Running Head: Assistive Technology 1 Assistive Technology in Higher Education for the New Millennium Carla L. Lewis-Irizarry, MPA City University of New York (CUNY) School of Professional Studies (SPS) 2011 Association for Education and Rehabilitation for the Blind and Visually Impaired (AER) Regional Conference Boston Park Plaza, Boston, MA August 12-14, 2011 Running Head: Assistive Technology 2 Abstract The purpose of this paper is to provide an introduction to the topic of assistive technology and students with disabilities. To set the context, we will begin by briefly examining the definitions, incidence, and characteristics associated with students with disabilities. Next, we consider the challenge of recognizing and responding to academic performance problems. Once we are motivated to act, we need to locate technology interventions that will enhance academic performance. However, the form and function of some forms of assistive technology will challenge our conceptions of technology-enhanced performance. Finally we will briefly discuss the process of assessing claims of technology-enhanced performance and what work with blind and visually impaired students. Key Words: Assistive Technology, Disability, Blind/Visually Impaired, and Students Running Head: Assistive Technology 3 Assistive Technology for the New Millennium Until recently, little attention has been devoted to the assistive technology needs of students with disabilities. However, the federal mandate in the 1997 reauthorization of IDEA, 1 to consider assistive technology when planning the IEP2 of every student, has been described as an event that marked the dawn of a new era of assistive technology for the new millennium for individuals with disabilities (Edyburn, 2005a, 2000). Typically when we look at assistive technology it was referred to students with mild or learning disabilities but as time grew many more students with other disabilities like blindness and visual impairments. Typically, mild disabilities are considered to be learning disabilities, emotional/behavioral disorders, and mental retardation. These disabilities are defined as follows in the IDEA ‘97 Final Regulations specific learning disability is defined as follows: (i) General. The term means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do mathematical calculations, including conditions such as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. (ii) Disorders not included. The term does not include learning problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities, of mental retardation, of emotional disturbance, or have environmental, cultural, or economic disadvantage (Edyburn, 2006). 1 2 IDEA-Individuals with Disability Education Act of 1975 IEP-Individualized Education Program Running Head: Assistive Technology 4 Technology is used in almost every educational, employment, community, and recreational setting. Access to technology can promote positive postsecondary academic and career outcomes for students with a wide range of abilities and disabilities and, for those who have interest and aptitude, open doors to high-tech career fields that were once unavailable to people with disabilities. The benefits of technology use may be even greater for people with disabilities than for those without disabilities. More than 130,000 students with disabilities attend college in this country, and the number continues to increase (Levinson & Ohler, 1998). One reason for the influx with students with Disabilities into college is section 504 of the rehabilitation act of 1973. This act requires colleges receiving federal funds to provide services and programming to individuals with disabilities. Postsecondary institutions (education) are required by law to make reasonable accommodations to ensure the services of students with disabilities. However, fewer individuals with disabilities own computers and use the Internet. In addition, some people with disabilities cannot access web pages, instructional and applications software, telecommunications equipment; and other electronic equipment because the designs of these products erect barriers to them. The full potential of using technology to prepare students with disabilities for postsecondary education and beyond is not being realized (National Council on Disability & Social Security Administration, 2000), perhaps because accessibility is rarely defined as an important factor when purchasing or developing educational technology. Legislations and Regulations of Assistive Technology: Running Head: Assistive Technology 5 The Assistive Technology Act of 1998 was amended on October 25, 2004 to support programs of grants to States to address the assistive technology needs of individuals with disabilities, and for other purposes. Over 54,000,000 individuals in the United States have disabilities, with almost half experiencing severe disabilities that affect their ability to see, hear, communicate, reason, walk, or perform other basic life functions. Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no way diminishes the right of individuals to: Live independently Enjoy self-determination and make choices Benefit from an education Pursue meaningful careers Enjoy full inclusion and integration in the economic, political, social, cultural, and educational mainstream of society in the United States (Public Law 108-364 108th Congress). Technology is one of the primary engines for economic activity, education, and innovation in the Nation, and throughout the world. The commitment of the United States to the development and utilization of technology is one of the main factors underlying the strength and vibrancy of the economy of the United States. As technology has come to play an increasingly important role in the lives of all persons in the United States, in the conduct of business, in the functioning of government, in the fostering of communication, in the conduct of commerce, and in the provision of education, its impact upon the lives of individuals with disabilities in the United States has been comparable to its impact upon the remainder of the citizens of the United States. Any development in mainstream technology will have profound implications for individuals with disabilities in the Running Head: Assistive Technology 6 United States. Substantial progress has been made in the development of assistive technology devices, including adaptations to existing devices that facilitate activities of daily living that significantly benefit individuals with disabilities of all ages. These devices, including adaptations, increase involvement in, and reduce expenditures associated with, programs and activities that facilitate