CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION TO MORPHOLOGY AND LANGUAGE CHANGE
• Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words and the
rules for forming words from their subparts, which are called
morphemes.
• Morphemes are the smallest units in the structural analysis of words.
[[[ green ] ish ] ness] [un [break [able]]]It is often said that morphemes are the
smallest units of meaning, butthis is not quite accurate. They are the smallest
structural units thelearner identifies; to be identified as such a morpheme must have
anidentifiable grammatical behavior, but not necessarily an identifiable meaning.
[ trans [ mit ]] [ trans [ miss ]] ion]
[ per [ mit ]] [ per [ miss ]] ion]
• Although we know that the subparts of these words once had constant
meanings (L trāns ‘across, per ‘through’, cum ‘with’, mitt-ere ‘to send’)
the learner of contemporary English does not know this (ordinarily).
• In any case the words don’t mean ‘send across, send, through, send with’
• However, the root [mit] shows an identifiable contanst grammatical
behavior: it changes to [miss] when the verb is used to make the corresponding noun
through suffixation of [-ion]
2 Open and Closed Class Items
• Morphemes are divided into two types: open class and closed class
• Open class items belong to categories/types to which new members may be
freely added
• For example, you certainly don’t know all the ‘nouns’ in English, and even
if you did, new words come into use all the time to refer to things recently created,
discovered or named:
quark, google, blog, tweet, grunge
• Closed class items on the other hand belong to categories/types to which
new members cannot be added
• For example, plural agreement in English is normally expressed with [-s], as
is 3rd person singular present tense agreement.
• The agreement morphemes are a closed class: new agreement morphemes
cannot be added to an adult’s grammar.
• Similarly the modal verbs do, did, have, be, may, might, shall, should, will,
would, can, could, ought form a closed class in English. These are the only verbs
which can precede negation not or n’t in Modern English:
I did not see the movie.
*I saw not the movie (archaic)
I (should) think not! (‘frozen’ expression: cannot be altered)
Closed class items are often called ‘functional’ items because they
typically have a grammatical function such as showing agreement, or marking
or changing the category of other items to which they attach. [[quark] s] [[google] ed]
[[tweet] ing] [[grunge] y ] ness]
Inversely, open class items are sometimes called lexical because they form part of a
vocabulary that must be memorized. (This use of lexicon to mean open-class
vocabulary differs from some otheruses of the term, however!)
Recent work in sociolinguistics has raised once again a long-standing
question: can linguistic change be observed while it is actually occuring? In modern
linguistics the answer to that question has usually been a resounding negative.
Following the example of two of the founders of the modern discipline, Saussure
(1959) and Bloomfield (1933), most linguist have maintained that change itself
cannot be observed; all that you can possibly hope to observe are the consequences of
change. The important consequences are those that make some kind of difference to
the structure of a language. At any particular time, it certainly may be possible for
linguists to observe variation in language, but that variation is of little importance. As
indicated earlier, such variation was to be ascribed either to dialect mixture, that is, to
a situation in which two or more system have a degree of overlap, or to free variation,
that is, to unprincipled or random variation. Only in recent years have some of them
seen in it a possible key to understanding not only how languages are distributed in
society, but also how that distribution may help us to understand how change occurs
in language.
CHAPTER II
A. Definision Morphology
Morphology according to wikipedia is identification , analysis and description
of the structure of morphemes and other units of meaning in the language like words,
affixes, and part of speech and intonation/stress, implied context ( word in lexicon are
the subject metter of lexicology).
Morpholgy according to Dr. C. George Boeree is Morphology is the study of
morphemes, obviously. Morphemes are words, word stems, and affixes, basically the
unit of language one up from phonemes. Although they are often understood as units
of meaning, they are usually considered a part of a language's syntax or grammar. It
is specifically grammatical morphemes that this chapter will focus on.
Morphology according to Hadi Rukkiyah is Morphology or morphemic means
learning how to form words (word-organization). It is a branch of linguistics which
deals with the organization of phonemes into meaningful groups called morphs. A
morph is the smallest meaningful part of language.
B. Definision of Language Change
Language Change according to wikipedia is Languages change, usually very
slowly, sometimes very rapidly. There are many reasons a language might
change. One obvious reason is interaction with other languages.
