of a button. While DAISY talking books are harder to get than mainstream audio books,
they are free and more convenient for listeners with disabilities because of features that are
specific for that demographic. Another advantage is that mainstream audio books usually have a
limited selection. The types of audio books found in bookstores are books that are read for
leisure. Audio books that are recorded for the blind cover a wide range of genres including
textbooks used in college.
People who are blind access electronic information through a type of software called
screen readers (Screen readers – Browse by Category – American Foundation for the Blind).
They are called screen readers because of what they do. This complex software verbally reads
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what’s on the screen. They can be installed on phones, computers, and there are specialized
devices that are built with screen readers and have no screens.
Although there are many people who are blind that prefer to access their information
through audio or electronic means, there are still those who prefer to read Braille (What is Braille
– American Foundation for the Blind). Braille is a written language which can be felt more
commonly by people’s fingers but in certain cases a person might have to resort to using a
different body part. There are many textbooks that are printed in Braille. There are also Braille
printers, which are often large and are expensive. The modern day solutions for this are devices
that are known as refreshable Braille displays. These devices have pins that can change position
in order to convey information in a tactile fashion. Refreshable Braille displays can be used to
read electronic documents, books, and can also perform word processing tasks. Depending on the
device, there may be additional features such as browsing the Internet and accessing email.
The common theme that students with visual disabilities experience is that in order to get
books or computers that they need to get an education, they have to go to specialized venders or
organizations. While all other students can just walk into any book or computer store and get the
tools they need, a blind student is limited to the few organizations that serve the blind.
The result is that not all books are available for students with visual disabilities in their
preferred format. For instance, a student might prefer their text book in electronic format because
they cannot read Braille. The book might only be available in Braille or vice versa. There are
times when a book is so new or obscure that it simply hasn’t been converted to any of the
formats that are accessible to students who are blind.
The relevance of this is that when a professor is working on the curriculum and book list,
it’s not common for them to consider whether the books will be available for students in alternate
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formats. This would not be such a difficult experience for students with visual disabilities if
universities had a more universal design approach. It can be discouraging for a student to learn
that one of their books is not available in an accessible format. Even though there are ways to
scan a book and convert it into a text document, the extra steps might contribute to the student
falling behind on their assignments. This could take a psychological toll on the student that can
affect their success in the classroom. Also, the fact that they don’t get their books from the
bookstore excludes them from a basic social college experience that all students should have.
More and more students are starting to buy their books in electronic format. Devices such
as the Amazon Kindle or the Apple iPad are constantly adding textbooks to their bookstores in
order to attract the student demographic. As mentioned before, students with visual disabilities
use different types of assistive devices in order to read and write. These devices are
manufactured for a small demographic and the result is that they can get quite expensive. There
is an interesting opportunity that is arising from the move from print to media. The more
electronic books become a standard; students with visual disabilities will find it easier to access
their readings in the academic setting.
Some students with visual disabilities are sponsored by government organizations and
their tuitions as well as their assistive technology are paid for. These government organizations
exist because of a lack of universal design not only in universities but also in society at large.
They purchase specialized products for the blind that are expensive. When they do this, they are
not promoting the use of products that are universally designed. Products that are universally
designed are usually more affordable because of the large demand that they have. If every
business and organization took a universal design approach, than students with disabilities would
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not have to buy specialized devices in order to acquire the tools they need to have an equal
opportunity to pass or fail in college.
Specialized devices are devices that are made for a specific demographic. For instance,
hearing aids are specifically made for people who have hearing loss. These products are useless
to anyone else but the specific consumer that they are made for. There are advantages and
disadvantages to specialized devices. The greatest advantage about specialized devices is that
they are tailored to fit the needs of the targeted consumer. The disadvantage of specialized
devices is that because they are made for a small population of people, they tend to be very
expensive. The majority of students with visual disabilities that own specialized devices are
sponsored by a government organization. Simply put, these devices are not affordable with the
average student budget.