communication, ensure independent functioning, enable early childhood development, support educational achievement, provide and enhance employment options, and enable full participation in community living for individuals with disabilities. Access to such devices can also reduce expenditures associated with early childhood intervention, education, rehabilitation and training, health care, employment, residential living, independent living, recreation opportunities, and other aspects of daily living. Over the last 15 years, the Federal Government has invested in the development of comprehensive statewide programs of technology-related assistance, which have proven effective in assisting individuals with disabilities in accessing assistive technology devices and assistive technology services. This partnership between the Federal Government and the States provided an important service to individuals with disabilities by strengthening the capacity of each State to assist individuals with disabilities of all ages meet their assistive technology needs. Despite the success of the Federal-State partnership in providing access to assistive technology devices and assistive technology services, there is a continued need to provide information about the availability of assistive technology, advances in improving accessibility and functionality of assistive technology, and appropriate methods to secure and utilize assistive technology in order to maximize the independence and participation of individuals with disabilities in society. The combination of significant recent changes in Federal policy (including changes to section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (29 U.S.C. 794d), accessibility provisions of the Help America Running Head: Assistive Technology 7 Vote Act of 2002 (42 U.S.C. 15301 et seq.), and the amendments made to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (20 U.S.C. 6301 et seq.) by the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001) and the rapid and unending evolution of technology require a Federal-State investment in State assistive technology systems to continue to ensure that individuals with disabilities reap the benefits of the technological revolution and participate fully in life in their communities (http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108_cong_public_laws&docid=f:pu bl364.108). Assistive Technology as a Universal Design (UD): Precollege and college students come from a wide variety of ethnic and racial backgrounds. For some, English is not their first language. Represented in most classes are many types of racial/ethnic backgrounds, ages, native languages, and learning styles, including visual and auditory learners. In addition, increasing numbers of students with disabilities are included in regular precollege and postsecondary courses. Their disabilities include blindness, low vision, hearing impairments, mobility impairments, learning disabilities, and health impairments. Students are in school to learn and instructors share this goal. How can educators design instruction to maximize the learning of all students? The field of universal design 3 can provide a starting point for developing a framework for instruction. You can apply this body of knowledge to create courses where lectures, discussions, visual aids, videos, printed materials, labs, and fieldwork are accessible to all students. 3 Universal Design- The term universal design (UD) was coined by the architect Ronald Mace, who challenged the conventional approach of designing for the average user and provided a design foundation for more accessible and usable products and environments. Mace and other visionaries developed the definition of UD used by the Center for Universal Design (CUD) at North Carolina State University: "the design of products and environments to be usable to the greatest extent possible by people of all ages and abilities" (Story, Mueller, & Mace, 1998). Universal design puts high value on both diversity and inclusiveness. Running Head: Assistive Technology 8 In contrast, universal design (UD) is “the design of products and environments to be usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation or specialized design” (http://www.design.ncsu.edu/cud/univ_design/ud.htm). For example, a standard door is not accessible to everyone. If a large switch is installed, the door becomes accessible to more people, including some wheelchair users. However, applying universal design principles could lead to the installation of sensors that signal the door to open when anyone approaches, making the building accessible to everyone. According to Getzel & Wehman (2005), they define Assistive technology as the meaning of any item, piece of equipment or system, whether acquired commercially, modified, or customized, that is commonly used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Getzel & Wehman, 2005, pp. 181). Assistive Technology helps people with disabilities live a productive life, accomplish daily routines, communicate, succeed in education, and secure employment. When developers created universal design (UD) principles as they created information technology; they minimize the need for assistive technology and, in situations where assistive technology was needed, they ensured new products and services are compatible with commonly used assistive hardware and software. There are many ways universal design technology benefits students with disabilities. There are three important facets to the way student accesses information. These include how the information is accessed, how available the information is and how affordable it is to access. These facets can affect a student’s college experience in many ways. In this paper, the efficiency, availability and affordability of assistive technology available for blind students to perform their academic tasks will be compared. There are three types of assistive technology: specialized devices, adapted mainstream devices and devices that are universally designed. Each Running Head: Assistive Technology 9 of the three types will be defined and analyzed. The costs, efficiency, and availability of specific devices from each of the three categories will be compared in order to better understand which types of assistive technology are best suited to providing a college experience that students with visual disabilities can have equal access to in classrooms and at home. Universal design web pages allow students who are blind and using text-to-speech systems to gain access to information, communicate with peers and teachers, and take advantages of distance learning options. Accessible instructional software’s (on disks, CD’s, or other media) allows students with many types of disabilities and students without disabilities to participate side by side in simulations and other computer-based activities. As under the ADA there is no specific mention of assistive technology, the U.S. Department of Justice clarified that the ADA applies to technology resources: “Covered entities that use the internet for communications regarding their programs, goods, or services must be prepared to offer those communications through accessible means as well” (Patrick, 1996p. 1). Technology can help people with disabilities fully participate in academic and employment offerings. Unfortunately, sometimes technology is employed in a very narrow range of ways to enhance the education of students with disabilities (if used at all). For example, a computer and assistive technology can be available in to a student in a special education resource room but not in general education classrooms where, if available, the technology could be used to complete in-class assignments. It is also true that assistive technology is not always readily available to students who, with it, might be able to participate in work-based learning experiences, such as summer internships, Educators, service providers, and parents should ensure that appropriate technology is available when and where students with disabilities need it. Running Head: Assistive Technology 10 Students with disabilities should be taught to use technology in ways that (1) maximize their independence, productivity, and participation in all academic and employment activities, (2) facilitate successful transitions between academic settings and employment and (3) lead to successful, self determined adult lives (Getzel & Wehman, 2005). Technology can be used to support mentoring relationships, gaining access to information, participating in science labs, communicating in class discussions, practicing in self-advocacy, conducting independent living skills, and work-base learning opportunities. The following are some examples and the many ways that technology can be used creativity by students with disabilities to maximize their independence, productivity, and participation in academic studies and careers. Maximize independence in academic and employment tasks Participate in classroom discussions Gain access to peers, mentors, and role models Self-advocate Gain access to full range of educational options Participate in experiences not otherwise possible Succeed in work-based learning experiences Secure high levels of independent living Prepare for transitions to college and careers Work side by side with peers Master academic tasks that they cannot accomplish otherwise Enter high-tech field careers Participate in community and recreational activities Running Head: Assistive Technology 11 Students who are blind or visually impaired with Assistive Technology: When selecting technology and well-defined strategies for their use, students with disabilities can demonstrate and apply their knowledge and fully participate in educational, career, and recreational activities. Once a student with a disability graduates from high school he/she along with their advocates should be thinking about technology that they would be using once they get into college or employment. Technology specialists should work closely with students to first determine what they need to accomplish by using a computer. Technology choices for people with disabilities should be driven with short term and long term needs. Once basic tools and strategies are initially reached/selected, students can test, discard, adapt, and/or refine them. The end user of the technology should ultimately determine what works best. Here are some many types of assistive technology organized by disability type to consider for students with disabilities. Low Vision: For some people with visual impairments, the standard size of letters on the screen, blackboard, white board, or printed documents is too small to read. Some people distinguish one color from another others have visual field limitations that result in tunnel vision or alternating areas of total blindness and vision. Some are hypersensitive to light. The most common computer adaption for people with visual impairments is software to enlarge screen images. Most screen magnification software can also reverse the screen to black on white to white on black for people with light sensitivity. Some software programs also provide speech outputs to reduce the eyestrain associated with reading large blocks of text with screen enlargement alone. Running Head: Assistive Technology 12 For individuals with some visual impairments software to adjust the color of the monitor or change the foreground and background colors is also of value. In addition, antiglare screens can make screens easier to read. A standard desktop scanner can be combined with screen enlargement technology to magnify printed text. With this system, each page of text is scanned and the results are displayed in large print on the computer screen, which saves time and money to print from a copier machine. Closed circuit television (CCTV) magnifiers available in both stationary and portable models can be used to magnify printed materials, pictures, and objects. Blindness: Individuals who have no functional sight use standard keyboards; however, Braille input devices are available and Braille key labels can assist with keyboard use. For people who are blind, speech output is the most popular form of assistive technology. Screen reader software and a speech synthesizer read text presented on the screen by word processing, web browsers, email, and other software. Scanners with optical character recognition combined with an accessible computer system provide independent access to printed materials for students who are blind. These systems read printed content and store it electronically on computers, where it can be read using speech synthesizes (like jaws and zoom text) or printed using Braille transition software and Braille embossers. Talking calculators, thermometers, and other specialized devices that provide audio output can enhance the participation and success of students who are blind, particularly those in science, math, and engineering fields. Audio books are books that are read verbally and recorded. There are audio books that are created for all listeners, and there are others that are specifically created for listeners that have visual or learning disabilities. The ones that are meant for all listeners can be found in any Running Head: Assistive Technology 13 bookstore or online venders such as audible. Audio books that