Language Change according to William Caxton is (ca. 1415~1422 – ca.
March 1492) was an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. As far as is
known, he was the first English person to work as a printer and the first to introduce a
printing press into England. He was also the first English retailer of printed books
(his London contemporaries in the same trade were all Dutch, German or French).
CHAPTER III
CONTENT
In many language, what appear to be single form actually turn out contain a
large number of ‘word-like’ elements. For example, in swahili ( spoken throughout
East Africa), the form nitacupenda conveys what, in English, would have to be
represented as something like i will love you. Now, is the swahili form a single word?
If it is a ‘word’ then it seems to consist of a number elements which ,in English. Turn
up a separate ‘wod’. A very rough correspondence can be presented in the following
way:
Ni –ta
I
will
–ku -penda
you
love
It seems as if the swahili ‘word’ is rather different from what we think of as an
English ‘word’’ Yet, there clearly is some similarity between the languages, in that
similar elements of the whole message can befound in both. Perhaps a better way of
looking at linguistic forms in different languages would be to use this notion of
elements in the message, rather than to dipend on identifying ‘word’. The type of
exercise we have just performed is an example of investigating forms in language
generally known as morphology. This term, which literally means ‘the study of
form’, was originally used in biology, but, since, the mid nineteenth century, has also
been used to describe that type of investigation which analyzes all those basic
‘elements’ which are used in a language.
Morphology in the tme thechild 3 years old, he or she going beyound
telegraphic speech forms and incorporating some of the inflectional morphemes with
grammatical function of the noun and verb. The first to appears is the usually the –ing
form. For example cat sitting and mommy reading book. Then comes to marking
of plural with the –s as boys and cats. When the alternative pronunciation of the
plural morphemused in house ( i.e ending |-ez|) comes into use. It too is given on
overgeneralized application and form such as boyses or footses can appear. At the
some time as this overgeneraization is taking place. It also begin using irregular
plurals such as men quite appropriately for a while, but then try out the general rule
on the forms producing expressions like some mens and two feets/ even two feetses.
The use possesive inflections –‘s occurs in expressions such as girls and
mummy’s book and the different forms of the verb ‘to be’, such as are and was, turn
up . The appearanceof forms such as was and, at about the same time, went and
came should be noted. These are irregular past tense forms which one would not
expect to appear before the more regular forms. However, they do typically precede
the appearance of the –ed inflection. Once the regular past tense forms begin
appearing in the child’s speech ( e.g. walked, played ), then, interestingly, the
irregular forms disappear for a white and are replaced by over generalized versions
such as goed and comed. For a period, there is often minor chaos as the –
ed inflection is added to everything , producing such oddities as walkeded
and wanted. As with the plural forms, however the child works out, finally , the
regular –s marker on third person singular present tense verb appears it occurs intially
with full verbs (comes, looks ) and then with auxiliaries (does, has )
Throughout this sequence there is, of course, a great deal of variability,
individual children may produce ‘good’ forms comes day and ‘odd’ forms the next. It
is important to remember that hte child is working out how to use linguistic system
while actually using it as a means of communication. For the child, the use of forms
such as goed and foots is simply a means of trying to say what he or she means
during particular stage of development. The embrassed present who insist that the
child didn’t hear such things at home are implicitly recognizing that ‘ imitation’ is not
the primary force in child language acquisition.
C.
Language Change
Languages change, usually very slowly, sometimes very rapidly. There are
many reasons a language might change. One obvious reason is interaction with other
languages. If one tribe of people trades with another, they will pick up specific words
and phrases for trade objects, for example. If a small but powerful tribe subdues a
larger one, we find that the language of the elite often shows the influence of constant
interaction with the majority, while the majority language imports vocabulary and
speaking styles from the elite language. Often one or the other simply disappears,
leaving behind a profoundly altered "victor." English is, in fact, an example of
this: The Norman French of the conquerers has long disappeared, but not before
changing Anglo-Saxon into, well, a highly Frenchified English.
The historical development of English is usually divided into three major
periods. The old English period is considered to iast from the time of the earliest