The Victor Reader Stream is a portable book-reading device (Victor Reader Stream
DAISY MP3 + SoftPack – HumanWare USA). It can read DAISY talking books as well as text
documents. It has a microphone for recording audio. A student with a visual disability would be
able to use the Victor Reader Stream on the go to listen to their books, recorded lessons or
lectures, or read handouts that they have uploaded to the device.
The student would be able to get DAISY talking books for free from RFB&D,
Bookshare.org, or NLS and upload and listen to them at their own convenience. As mentioned
before page and chapter separate DAISY talking books, so reading them on a Victor reader
would be just like having the real book in their hand. Furthermore, because the books are
recorded using human voices they are easier to listen to than synthesized voices.
The Victor Reader Stream has a few more useful features that are essential for the
education of a student with a visual disability. It comes with a built in screen reader to read text
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documents. It can read txt, rtf, word documents, and some other supported file formats. Because
these files are read with a synthesized voice, they are not as easy to listen to as the DAISY
talking books but it is still convenient for reading small documents such as the course syllabus or
a paper assignment. It can also play MP3 and WAV files. This can be useful if someone else in
the student’s absence records the lecture. The student can then upload the file and listen to it and
catch up on all the important information they missed. This feature can also be used to listen to
mainstream audio books, which can be useful for literature courses.
There are many advantages and disadvantages to the Victor Reader Stream. It costs about
$359 so it is moderately priced. The fact that it’s moderately priced and that DAISY talking
books are free for students with visual disabilities makes it a valuable and affordable device. It is
also versatile and efficient at what it does. Its only disadvantage is that it cannot do anything else
but read books, play audio files, and record audio. A student cannot academically survive using
the Victor Reader Stream alone.
When it comes to the experience of reading books, The Victor Reader Stream does a
great job at leveling the playing field for a student with a visual disability. It is easy to use and
the student can quickly navigate to the page or chapter that they need. They don’t have to sift
through a lot of unnecessary information, which can be slow and taxing on the mind. A student
can also use it to read word by word and spell out words as well. It completely simulates the
experience of having a real book in ones hand.
The BrailleNote Apex (BrailleNote Apex BT 32 – HumanWare USA) and the VoiceNote
Apex (VoiceNote QT – HumanWare USA) is both note taking devices. The difference between
them is that the BraillNote Apex has a refreshable Braille display while the VoiceNote Apex has
a full keyboard. Information is mainly accessed through the refreshable Braille display using the
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BrailleNote Apex. It does have some audio feedback as well. The VoiceNote is equipped with a
full screen reader so that the user can access all their information through auditory means.
The features of the two devices are the same. A student can use either of them to perform
word processing tasks, listen to electronic books, browse the Internet, manage their emails, and
listen to audio files. These devices would allow students with visual disabilities to write their
papers and take notes. In a way they replace papers, pens, and computers. Students can also use
them to conduct online research by browsing the web, read electronic books specifically made
for the blind, and communicate with their professors and fellow students through e-mail.
The BrailleNote and VoiceNote have some advantages and disadvantages. The first
advantage is that they allow students with visual disabilities to access information through their
preferred method. The second advantage is that they have a few more features than the Victor
Reader Stream. Not only can they be used to read books, but also they can perform word
processing, browse the web and manage e-mail accounts. Their disadvantage is that they cannot
create presentations. PowerPoint presentations are essential in the higher education setting. Any
student is expected to be proficient at creating a PowerPoint presentation. They also cannot be
used to read DAISY talking books, which limits the amount of books that a student can access.
The BrailleNote Apex is $6195 and the VoiceNote Apex is $2049. This is a very steep
price for a student to afford on their own. As stated before, some sort of government agency,
which pays for these devices, sponsors most students with disabilities. If a student wished to buy
these devices on their own they would be paying a substantial fee when compared to buying a
notebook or a laptop to use for school. Because these devices are made for such a small
population, they are very expensive. If they were integrated into devices that are made for
everyone, they would be a lot cheaper.