are specifically geared towards listeners with print disabilities are a lot more difficult to attain. They are available from the National Library of Congress (Home Page for the National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped), BookShare.org (Accessible Books and Periodicals for Readers with Print Disabilities – Bookshare), and Recording for the Blind and Dyslexic (RFB&D: Accessible Materials for Individuals with Visual and Learning Disabilities). While these books are free for listeners with print disabilities, a student with a print disability must go through an application process in order to be approved for them. A student can use the documentation they used for their accommodations with the disability service office for the application process. The types of books that are available in NLS, Bookshare, and RFB&D are called DAISY talking books (DAISY Consortium). These books are read by a person, recorded, and then indexed. Page and chapter separate them. This is an advantage over mainstream audio books because it makes them easier to navigate. The reader can quickly jump to the page number or chapter that they need with the press of a button. While DAISY talking books are harder to get than mainstream audio books, they are free and more convenient for listeners with disabilities because of features that are specific for that demographic. Another advantage is that mainstream audio books usually have a limited selection. The types of audio books found in bookstores are books that are read for leisure. Audio books that are recorded for the blind cover a wide range of genres including textbooks used in college. People who are blind access electronic information through a type of software called screen readers (Screen readers – Browse by Category – American Foundation for the Blind). They are called screen readers because of what they do. This complex software verbally reads Running Head: Assistive Technology 14 what’s on the screen. They can be installed on phones, computers, and there are specialized devices that are built with screen readers and have no screens. Although there are many people who are blind that prefer to access their information through audio or electronic means, there are still those who prefer to read Braille (What is Braille – American Foundation for the Blind). Braille is a written language which can be felt more commonly by people’s fingers but in certain cases a person might have to resort to using a different body part. There are many textbooks that are printed in Braille. There are also Braille printers, which are often large and are expensive. The modern day solutions for this are devices that are known as refreshable Braille displays. These devices have pins that can change position in order to convey information in a tactile fashion. Refreshable Braille displays can be used to read electronic documents, books, and can also perform word processing tasks. Depending on the device, there may be additional features such as browsing the Internet and accessing email. The common theme that students with visual disabilities experience is that in order to get books or computers that they need to get an education, they have to go to specialized venders or organizations. While all other students can just walk into any book or computer store and get the tools they need, a blind student is limited to the few organizations that serve the blind. The result is that not all books are available for students with visual disabilities in their preferred format. For instance, a student might prefer their text book in electronic format because they cannot read Braille. The book might only be available in Braille or vice versa. There are times when a book is so new or obscure that it simply hasn’t been converted to any of the formats that are accessible to students who are blind. The relevance of this is that when a professor is working on the curriculum and book list, it’s not common for them to consider whether the books will be available for students in alternate Running Head: Assistive Technology 15 formats. This would not be such a difficult experience for students with visual disabilities if universities had a more universal design approach. It can be discouraging for a student to learn that one of their books is not available in an accessible format. Even though there are ways to scan a book and convert it into a text document, the extra steps might contribute to the student falling behind on their assignments. This could take a psychological toll on the student that can affect their success in the classroom. Also, the fact that they don’t get their books from the bookstore excludes them from a basic social college experience that all students should have. More and more students are starting to buy their books in electronic format. Devices such as the Amazon Kindle or the Apple iPad are constantly adding textbooks to their bookstores in order to attract the student demographic. As mentioned before, students with visual disabilities use different types of assistive devices in order to read and write. These devices are manufactured for a small demographic and the result is that they can get quite expensive. There is an interesting opportunity that is arising from the move from print to media. The more electronic books become a standard; students with visual disabilities will find it easier to access their readings in the academic setting. Some students with visual disabilities are sponsored by government organizations and their tuitions as well as their assistive technology are paid for. These government organizations exist because of a lack of universal design not only in universities but also in society at large. They purchase specialized products for the blind that are expensive. When they do this, they are not promoting the use of products that are universally designed. Products that are universally designed are usually more affordable because of the large demand that they have. If every business and organization took a universal design approach, than students with disabilities would Running Head: Assistive Technology 16 not have to buy specialized devices in order to acquire the tools they need to have an equal opportunity to pass or fail in college. Specialized devices are devices that are made for a specific demographic. For instance, hearing aids are specifically made for people who have hearing loss. These products are useless to anyone else but the specific consumer that they are made for. There are advantages and disadvantages to specialized devices. The greatest advantage about specialized devices is that they are tailored to fit the needs of the targeted