East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK DIRECTIONS: We know a lot about atoms. The question is how do two atoms Bond to become a new compound? Using the space below, please write a quick explanation of how do two atoms connect or bond? Write your best explanation of how two atoms bond? AG 1 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK SHARE OUT TIME Take a quick look at your answer. In the minutes that follow, your teacher will ask you to share your answer to the group. Let’s hear about what we know about bonding. WORDS I NEED TO KNOW Directions: Before we start our discussion about chemical bonding, there are some important words we need to know. Work with a partner to define the important terms that we need to know in order to really understand bonding (turn the page for help). THE WORD WE NEED Book Definition Valence The Octet Rule Electronegativity How do I know how many electrons are in the valence layer? AG 2 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK SOME HELP FOR WORDS I NEED TO KNOW You can read the section below to help you understand the words you need to know. Valence The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are known as the valence electrons. These valence electrons are the electrons on an atom that can be gained or lost in a chemical reaction. Since filled d or f subshells are seldom disturbed in a chemical reaction, we can define valence electrons as follows: The electrons on an atom that are not present in the previous rare gas, ignoring filled d or f subshells. The Octet Rule The octet rule states that atoms tend to combine in such a way that they each have eight electrons in their valence shells outer shell, giving them the same electronic configuration as a noble gas. The rule is applicable to the main-group elements, especially carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and the halogens, but also to metals such as sodium or magnesium. In simple terms, molecules or ions tend to be most stable when the outermost electron shells of their constituent atoms contain eight electrons. Electronegativity Electronegativity, is a chemical property that describes the tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons (or electron density) towards itself and thus the tendency to form negative ions. An atom's electronegativity is affected by its atomic number, the number of positively charged particles, and the distance that its valence electrons reside from the charged nucleus. The higher the electronegativity number, the more an element or compound attracts electrons towards it. Determining the number of Valence Layer electrons The number of valence layer electrons is easy to determine. The periodic table is organized by columns. The columns are organized according the number of valence layer electrons, ascending from left to right. AG 3 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Determining Valence Layer Electrons 8 Valence electron 7 Valence electron 6 Valence electron 5 Valence electron 4 Valence electron 3 Valence electron 2 Valence electron 1 Valence electron To determine the number of valence layer electrons, simply identify what row the atoms are listed in and your atoms are listed in and identify the valence layer electrons. AG 4 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK KHAN ACADEMY NOTES What did Khan Say? In the Space below writing down any interesting notes and ideas that you learned from watching the explanation about bonding from Khan Academy AG 5 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Notes from Mr. Ang’s Lecture on Covalent Bonding What is Covalent Bonding? What is Polar Bonding? What is Non-Polar Covalent Bonding? AG 6 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Notes from Mr. Ang’s Lecture on Covalent Bonding Why would some bonds be Polar Covalent, while others are Non-Polar Covalent? AG 7 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK WHAT WE KNOW NOW! Directions: In the space below provide a brief explanation of what you know about Covalent Bonding. The Picture below is picture of two atoms bonded in a covalent bond. Tell the story of this bond. (1) Explain how they are connected. (2) Describe how the octet rule helps to explain why this happens? (3) Describe how the valence layer of electrons has to do with this. AG 8 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Image Explanation Please listen closely as your teacher explains how Bond Energies are associated with the type of bonds being formed. Take notes using the space below: AG 9 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK QUICK WRITE Before we proceed, it is important to identify how well you know the key ideas that help us understand bonding. Use the space below to explain the following concepts: (a) What is the octet rule? (b) What is the valence layer? (c) What is a Covalent Bond? AG10 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK (d) What is the electronegativity of an atom? AG11 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK TYPES OF COVALENT BONDS There are two types of covalent Bonds: (a) Polar Covalent Bonds and (b) Non-Polar