written records,the seventh century, to the end of the eleventh century. The Middle
English period is from 1100 to 1500 and Modern English from 1500 to the present.
Example of a very influential people:
Around 5000 bc, between the Danube river valley and the steppes of what is
now the Ukraine, there lived small tribes of primitive farmers who all spoke the same
language. They cultivated rye and oats, and kept pigs, geese, and cows. They would
soon become the first people on earth to tame the local wild horses -- an
accomplishment that would make them a significant part of history for thousands of
years to come.
By examining the oldest examples of modern and classical languages such as
Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, linguists have been able to reconstruct an educated guess
as to what the language of these ancient people was like. They call the language
Proto-Indo-European. The work that went into reconstructing Proto-Indo-European
has led to efforts to reconstruct other prehistorical language ancestors as well.
Latin Italian Spanish Portuguese French
Latin Italia Spanyol Portugis
dicto detto
dicho
dicto detto
Dicho
dito Dito
Prancis
dit dit
English
Bahasa
Inggris
said
kata
lacte latte
leche
lacte latte
Leche
lecto letto
lecho
lecto letto
lecho
nocte notte
noche
nocte notte
noche
leite Leite lait lait
leito leito
noite noite
lit
milk
susu
bed
menyala tidur
nuit
night
Nuit
malam
So one "rule" could be that a "difficult" combination of letters like -ct- change in
certain ways to end up "simpler." In most of the descendent languages, it just became
-t-; in Spanish, it became ch. Another example: Words that began with pl-, cl-, or flin Latin changed in a systematic way as well. In this case the initial consonant
combinations "simplified" in different ways in Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, but
remained the same in French. In Italian, the l became an i, in Spanish they became ll
(pronounced like y), and in Portuguese they became ch (pronounced like sh):
Latin
Italian Spanish Portuguese French English
Pleno
pieno
Lleno
Cheio
Plein
Full
Clave
chiave Llave
Chave
Clef
Key
Flamma fiamma Llama Chama
flamme Flame
Over time, the linguists learned the patterns of change, and have used them to
reconstruct languages whose original versions we no longer have any record of -such as Proto-Indo-European! They are able to use some of the oldest versions of the
different branches of the Indo-European languages as a foundation:
English Sanskrit Greek Latin
Old
Irish
Old
Gothic Lithuanian Church
Slavic
four
chaturtha tettares Quattuor cethair fidwor Keturi
chetyre
five
Pancha
pente
Quinque Coic
Fimf
Penki
Peti
mother Maatra
mater
Mater
modhir Mote
Mati
mathir
brother Bhrataa phrater Fratera brathair brothar Brolis
bratu
These examples are nowhere near as obviously related -- but they are, in fact,
related. The words for brother are clearer than the others: You can see that the first
sound varies between b, bh (a breathy b), ph (a breathy p), and f. The first vowel
varies between a and o. The middle consonant varies between t and th. In all but the
last two languages, the words end in some variation of ar or er. Notice that the
examples include Sanskrit (ancestor of the languages of northern India), Greek, Old
Irish, and Lithuanian! Gothic is the oldest recorded version of the Germanic
languages, and Old Church Slavic the oldest of the Slavic languages. There are, in
fact, even more relatives, including Albanian, Armenian, the languages of Iran, and
many languages which haven't survived.
By examining the patterns in many languages and many words, linguists have
reconstructed the Proto-Indo-European forms of these and many other words:
Protoindoeuropean
Kwetwer
Mater
Bhrater
For a few more examples, here are the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European numbers
from one to ten:
oino, dwo, trei, kwetker, penkwe, sweks, sept, oktou, newn, dekm.
Old English
The primary sources for what developed as the English language were
Germanic language spoken by a group of tribes from northern Europe which invaded
the Britis Isles in the fifth century A.D. In one early account,these tribes of Angles.
Saxons and Jutes were described as” God’s wrath toward Britain’’. From this early
variety of Englisc, we have many of the most basic terms in our language: mann
(man), wif (woman ), cild (child), hus (house), mete (food), etan (eat), drincan (drink)
and feohtan (fight). By all account,these pagan settlers certainly liked feohtan.
However, they did nit remain pagan for long. From he sixth to the eighth century,
there was an extended period in which these Anglo-Saxons were converted to
Christianity and a number of term from the language of religion, Latin, came into
English at that time. The origins of the modern word angel, bishop, candle, chruch,
martyr, priest and school all date from his period. From the eighth century
throughtthe ninth and tenth centuries, another grup of northern Europeans came first
to plunder, and eventually to settle in parts of the coastal regions of Britain. They
were the vikings and it is from their language. Old Norse, that we derived the forms
which gave us a number of common modern terms such as give, law, leg, skin, sky,