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Using the Victor Reader Stream and either a BrailleNote or a VoiceNote, a student with a
visual disability can be prepared to take on most challenges in higher education. Their
experience of taking notes, reading books, writing papers, and performing basic web browsing
would be possible. However the student would struggle in a class that requires a PowerPoint
presentation and reading PDF documents. Once again, there are barriers that are encountered
even with these powerful devices. These barriers can be discouraging to students and affect their
motivation to succeed. Even with these barriers the cost of having a Victor Reader Stream and
one of the note taking devices would either cost $6544 or $2398. Those are steep prices to pay
but students still wouldn’t be able to have the full academic experience because of their lack of
diverse features.
Adapted mainstream devices give the opportunity for assistive technology to have more
diverse features. The screen reader called JAWS is powerful software that can help students with
disabilities accomplish many academic tasks. It is considered an in the adapted mainstream
devices category because it can be installed on any computers running the Windows operating
system. JAWS can verbally read what is on a computer screen. It is also compatible with many
refreshable Braille display devices for those who prefer accessing their computer through tactile
means. This has an extra cost of buying the refreshable Braille display. The user interacts with
the computer only using keyboard commands instead of the mouse. In the case of using a
refreshable Braille display, the user would interact with the computer by using the Braille
display.
JAWS is truly a valuable tool when it comes to leveling the academic field for students
with visual disabilities. A student can read any text document that is accessible to the blind,
perform word processing tasks, create PowerPoint presentations, browse the internet, manage
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their e-mails, read many different types of books, as well as many other tasks that can be
performed on the computer. This means that with a laptop equipped with JAWS, a student with a
visual disability will be able to comfortably take notes, write papers, create presentations, read
audio and DAISY books, conduct online research, and communicate with their professors and
peers.
One of the advantages of using Jaws is that a student will have a wide variety of books
available to them because of it’s compatibility with DAISY talking books, PDF files, and the
most commonly used text files. The other advantage is that with one device, a student will be
able to perform a variety of tasks that are essential to the academic experience. The
disadvantages of JAWS are that it costs $1095 and it is only compatible with a handful of
software. A user cannot count on JAWS being compatible with any new software and websites
with flash technology can be hard to navigate using JAWS. While it’s still a steep price to pay
after buying a computer, JAWS is a tool that can get a student with a visual disability through
college.
If computers and software were universally designed then a student with a visual
disability would have a college experience that is equal to their peers. Apple products such as the
Mac Book (Apple – Accessibility – Mac OS X – Vision) and the iPad (Apple – Accessibility –
IPad – Vision) are created using the concept of universal design. The Mac Book and the iPad
both feature built-in accessibility features. This means that a student with a visual disability can
pick up any Mac Book or iPad and turn on their accessibility features and use them like everyone
else. They come equipped with a screen reader called Voiceover and they are also compatible
with many different types of refreshable Braille displays. These devices are made with an all-
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inclusive nature that allows students with visual disabilities to function up to par with the rest of
their peers.
There are many applications that are accessible with Voiceover on apple products. A
student can perform word processing tasks, create presentations, browse the web, manage their email, and read e-books as well as all accessible text files and PDFs. As one can see, Voiceover
can accomplish the same amount of tasks as JAWS. The only difference is Voiceover is free. The
iPad has the iBook application, which offers a growing number of books. Once again since apple
universally designs, all the e-books in the iBook’s store are accessible. This means that a student
with a visual disability can navigate a book by page, or chapter. They can also read word by
word and spell out any word they’d like. There’s even an additional feature of a dictionary to
enhance the experience. While iPads cannot read DAISY talking books by default, there is a
software that can convert them so that a student can read converted DAISY talking books on
their iPad (October 29, 2010 – DaisytoEpub Software).
The advantages of apple products are that it can effectively be used to write papers, take
notes, read books, browse the Internet, and manage email accounts. They can do this without
paying any extra costs to adapt their devices. Furthermore, because Apple products are highly in
demand, they are moderately priced and a user will always be able to have access to technical
assistance. The iPad starts at $499 and Mac Books start at $999. These prices are still a bit costly
but they are much cheaper than any of the specialized or adapted devices discussed before. The
disadvantage to Apple products is that because they cater to such a large demographic their
devices don’t perform tasks such as word processing and reading books as well as the specialized
and adapted devices. They are still effective at doing them and they continue to improve.