Covalent Bonds. Use the space below to complete the fill-ins as your teacher explains the difference. A. Polar Covalent Bonds: A Pole is something that has opposite charges on opposite sides. Polar Covalent Bonds are bonds that are called “Polar” because the electrons spend more time with one of the atoms than with the other. Because the electrons are _________________, they create charges on both sides of the molecule. The reason why it is called polar is because the electrons are shared unevenly so the molecule has poles. AG12 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK B. Non – Covalent Bonds A Non-Polar Covalent bond is a bond where the electrons are shared ___________________. They are called “non-polar” because the electrons are shared equally, so the molecule does not have poles. AG13 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK READ & TRANSLATE Electronegativity and Covalent Bonding The example in which two hydrogen atoms bond is simple because both atoms are the same. Also, each one has a single proton and a single electron, so the attractions are easy to identify. However, many covalent bonds form between two different atoms. These atoms often have different attractions for shared electrons. In such cases, electronegativity values are a useful tool to predict what kind of bond will form. Atoms Share Electrons Equally or Unequally Figure 6 lists the electronegativity values for several elements. In a molecule such as H2, the values of the two atoms in the bond are equal. Because each one attracts the bonding electrons with the same force, they share the electrons equally. A nonpolar covalent bond is a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons in the molecular orbital are shared equally. What happens when the electronegativity values are not the same? If the values differ significantly, the two atoms form a different type of covalent bond. Think about a carbon atom bonding with an oxygen atom. The O atom has a higher electronegativity and attracts the bonding electrons more than the C atom does. As a result, the two atoms share the bonding electrons, but unequally. This type of bond is a polar covalent bond. In a polar covalent bond, the shared electrons, which are in a molecular orbital, are more likely to be found nearer to the atom whose electronegativity is higher. If the difference in electronegativity values of the two atoms is great enough, the atom with the higher value may remove an electron from the other atom. An ionic bond will form. For example, the electronegativity difference between magnesium and oxygen is great enough for an O atom to remove two electrons from a Mg atom. Figure 7 shows a model of how to classify bonds based on electronegativity differences. Keep in mind that the boundaries between bond types are arbitrary. This model is just one way that you can classify bonds. You can also classify bonds by looking at the characteristics of the substance. AG14 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK AG15 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK WHAT THEY ARE REALLY SAYING IS……. Directions: Use the space below to describe what they authors were trying to say in the reading on the page before. Explain this in your own words. What they are really saying is….. AG16 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK What The? Directions: The following picture explains the difference between the types of covalent bonds. It explains how different types of bonds have different types of electronegativity. Use the space below to explain what this image means. AG17 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK WHAT DID WE LEARN FROM THE LEWIS DOT STRUCTURE VIDEO Directions: You will watch a short video about Doing Lewis Dot Structures. While you watch the video, use the information below to help you complete the fill in the blank sentences. The Lewis Dot Structure is a quick and easy way to create a model of how covalent bonding happens. In Covalent Bonding electrons want to have __________ in the Valent layer, so they share electrons with other atoms to make sure they have a total of 8 Valent layer electrons. When you create Lewis dot structures you move the atoms around and move the electrons around so that every atom has 8 electrons surrounding them in their Valent layer. Be careful, there are some exceptions. ______________ only needs 2 Valent layer electrons and ______________can sometime form triple bonds with itself that share 6 electrons. AG18 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Lewis Dot Structure Exercise Directions: In the following activity your will use the past and the pieces of paper to make Lewis Dot structure. When making a Lewis Dot Structure, the Pasta represents a single electron. Placing two pasta pieces together make a bond of two shared electrons. After you make the molecules draw the Lewis dot structure in the space provided: Molecule Lewis Dot Structure H2 CH3 C6H12O6 C2H2 PBr3 N2H2 AG19 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK MINI LECTURE Use the space below to write any notes you are taking from your teacher’s lecture on Covalent