consumer. The disadvantage of specialized devices is that because they are made for a small population of people, they tend to be very expensive. The majority of students with visual disabilities that own specialized devices are sponsored by a government organization. Simply put, these devices are not affordable with the average student budget. The Victor Reader Stream is a portable book-reading device (Victor Reader Stream DAISY MP3 + SoftPack – HumanWare USA). It can read DAISY talking books as well as text documents. It has a microphone for recording audio. A student with a visual disability would be able to use the Victor Reader Stream on the go to listen to their books, recorded lessons or lectures, or read handouts that they have uploaded to the device. The student would be able to get DAISY talking books for free from RFB&D, Bookshare.org, or NLS and upload and listen to them at their own convenience. As mentioned before page and chapter separate DAISY talking books, so reading them on a Victor reader would be just like having the real book in their hand. Furthermore, because the books are recorded using human voices they are easier to listen to than synthesized voices. The Victor Reader Stream has a few more useful features that are essential for the education of a student with a visual disability. It comes with a built in screen reader to read text Running Head: Assistive Technology 17 documents. It can read txt, rtf, word documents, and some other supported file formats. Because these files are read with a synthesized voice, they are not as easy to listen to as the DAISY talking books but it is still convenient for reading small documents such as the course syllabus or a paper assignment. It can also play MP3 and WAV files. This can be useful if someone else in the student’s absence records the lecture. The student can then upload the file and listen to it and catch up on all the important information they missed. This feature can also be used to listen to mainstream audio books, which can be useful for literature courses. There are many advantages and disadvantages to the Victor Reader Stream. It costs about $359 so it is moderately priced. The fact that it’s moderately priced and that DAISY talking books are free for students with visual disabilities makes it a valuable and affordable device. It is also versatile and efficient at what it does. Its only disadvantage is that it cannot do anything else but read books, play audio files, and record audio. A student cannot academically survive using the Victor Reader Stream alone. When it comes to the experience of reading books, The Victor Reader Stream does a great job at leveling the playing field for a student with a visual disability. It is easy to use and the student can quickly navigate to the page or chapter that they need. They don’t have to sift through a lot of unnecessary information, which can be slow and taxing on the mind. A student can also use it to read word by word and spell out words as well. It completely simulates the experience of having a real book in ones hand. The BrailleNote Apex (BrailleNote Apex BT 32 – HumanWare USA) and the VoiceNote Apex (VoiceNote QT – HumanWare USA) is both note taking devices. The difference between them is that the BraillNote Apex has a refreshable Braille display while the VoiceNote Apex has a full keyboard. Information is mainly accessed through the refreshable Braille display using the Running Head: Assistive Technology 18 BrailleNote Apex. It does have some audio feedback as well. The VoiceNote is equipped with a full screen reader so that the user can access all their information through auditory means. The features of the two devices are the same. A student can use either of them to perform word processing tasks, listen to electronic books, browse the Internet, manage their emails, and listen to audio files. These devices would allow students with visual disabilities to write their papers and take notes. In a way they replace papers, pens, and computers. Students can also use them to conduct online research by browsing the web, read electronic books specifically made for the blind, and communicate with their professors and fellow students through e-mail. The BrailleNote and VoiceNote have some advantages and disadvantages. The first advantage is that they allow students with visual disabilities to access information through their preferred method. The second advantage is that they have a few more features than the Victor Reader Stream. Not only can they be used to read books, but also they can perform word processing, browse the web and manage e-mail accounts. Their disadvantage is that they cannot create presentations. PowerPoint presentations are essential in the higher education setting. Any student is expected to be proficient at creating a PowerPoint presentation. They also cannot be used to read DAISY talking books, which limits the amount of books that a student can access. The BrailleNote Apex is $6195 and the VoiceNote Apex is $2049. This is a very steep price for a student to afford on their own. As stated before, some sort of government agency, which pays for these devices, sponsors most students with disabilities. If a student wished to buy these devices on their own they would be paying a substantial fee when compared to buying a notebook or a laptop to use for school. Because these devices are made for such a small population, they are very expensive. If they were integrated into devices that are made for everyone, they would be a lot cheaper. Running Head: Assistive Technology 19 Using the Victor Reader Stream and either a BrailleNote or a VoiceNote, a student with a visual disability can be prepared to take on most challenges in higher education. Their experience of taking notes, reading books, writing papers, and performing basic web browsing would be possible. However the student would struggle in a class that requires a PowerPoint presentation and reading PDF documents. Once again, there are barriers that are encountered even with these powerful devices. These barriers can be discouraging to students and affect their motivation to succeed. Even with these barriers the cost of having a Victor Reader Stream and one of the note taking devices would either cost $6544 or $2398. Those are steep prices to pay but students still wouldn’t be able to have the full academic experience because of their lack of diverse features. Adapted mainstream devices give the opportunity for assistive technology to have more diverse features. The screen reader called JAWS is powerful software that can help students with disabilities accomplish many academic tasks. It is considered an