An American Plague
Reading Guide –Notes
Opening MapPhiladelphia 1793
How does this differ from a modern day map?
Why are there differences?
Philadelphia DirectoryWhat was the use of these directories?
What kinds of occupations did people have in 1793?
F=s
Chapter One-No One Noticed
Who is Matthew Carey? Quote at start of chapter-printer, publisher, and journalist
How is Philadelphia described?
Decay, dead animals, trash, spoiled coffee
Who is Dr. Benjamin Rush?
Philadelphia doctor, signer of the Declaration of Independence, respected physician
Philadelphia was largest city in N. America, 51,000 populations, and nation’s capital
George and Martha Washington are living in Robert Morris’s home (wealthy manufacturer that helped
finance the Revolutionary War)
French Problem
Louis XVI sent money, ships, soldiers, with this General Washington was able to surround and
force Cornwallis to surrender at Yorktown
January 1793 Louis XVI was beheaded, European monarchies are WORRIED (Great Britain,
Holland, Spain, Austria)
1789 the French Revolution begins
Washing ton hesitates, but knows he owes the French a debt
Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson believes in a Proclamation of Neutrality
Treasury Secretary Alexander Hamilton wants to support France
French Foreign Minister Genet, hires privateers to attack British ships off the US coast
Washington gives Genet the cold shoulder
Many US citizens support the French
A slave rebellion occurs in Santa Domingo and many French refugees pour into Philadelphiamore pro French sympathy
Pro French demonstrations occurred at Vice President John Adam’s home
Politicians were at a stand still
How do you think the heat and stench contribute to citizen’s discontent in Philadelphia?
Explain the pigeon folklore-an abundance of pigeons at market indicated the coming of unhealthy air
and sickness. Superstition
Dr. Rush was worried about “something in the drought and heat “ that cared unhealthy air. During the
year there had been many cases of mumps, hoof and mouth, scarlet fever and flu
Lutheran Reverend J. Henry C. Helmuth worried about the souls, Philadelphians were not worshipping
on the Sabbath, gambling, taverns, and dance houses
August 3, 1793, French sailor became ill with a fever at a boarding house
Was the Denny Boarding House in the wrong part of town? Is that why no one noticed eight deaths?
The disease started in a poverty stricken part of town-less concern?
Why did the city toll the church bells to announce deaths?
Chapter Two-All Was Not Right
The newspaper shows letters from politicians about the French Problem and a small obituary from a
yellow fever death, and a warning to stop the spread and panic of the disease from the Mayor
Dr. Foulke was a fellow at the College of Physicians and the Pennsylvania Hospital Board
Dr. Hodge is a Revolutionary War surgeon
Remedies used to ease sickness: cool drinks, barley water, apple water, red wine and laudanum
Why is this disease called yellow fever?
Dr. Benjamin Rush is an apprentice of Dr. John Redman and he is an abolitionist.
Symptoms of the disease: chills, headache, fever, burning stomach, black bile vomit, yellow skin,
aching joints, 3 days of constipation, hours of recovery, eyeballs turn yellow, nose/gums/intestines bleed,
weak pulse, dry brown tongue, depression, confusion, red eruptions on the skin
“moscheto” is mosquito
Doctors attempt to use geography to determine cause and spread of disease
Can a smell cause a disease?
What is the humoral theory? Humors in the body from Greek times
Why is medicine so primitive? Still using information from 2,500 years ago?
Rush is reminded of 1762 yellow fever, but he fears sharing information because the thought of this
deadly disease would spread major panic, death rate of 50%, Black Plague death rate 66%
What disease could spread such panic today?
Doctors can’t agree to put a name to the disease because of panic
Rush warns Mayor Matthew Clarkson and Governor Thomas Mifflin of his fear of yellow fever, he
wants people to leave the city
Year of Wonders
Other doctors believe disease could be: jail fever, camp fever, eruptive military fever and aumumnal
fever
Rush’s warnings were treated with ridicule and contempt
Are Doctor’s and scientists’ warnings often ignored? Examples
Deaths increase, news travels and mayor warns citizens in newspaper, tries to clean street to eliminate
odors
Does this notice cause panic?
Mayor and Governor ignore Rush…why?
How might fear have spread the disease faster?
Did socio-economics play a part in this plague? How?
Chapter Three-Church Bells Tolling
The newspaper carries the mayor’s warning, asks grave diggers to buy bodies deeper, sea battle
Mathew Carey starts sharing his observations in the newspaper…BIASED
Was it or was it not disastrous for people to flee from the city? 20,000 leave
People stayed because they were too poor to leave or they felt it was their duty.
Matthew Clarkson-mayor, no real power, lost child to plague, yet he stayed…What kind of a person
was Clarkson?
College of Physicians asked to assemble only 16 of 26 left…does this speak to their character, the oath
doctors take? Then the doctors disagree!
William Curie opposes Rush-wrote two books on yellow fever-thought fever was brought from outside
the city (refugees from Santa Domingo?) wanted to quarantine sick
**Was reputation more important than the cure?
How did the Doctors’ disagreement spread the disease?
Remedies: avoid fatigue, limit intake of beer and wine, airy rooms, remove fouled clothes and linens,
strong-smelling substances like vinegar sprinkled on handkerchiefs to ward off fever and gunpowder burned
to purify air, stay away from anyone with fever
How did people react to one another?
Did Rush contribute to the spread of the disease? Did he mean to?