Bonding BOND CHARACTER = BOND STRENGTH = AG20 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK DIRECTIONS: Read the text below and translate in into your own words on the following page. Polarity is Related to Bond Strength When examining the electronegativity differences between elements, you may notice a connection between electronegativity differences, the polarity of a bond, and the strength of that bond. The greater the difference between the electronegativity values of two elements joined by a bond, the greater the polarity of the bond. In addition, greater electronegativity differences tend to be associated with stronger bonds. Of the compounds listed in Table 2, H—F has the greatest electronegativity difference and thus the greatest polarity. Notice that H—F also requires the largest input of energy to break the bond and therefore has the strongest bond. Electronegativity and Bond Types You have learned that when sodium and chlorine react, and electron is removed from Na and transferred to Cl to form Na+ and Cl- ions. These ions form an ionic bond. However, when hydrogen and oxygen gas react, their atoms form a polar covalent bond by sharing electrons. How do you know which type of bond the atoms will form? Differences in electronegativity values provide one model that can tell you. AG21 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK DIRECTIONS: Read the text below and translate in into your own words on the following page. Bonds Can Be Classified by Bond Character Figure 2 on page 16 shows the relationship between electronegativity differences and the type of bond that forms between two elements. Notice the general rule that can be used to predict the type of bond that forms. If the difference in electronegativity is between 0 and 0.5, the bond is probably nonpolar covalent. If the difference in electronegativity is between 0.5 and 2.1, the bond is considered polar covalent. If the difference is larger than 2.1, then the bond is usually ionic. Remember that this method of classifying bonds is just one model. Another general rule states that covalent bonds tend to form between nonmetals, while a nonmetal and a metal will form an ionic bond. You can see how electronegativity differences provide information about bond character. Think about the bonds that form between the ions sodium and fluoride and between the ions calcium and oxide. The electronegativity difference between Na and F is 3.1. Therefore, they form an ionic bond. The electronegativity difference between Ca and O is 2.4. They also form an ionic bond. However, the larger electronegativity difference between Na and F means that the bond between them has a higher percentage of ionic character. AG22 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK WHAT THEY ARE REALLY SAYING IS……. Directions: Use the space below to describe what they authors were trying to say in the reading on the page before. Explain this in your own words. What they are really saying is….. AG23 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK REVIEW BOND CHARACTER = BOND STRENGTH = POLARITY = AG24 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK QUICK READ Directions: Read the text below AG25 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK QUICK READ Directions: Read the text below AG26 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK QUICK READ Directions: Read the text below AG27 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Paragraph # PARAGRAPH SUMMARIES What does it mean to you …. in your words? 1 2 3 4 5 PRACTICE PROBLEMS AG28 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK IN MY WORDS LAB PREP AG29 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK Directions: Use the space below to describe each of the steps you need to complete to the lab. Chemical Bonding Lab Chemical compounds are combinations of atoms held together by chemical bonds. These chemical bonds are of two basic types—ionic and covalent. Ionic bonds result AG30 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK when one or more electrons from one atom or group of atoms are transferred to another atom. Positive and negative ions are created through the transfer. In covalent compounds no electrons are transferred; instead the bonded atoms share electrons. The physical properties of a substance, such as melting point, solubility, and conductivity, can be used to predict the type of bond that binds the atoms of the compound. In this experiment, you will test six compounds to determine these properties. Your compiled data will enable you to classify the substances as either ionic or covalent compounds. OBJECTIVES Compare the melting points of six solids. Determine the solubility of the solids in water and in ethanol. Determine the conductivity of water solutions of the soluble solids. Classify the compounds into groups of ionic and covalent compounds. Summarize the properties of each group. MATERIALS 24-well microplate Bunsen burner Conductivity tester Ethanol iron ring Ring stand Thermal gloves Lab apron Safety goggles Aluminum foil square Thin-stemmed pipets (2) CaCl2 (calcium chloride) KI (potassium