in the adapted mainstream devices category because it can be installed on any computers running the Windows operating system. JAWS can verbally read what is on a computer screen. It is also compatible with many refreshable Braille display devices for those who prefer accessing their computer through tactile means. This has an extra cost of buying the refreshable Braille display. The user interacts with the computer only using keyboard commands instead of the mouse. In the case of using a refreshable Braille display, the user would interact with the computer by using the Braille display. JAWS is truly a valuable tool when it comes to leveling the academic field for students with visual disabilities. A student can read any text document that is accessible to the blind, perform word processing tasks, create PowerPoint presentations, browse the internet, manage Running Head: Assistive Technology 20 their e-mails, read many different types of books, as well as many other tasks that can be performed on the computer. This means that with a laptop equipped with JAWS, a student with a visual disability will be able to comfortably take notes, write papers, create presentations, read audio and DAISY books, conduct online research, and communicate with their professors and peers. One of the advantages of using Jaws is that a student will have a wide variety of books available to them because of it’s compatibility with DAISY talking books, PDF files, and the most commonly used text files. The other advantage is that with one device, a student will be able to perform a variety of tasks that are essential to the academic experience. The disadvantages of JAWS are that it costs $1095 and it is only compatible with a handful of software. A user cannot count on JAWS being compatible with any new software and websites with flash technology can be hard to navigate using JAWS. While it’s still a steep price to pay after buying a computer, JAWS is a tool that can get a student with a visual disability through college. If computers and software were universally designed then a student with a visual disability would have a college experience that is equal to their peers. Apple products such as the Mac Book (Apple – Accessibility – Mac OS X – Vision) and the iPad (Apple – Accessibility – IPad – Vision) are created using the concept of universal design. The Mac Book and the iPad both feature built-in accessibility features. This means that a student with a visual disability can pick up any Mac Book or iPad and turn on their accessibility features and use them like everyone else. They come equipped with a screen reader called Voiceover and they are also compatible with many different types of refreshable Braille displays. These devices are made with an all- Running Head: Assistive Technology 21 inclusive nature that allows students with visual disabilities to function up to par with the rest of their peers. There are many applications that are accessible with Voiceover on apple products. A student can perform word processing tasks, create presentations, browse the web, manage their email, and read e-books as well as all accessible text files and PDFs. As one can see, Voiceover can accomplish the same amount of tasks as JAWS. The only difference is Voiceover is free. The iPad has the iBook application, which offers a growing number of books. Once again since apple universally designs, all the e-books in the iBook’s store are accessible. This means that a student with a visual disability can navigate a book by page, or chapter. They can also read word by word and spell out any word they’d like. There’s even an additional feature of a dictionary to enhance the experience. While iPads cannot read DAISY talking books by default, there is a software that can convert them so that a student can read converted DAISY talking books on their iPad (October 29, 2010 – DaisytoEpub Software). The advantages of apple products are that it can effectively be used to write papers, take notes, read books, browse the Internet, and manage email accounts. They can do this without paying any extra costs to adapt their devices. Furthermore, because Apple products are highly in demand, they are moderately priced and a user will always be able to have access to technical assistance. The iPad starts at $499 and Mac Books start at $999. These prices are still a bit costly but they are much cheaper than any of the specialized or adapted devices discussed before. The disadvantage to Apple products is that because they cater to such a large demographic their devices don’t perform tasks such as word processing and reading books as well as the specialized and adapted devices. They are still effective at doing them and they continue to improve. Running Head: Assistive Technology 22 The college experience of a student with a visual disability can be greatly enhanced using Apple products. The student will be performing all the tasks that are essential to completing their education while using the same devices as their peers. This will not only help students perform academically but it will help integrate them into the social college scene because they’ll be able to relate to their peers a little bit better. City University of New York (CUNY): In 2010 the City University of New York (CUNY) received a letter from the Department of Justice and the Department of Education on issues with students with disabilities and the use of E-book readers on campuses of CUNY. In appendix A is the actually letter from the Department of Justice and the department of Education in reference to E-book readers that is not accessible to students who are blind or are visually impaired. Also CUNY has the C.U.N.Y Assistive Technology Services known has CATS, which this past Summer conducted its second annual accessibility conference. The conferences brings all of its results of the insights, experiences and talents of the people involved in the daily challenge of providing full and equal access to the educational opportunities available at the City University of New York. Sponsored by COSDI special projects, innovative approaches and cutting edge services are provided to the various CUNY Offices of Services to Students with Disabilities and by the extension to thousands of the CUNY students with disabilities. The net result of is knowledge base of policies, practices, and outcomes to assist all students with disabilities a productive education. In closing, the use of technology is essential in education, employment, community service, and recreation. Computers, the Internet and other technologies have the potential to Running Head: Assistive Technology 23 promote positive postsecondary