take, and they.
Middle English
The event which more than anything marks the end of the Old English
period, and the beginning of the Middle English period.is the arrival of the Norman
French in England, following their victory at Hastings under William the Conueror in
1066. These French-speaking invaders proceeded to take over the whole of England.
They became the rulling class, so that the language of the nobility, the goverment, the
law and civilized behavior in England for the next two hundredyears was French. It is
the source of such modern term as army, coutr, defense, faith and tax.
Yet the language of the peasants remained English. The peasantworked of the
land and reared sheep, cows, and swine (words from Old English),while the Frenchspeaking upper classes ate mutton,beef and ork ( word of French origin ). Hence the
different word in modern English to refer to these creatures ‘on the hoof as opposed
to’on the late’.
Throughout this period, French (or,more accurately, an English version of
French)was the prestige language and Chaucer tells us that ne of his Centerbury
pilgrims could spek it. This is an example of Middle English, written in the late
fourteenth century. It has changed were yet to take, place before the language took
on its modern form. Most significantly : the vowel sounds of chaucer’s time were
very different from those we hear in similar word today. Chaucer lived in what would
have sounded like a ‘hoos’, with his ‘weef’ and hay , would romance ‘heer’ with a
bottle of ‘weena’ drunk by the light of the ‘moan’. In the two hundred years, from
1400 to 1600, which separated Chaucer and Shakespeare, the sounds of English
pronunciation. Whereas the types of borrowed words we have already noted are
exampleof external change in a language, many of the following examples can be
seens as internal changes within the historical development of English.
Types of language change
All languages change constantly, and do so in many and varied ways. Each
generation notes how other generations "talk funny". Marcel Cohen details various
types of language change under the overall headings of the external evolution and
internal evolution of languages.
Lexical changes
The study of lexical changes forms the diachronic portion of the science of
onomasiology. The on going influx of new words in the English language (for
example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change, despite the
difficulty of defining precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of
English. Throughout its history English has not only borrowed words from other
languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst
losing some old words.
Phonetic and phonological changes
Main articles: sound change and phonological change
The concept of sound change covers both phonetic and phonological
developments.
The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the change in
pronunciation in a relatively short period in the American resort of Martha’s
Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social tensions and processes.Even in
the relatively short time that broadcast media have recorded their work, one can
observe the difference between the pronunciation of the newsreaders of the 1940s and
the 1950s and the pronunciation of today. The greater acceptance and fashionability
of regional accents in media may[original research?] also reflect a more democratic, less
formal society — compare the widespread adoption of language policies.
Spelling changes
Standardisation of spelling originated relatively recently.[citation
needed]
Differences in spelling often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous
century. The pre-print era had fewer literate people: languages lacked fixed systems
of orthography, and the handwritten manuscripts that survive often show words
spelled according to regional pronunciation and to personal preference.
Semantic changes
Semantic changes include

pejoration, in which a term acquires a negative association

amelioration, in which a term acquires a positive association

widening, in which a term acquires a broader meaning

narrowing, in which a term acquires a narrower meaning
CHAPTER IV
CONCLUTION

Morphology is concerned with the internal structure of words and the rules for
forming words from their subparts, which are called morphemes.

Language Change according to William Caxton is (ca. 1415~1422 – ca. March
1492) was an English merchant, diplomat, writer and printer. As far as is known, he
was the first English person to work as a printer and the first to introduce a printing
press into England. He was also the first English retailer of printed books (his London
contemporaries in the same trade were all Dutch, German or French).

Types of language change:
 Lexical changes
 Phonetic and phonological changes
 Spelling changes
 Semantic changes
BILBLIOGRAPHY
Wardaugh Ronald, 1992, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics,, Cambridge USA :
blackwell
oxford uk.
Matthews, P. H. 1972. Inflectional morphology. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/langevol.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_change