Running Head: Assistive Technology
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The college experience of a student with a visual disability can be greatly enhanced using
Apple products. The student will be performing all the tasks that are essential to completing their
education while using the same devices as their peers. This will not only help students perform
academically but it will help integrate them into the social college scene because they’ll be able
to relate to their peers a little bit better.
City University of New York (CUNY):
In 2010 the City University of New York (CUNY) received a letter from the Department
of Justice and the Department of Education on issues with students with disabilities and the use
of E-book readers on campuses of CUNY.
In appendix A is the actually letter from the
Department of Justice and the department of Education in reference to E-book readers that is not
accessible to students who are blind or are visually impaired.
Also CUNY has the C.U.N.Y Assistive Technology Services known has CATS, which
this past Summer conducted its second annual accessibility conference. The conferences brings
all of its results of the insights, experiences and talents of the people involved in the daily
challenge of providing full and equal access to the educational opportunities available at the City
University of New York. Sponsored by COSDI special projects, innovative approaches and
cutting edge services are provided to the various CUNY Offices of Services to Students with
Disabilities and by the extension to thousands of the CUNY students with disabilities. The net
result of is knowledge base of policies, practices, and outcomes to assist all students with
disabilities a productive education.
In closing, the use of technology is essential in education, employment, community
service, and recreation. Computers, the Internet and other technologies have the potential to
Running Head: Assistive Technology
23
promote positive postsecondary and career outcomes for people with disabilities. However, this
will not be realized if the stakeholders do not secure funding; are knowledgeable about
technologies, comply with legal mandates, and develop policies, standards, and procedures that
maximizes the independence, participation, and productivity of people with disabilities
throughout their lives.
Getzel & Wehman, 2005, adheres by stating to ensure that the
opportunities technology provides are accessible to everyone contributes to a level playing field
in college and employment, results in successful careers for more citizens, and thereby
strengthen the economy.
Appendix A:
U.S. Department of Justice
Civil Rights Division
Running Head: Assistive Technology
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U.S. Department of Education
Office for Civil Rights
June 29, 2010
Dear College or University President:
We write to express concern on the part of the Department of Justice and the
Department of Education that colleges and universities are using electronic book readers that are
not accessible to students who are blind or have low vision and to seek your help in ensuring that
this emerging technology is used in classroom settings in a manner that is permissible under
federal law. A serious problem with some of these devices is that they lack an accessible text-tospeech function. Requiring use of an emerging technology in a classroom environment when the
technology is inaccessible to an entire population of individuals with disabilities – individuals
with visual disabilities – is discrimination prohibited by the Americans with Disabilities Act of
1990 (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) unless those
individuals are provided accommodations or modifications that permit them to receive all the
educational benefits provided by the technology in an equally effective and equally integrated
manner.
The Departments of Justice and Education share responsibility for protecting the rights of college
and university students with disabilities. The Department of Justice is responsible for
enforcement and implementation of title III of the ADA, which covers private colleges and
universities, and the Departments of Justice and Education both have enforcement authority
under title II of the ADA, which covers public universities. In addition, the Department of
Education enforces Section 504 with respect to public and private colleges and universities that
receive federal financial assistance from the Department of Education. As discussed below, the
general requirements of Section 504 and the ADA reach equipment and technological devices
when they are used by public entities or places of public accommodation as part of their
programs, services, activities, goods, advantages, privileges, or accommodations.