and career outcomes for people with disabilities. However, this will not be realized if the stakeholders do not secure funding; are knowledgeable about technologies, comply with legal mandates, and develop policies, standards, and procedures that maximizes the independence, participation, and productivity of people with disabilities throughout their lives. Getzel & Wehman, 2005, adheres by stating to ensure that the opportunities technology provides are accessible to everyone contributes to a level playing field in college and employment, results in successful careers for more citizens, and thereby strengthen the economy. Appendix A: U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division Running Head: Assistive Technology 24 U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights June 29, 2010 Dear College or University President: We write to express concern on the part of the Department of Justice and the Department of Education that colleges and universities are using electronic book readers that are not accessible to students who are blind or have low vision and to seek your help in ensuring that this emerging technology is used in classroom settings in a manner that is permissible under federal law. A serious problem with some of these devices is that they lack an accessible text-tospeech function. Requiring use of an emerging technology in a classroom environment when the technology is inaccessible to an entire population of individuals with disabilities – individuals with visual disabilities – is discrimination prohibited by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA) and Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) unless those individuals are provided accommodations or modifications that permit them to receive all the educational benefits provided by the technology in an equally effective and equally integrated manner. The Departments of Justice and Education share responsibility for protecting the rights of college and university students with disabilities. The Department of Justice is responsible for enforcement and implementation of title III of the ADA, which covers private colleges and universities, and the Departments of Justice and Education both have enforcement authority under title II of the ADA, which covers public universities. In addition, the Department of Education enforces Section 504 with respect to public and private colleges and universities that receive federal financial assistance from the Department of Education. As discussed below, the general requirements of Section 504 and the ADA reach equipment and technological devices when they are used by public entities or places of public accommodation as part of their programs, services, activities, goods, advantages, privileges, or accommodations. Under title III, individuals with disabilities, including students with visual impairments, may not be discriminated against in the full and equal enjoyment of all of the goods and services of private colleges and universities; they must receive an equal opportunity to participate in and benefit from these goods and services; and they must not be provided different or separate goods or services unless doing so is necessary to ensure that access to the goods and services is equally as effective as that provided to others.1 Under title II, qualified individuals with disabilities may not be excluded from participation in or denied the benefits of the services, programs, or activities of, nor subjected to discrimination by, public universities and colleges.2 Both title II and Section 504 prohibit colleges and universities from affording individuals with disabilities with an opportunity to participate in or benefit from college and university aids, benefits, and services that is unequal to the opportunity afforded others.3 Similarly, individuals with disabilities must be provided with aids, benefits, or services that provide an equal opportunity to achieve the same result or the same level of achievement as others.4 A college or university may provide an individual with a disability, or a class of individuals with disabilities, with a different Running Head: Assistive Technology 25 or separate aid, benefit, or service only if doing so is necessary to ensure that the aid, benefit, or service is as effective as that provided to others.5 The Department of Justice recently entered into settlement agreements with colleges and universities that used the Kindle DX, an inaccessible, electronic book reader, in the classroom as part of a pilot study with Amazon.com, Inc. In summary, the universities agreed not to purchase, require, or recommend use of the Kindle DX, or any other dedicated electronic book reader, unless or until the device is fully accessible to individuals who are blind or have low vision, or the universities provide reasonable accommodation or modification so that a student can acquire the same information, engage in the same interactions, and enjoy the same services as sighted students with substantially equivalent ease of use. The texts of these agreements may be viewed on the Department of Justice’s ADA Web site, www.ada.gov. (To find these settlements on www.ada.gov, search for “Kindle.”) Consistent with the relief obtained by the Department of Justice in those matters, the Department of Education has also resolved similar complaints against colleges and universities. As officials of the agencies charged with enforcement and interpretation of the ADA and Section 504, we ask that you take steps to ensure that your college or university refrains from requiring the use of any electronic book reader, or other similar technology, in a teaching or classroom environment as long as the device remains inaccessible to individuals who are blind or have low vision. It is unacceptable for universities to use emerging technology without insisting that this technology be accessible to all students. Congress found when enacting the ADA that individuals with disabilities were uniquely disadvantaged in American society in critical areas such as education.6 Providing individuals with disabilities full and equal access to educational opportunities is as essential today as it was when the ADA was passed. In a Proclamation for National Disability Employment Awareness Month, President Obama underscored the need to “strengthen and expand the educational opportunities for individuals with disabilities,” noting that, “[i]f we are to build a world free from unnecessary barriers . . . we must ensure that every American receives an education that prepares him or her for future success.” http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/presidentialproclamation-national-disability-employment-awareness-month (September 30, 2009) (emphasis added). Technology is the hallmark of the future, and technological competency is essential to preparing all students for future success. Emerging technologies are an educational resource that enhances learning for everyone, and perhaps especially for students with disabilities. Technological innovations have opened a virtual world of commerce, information, and education to many individuals with disabilities for whom access to the physical world remains challenging. Ensuring equal access to emerging technology in university and college classrooms is a means to the goal of full integration and equal educational opportunity for this nation’s students with disabilities. With technological advances, procuring electronic book readers that are accessible should be neither costly nor difficult. Running Head: Assistive Technology 26 We would like to work with you to ensure that America’s technological advances are used for the benefit of all students. The Department of Justice operates a toll-free, technical assistance line to answer questions with regard to the requirements of federal laws protecting the rights of individuals with disabilities. For technical assistance, please call (800) 514-0301 (voice) or (800) 514-0383 TTY). Specialists are available Monday through Friday from 9:30 AM until 5:30 PM (ET) except for Thursday, when the hours are 12:30 PM until 5:30 PM. These specialists have been trained specifically to address questions regarding accessible electronic book readers. Colleges, universities, and other stakeholders can also contact the Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights for technical assistance by going to OCR’s Web site at http://wdcrobcolp01.ed.gov/CFAPPS/OCR/contactus.cfm. We appreciate your consideration of this essential educational issue and look forward to working with you to ensure that our nation’s colleges and universities are fully accessible to individuals with disabilities. Sincerely, Thomas E. Perez Assistant Attorney General Civil Rights Division U.S. Department of Justice Russlynn Ali Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights U.S. Department of Education References American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). What is Braille? Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.afb.org/section.asp?SectionID=6&TopicID=199 American Foundation for the Blind. (n.d.). Screen Readers. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.afb.org/prodbrowsecatresults.asp?catid=49 Running Head: Assistive Technology 27 Apple Inc. (n.d.). Accessibility - Mac OS X - Vision. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.apple.com/accessibility/macosx/vision.html Apple Inc. (n.d.). Accessibility - iPad - Vision. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.apple.com/accessibility/ipad/vision.html Burgstahler, S. (2005), DO-IT: Universal Design of Instruction: Definitions, Principles, and Examples. University of Washington, Seattle, WA, pp.1-4. Bookshare. (n.d.). Accessible Books and Periodicals for Readers with Print Disabilities. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.bookshare.org/ CUNY Assistive Technology Services (CATS) website http://catsweb.qcc.cuny.edu DAISY Consortium. (n.d.). DAISY Consortium Home. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.daisy.org/ Department of Justice ADA website retrieved on July 18, 2011 from (http://www.ada.gov). Don Johnston Incorporated. (October 29, 2010). New DAISYtoEPUB Software Converts DAISY Files into EPUB Format. Retrieved December 21, 2010, from http://www.donjohnston.com/about/news/2010/PR_DaisytoEPUB_Oct2010.html Edyburn, D.L. (2006). Assistive technology and mild disabilities. Special Education Technology Practice, 8(4), 18-28. Freedom Scientific, Inc. (n.d.). JAWS for Windows Screen Reading Software. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://freedomscientific.com/products/fs/jaws-product-page.asp Getzel, E. and Wehman, P. (2005), Going to College: Expanding Opportunities for People With Disabilities. Brookes Publishing, Co. Gordon, M. and Keiser, S. (2000), Accommodations in Higher Education under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): A No-Nonsense Guide for Clinicians, Educators, Administrators and Lawyers. GSI Publications, Dewitt, NY and The Guilford Press, New York, New York. HumanWare USA. (n.d.). BrailleNote Apex BT 32 - HumanWare USA. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.humanware.com/en-usa/products/blindness/braillenotes/_details /id_158/braillenote_apex_bt.html HumanWare USA. (n.d.). Victor Reader Stream DAISY MP3 + SoftPack - HumanWare USA. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.humanware.com/en- Running Head: Assistive Technology 28 usa/products/blindness/dtb_players/compact_models/_details/id_201/victor_reader_strea m_daisy_mp3__softpak.html HumanWare USA. (n.d.). VoiceNote Apex QT- HumanWare USA. Retrieved December 20, 2010, from http://www.humanware.com/en-usa/products/blindness/braillenotes/ _details/id_189/voicenote_apex_qt.html Levinson, E.M. & Ohler, D.L. (1998). Transition from High School to College for Students with Learning Disabilities: Needs, Assessment, and Services. The High School Journal, Vol. 82, No. 1 (Oct. – Nov. 1998), pp. 62-69. National Council on Disability & Social Security Administration (2000). Transition and Post-school outcomes for youths with disabilities: Closing the gap of postSecondary education and employment. Washington, D.C.: Author. National Library Service for the Blind and Physically Handicapped. (n.d.). Library of Congress Home. Retrieved December 20, 2010, from http://www.loc.gov/nls/ Patrick, D.L. (1996), Correspondence to Senator Tom Harkin. Retrieved on December 21, 2010, From (http://www.Usdoj.gov/crt/foia/cltr204.txt). RFB&D: Accessible materials for individuals with visual and learning disabilities. (n.d.). Recording for the Blind & Dyslexic. Retrieved July 18, 2011, from http://www.rfbd.org/ The Office for Civil Rights (OCR) retrieved on December 21, 2010 from https://outlook.brooklyn.cuny.edu/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?URL=http://www.ed.gov/about /offices/list/ocr/letters/colleague-20100629.html. Trace Research and Development Center - Trace Center. (n.d.). General Concepts, Universal Design Principles and Guidelines. Retrieved December 20, 2010, from http://trace.wisc.edu/world/gen_ud.html U.S. Department of Education: Legislation, Regulation, and guidance. Assistive Technology Act of 2004, P.L. 108-364; 29 U.S.C 3001 et seq. Retrieved on December 21, 2010, from (http://www2.ed.gov/programs/atsg/legislation.html).