iodide) NaCl (sodium chloride) C13H18O2 (ibuprofen) Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula8H9NO2 (acetaminophen) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formulaC12H22O11 (sucrose) Always wear safety goggles, gloves, and a lab apron to protect your eyes and clothing. If you get a chemical in your eyes, immediately flush the chemical out at the eyewash station while calling to your teacher. Know the location of the emergency lab shower and eyewash station and the procedures for using them. Do not touch any chemicals. If you get a chemical on your skin or clothing, wash the chemical off at the sink while calling to your teacher. Make sure you carefully read the labels and follow the precautions on all containers of chemicals that you use. If there are no precautions stated on the label, ask your teacher what AG31 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK precautions to follow. Do not taste any chemicals or items used in the laboratory. Never return leftovers to their original container; take only small amounts to avoid wasting supplies. Do not heat glassware that is broken, chipped, or cracked. Use tongs or a hot mitt to handle heated glassware and other equipment because hot glassware does not always look hot. When using a flame, confine long hair and loose clothing. If your clothing catches on fire, WALK to the emergency lab shower and use it to put out the fire. Procedure 1. Put on safety goggles and a lab apron. 2. Before you begin, write a brief description of each of the six substances in Table 1. 3. Place a folded square of aluminum foil on an iron ring attached to a ring stand. Position the ring so that it is just above the tip of a Bunsen burner flame, as shown in Figure 1. Light the burner for a moment to check that you have the correct height. 4. Place a few crystals of sucrose, sodium chloride, acetaminophen, calcium chloride, ibuprofen, and potassium iodide in separate locations on the square of aluminum foil. Do not allow the samples of crystals to touch. Draw and label a diagram that shows the position of each compound. Figure 1 5. For this experiment, it is not necessary to have exact values for the melting point. The foil will continue to get hotter as it is heated, so the order of melting will give relative melting points. Light the burner and observe. Note the substance that melts first by writing a 1 in Table 1. Record the order of melting for the other substances. AG32 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK 6. After 2 min, record an n in Table 1 for each substance that did not melt. Extinguish the candle flame. Allow the can lid to cool while you complete the remainder of the experiment. 7. Put a few crystals of each of the white solids in the top row of your microplate. Repeat with the second row. Add 10 drops of water to each well in the top row. Do not stir. Record the solubility of each substance in Table 1. 8. Add 10 drops of ethanol to each well in the second row of the microplate. Do not stir. Record the solubility of each substance in Table 1. 9. Test the conductivity of each water solution in the top row by dipping both electrodes into each well of the microplate. Be sure to rinse the electrodes and dry them with a paper towel after each test. If the bulb of the conductivity apparatus lights up, the solution conducts electric current. Record your results in Table 1. 10. Clean the microplate by rinsing it with water into a pan provided by your teacher. If any wells are difficult to clean, use a cotton swab. Wash your hands thoroughly before you leave the lab and after all work is finished. AG33 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK NAME: _______________________________________ DATE: _________________________ PERIOD: _____ TABLE 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOUNDS Compound Description Melting point Solubility in H2O Solubility in ethanol Conductivity Calcium chloride Ibuprofen Acetaminophen Potassium iodide Sodium chloride Sucrose Analysis 1. Organizing Results Group the substances into two groups according to their properties. 2. Organizing Results List the properties of each group. Conclusions 1. Inferring Conclusions Use your textbook and your experimental data to determine which of the groups consists of ionic compounds and which consists of covalent compounds. AG34 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK 2. Relating Ideas Write a statement to summarize the properties of ionic compounds and another statement to summarize the properties of covalent compounds. AG35 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK MINI LECTURE Directions: In the moments that follow, use the space below to take notes about what the teacher explains about Resonance Structures. AG36 East Palo Alto Academy Covalent Bonding WORKBOOK SUMMARY OF KEY IDEAS Directions: In the space below, you will quickly write what you now understand about bonding. Use the boxes to the right to explain some of the key ides of Covalent Bonding. KEY IDEA & QUESTION ANSWERS Valence Electronegativity Covalent Bonding Polar Covalent Bonds Bond Energy Bond Length Lewis Dot Structures AG37