Under title III, individuals with disabilities, including students with visual impairments, may not
be discriminated against in the full and equal enjoyment of all of the goods and services of
private colleges and universities; they must receive an equal opportunity to participate in and
benefit from these goods and services; and they must not be provided different or separate goods
or services unless doing so is necessary to ensure that access to the goods and services is equally
as effective as that provided to others.1 Under title II, qualified individuals with disabilities may
not be excluded from participation in or denied the benefits of the services, programs, or
activities of, nor subjected to discrimination by, public universities and colleges.2 Both title II
and Section 504 prohibit colleges and universities from affording individuals with disabilities
with an opportunity to participate in or benefit from college and university aids, benefits, and
services that is unequal to the opportunity afforded others.3 Similarly, individuals with
disabilities must be provided with aids, benefits, or services that provide an equal opportunity to
achieve the same result or the same level of achievement as others.4 A college or university may
provide an individual with a disability, or a class of individuals with disabilities, with a different
Running Head: Assistive Technology
25
or separate aid, benefit, or service only if doing so is necessary to ensure that the aid, benefit, or
service is as effective as that provided to others.5
The Department of Justice recently entered into settlement agreements with colleges and
universities that used the Kindle DX, an inaccessible, electronic book reader, in the classroom as
part of a pilot study with Amazon.com, Inc. In summary, the universities agreed not to purchase,
require, or recommend use of the Kindle DX, or any other dedicated electronic book reader,
unless or until the device is fully accessible to individuals who are blind or have low vision, or
the universities provide reasonable accommodation or modification so that a student can acquire
the same information, engage in the same interactions, and enjoy the same services as sighted
students with substantially equivalent ease of use. The texts of these agreements may be viewed
on the Department of Justice’s ADA Web site, www.ada.gov. (To find these settlements on
www.ada.gov, search for “Kindle.”) Consistent with the relief obtained by the Department of
Justice in those matters, the Department of Education has also resolved similar complaints
against colleges and universities.
As officials of the agencies charged with enforcement and interpretation of the ADA and Section
504, we ask that you take steps to ensure that your college or university refrains from requiring
the use of any electronic book reader, or other similar technology, in a teaching or classroom
environment as long as the device remains inaccessible to individuals who are blind or have low
vision. It is unacceptable for universities to use emerging technology without insisting that this
technology be accessible to all students.
Congress found when enacting the ADA that individuals with disabilities were uniquely
disadvantaged in American society in critical areas such as education.6 Providing individuals
with disabilities full and equal access to educational opportunities is as essential today as it was
when the ADA was passed. In a Proclamation for National Disability Employment Awareness
Month, President Obama underscored the need to “strengthen and expand the educational
opportunities for individuals with disabilities,” noting that, “[i]f we are to build a world free from
unnecessary barriers . . . we must ensure that every American receives an education that prepares
him or her for future success.” http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidentialproclamation-national-disability-employment-awareness-month (September 30, 2009) (emphasis
added).
Technology is the hallmark of the future, and technological competency is essential to preparing
all students for future success. Emerging technologies are an educational resource that enhances
learning for everyone, and perhaps especially for students with disabilities. Technological
innovations have opened a virtual world of commerce, information, and education to many
individuals with disabilities for whom access to the physical world remains challenging.
Ensuring equal access to emerging technology in university and college classrooms is a means to
the goal of full integration and equal educational opportunity for this nation’s students with
disabilities. With technological advances, procuring electronic book readers that are accessible
should be neither costly nor difficult.
Running Head: Assistive Technology
26
We would like to work with you to ensure that America’s technological advances are used for
the benefit of all students. The Department of Justice operates a toll-free, technical assistance
line to answer questions with regard to the requirements of federal laws protecting the rights of
individuals with disabilities. For technical assistance, please call (800) 514-0301 (voice) or (800)
514-0383 TTY). Specialists are available Monday through Friday from 9:30 AM until 5:30 PM
(ET) except for Thursday, when the hours are 12:30 PM until 5:30 PM. These specialists have
been trained specifically to address questions regarding accessible electronic book readers.
Colleges, universities, and other stakeholders can also contact the Department of Education’s
Office for Civil Rights for technical assistance by going to OCR’s Web site at
http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/CFAPPS/OCR/contactus.cfm.
We appreciate your consideration of this essential educational issue and look forward to working
with you to ensure that our nation’s colleges and universities are fully accessible to individuals
with disabilities.
Sincerely,
Thomas E. Perez
Assistant Attorney General
Civil Rights Division
U.S. Department of Justice
Russlynn Ali
Assistant Secretary
for Civil Rights
U.S. Department of Education
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