****Pg 28 AB. Points out mosquitoes!
Why do you think some people escaped death when they contracted the yellow fever?
Dr. Duffield remedy: fresh dirt strewn around every room to a depth of 2”, change daily, warm baths,
inhale finely ground pepper
Cause: garbage
Remedy: Rue, Wormwood. Lavendar in vinegar, infuse for 8 days with camphor-rub temples and loins
with this wash the mouth and snuff some into nostrils
Daffey’s Elixir: pure alcohol
Ancient myths and folk remedies
Is this any different than weight loss gimmicks today?
Was the silence of the bells no longer tolling worse?
CREATE YOUR OWN REMEDY
Chapter Four-Confusion, Distress and Utter Desolation
Primary Source Newspaper-Doctors’ disagreements, remedies
How could the cannons help? Was all the noise on top of the stench and paranoia making things
worse?
Pennsylvania state legislature down to 10 senators and 36 representatives, legislature is in a panic over
their own doctor dying
Governor passes the buck to the mayor, leaves Philadelphia, state government shuts down
What was the effect when people quit going to work?
What is an almshouse?
The farmers refused to bring fresh food into the city, how did this lack of food spread the disease?
“Overseers and Guardians of the Poor” – started to organize, BRAVE
Ricketts’ Circus-stifling, hot, no water, no real medical care, dying not removed…a death sentence?
Why was the serving girl fired for helping the hauler put the body in the coffin?
Bush Hill-north of city, made into hospital, conditions were crude
Charles Caldwell-medical student volunteers to help at Bush Hill
Matthew Carey writes about the horrible conditions
Federal Government leaves city, Hamilton and wife ill, Washington leaves, government shuts down
Constitutional Crisis, Congress can’t be held anywhere by Philadelphia.
What would we do today if this type of disaster hit Washington DC?
Meteorite falls from the sky onto 3rd Street-omen?
Chapter Five-It was Our Duty
Primary Source Newspaper-Mayor’s letters, more Doctors’ letters
What was the Free African Society? What were the reasons they might or might not have wanted to
help with this disaster?
Were Blacks immune to the disease?
Is being exposed to viruses healthy or not why?
Of the 3,000 free blacks, 50% were domestic workers and there were 200 slaves in Philadelphia
Primary Source on page 48. Runaway slave advertisement
Hypocrisy…the whites didn’t want to worship in the same church, but they wanted the African
Americans’ help in this crisis. Whites want a new church built for the Blacks and the refugees that BROUGHT
SLAVES with them to Philadelphia!
Elders of the FAS were Absalom Jones and Richard Allen-volunteer the services of the FAS-Only group
in city of offer assistance and volunteers!
FAS volunteers were first to enter most homes of fever victims and found horrible conditions
Bidding started for in home care of the FAS volunteers…once again who will get better care?
Inflation for care begins-supply and demand
Black nurses were criticized and attacked, blamed for the inflation, Yet whites were bidding up prices,
easy to blame the Blacks, Clarkson steps in and supports the FAS
Bush Hill-most seriously ill taken there
300 FAS volunteers, yet we don’t know their names WHY?
Illness was so offensive even the medically trained doctors did not want to deal with it, yet the FAS
cleaned it up without hesitation
Blacks start to become ill
Chapter Six-The Prince of Bleeders
Primary Source-Remedies in the newspaper
Benjamin Rush becomes ill, yet continues to see patients (You have to admire his dedication!)
Rush announces his cure pg. 59-Cure worse than the disease
-Let nature heal
-bark
-wine
-herbal teas, brandy
-blisters
-poison to induce vomiting
-bloodletting
-10 and 10
Bloodletting-25 lbs of blood/really 12 lbs.
Rush’s cures not accepted by all and Rush becomes angry and arrogant pg 63
With Rush’s claim and his highly respected position, would you have tried his cures?
Rush uses his own cure and is up within five days, now would you have used his cure?
How else were doctors supposed to prove a cure? Pg. 65
Chapter Seven-By Twelve Only
Primary Source-Why were there all the advertisements in the newspaper? Read them and make an
educated guess.
City is on the verge of collapse, no courts, committee, Guardians stopped, Bush Hill in turmoil,
newspaper stopped circulation, taverns and markets closing, doctors arguing, only the FAS functioning
Why was it illegal for Mayor Clarkson to seize control of the city?
Committee of 12 formed with Clarkson-take out a loan for $37,647.19-back it with their own money.
This was a fortune for that time.
Describe the type of people who step up and volunteer for the committee.
`
Describe the jobs the committee members take on.
Israel Israel-Did his occupation of being a tavern owner and merchant lend to his skill of organizing?
@Bush Hill the doctors were more interested in autopsies rather than doctoring the ill WHY? Matthew
Carey’s quote Pg 71
Conditions at Bush Hill are so bad that Peter Helm and Stephen Girard offer to manage
Helm, a devout Christian, brings to Bush Hill 1) work ethic 2) kindness 3) spiritual courage
Girard, a wealthy merchant that did not flee city brings 1) calm personality 2) steely determination 3)
organization
Why was organization so necessary at Bush Hill?
Build more structures for morgue and coffins
Find a full time doctor
Jean Devez- French doctor that volunteered to come to Bush Hill, that did not believe in Rush’s
treatment, believed Rush killed more than saved, he’d treated Yellow Fever in West Indies, his treatment on
Pg. 75
French cure criticized
Primary Source-spread of epidemic (Matthew Carey anonymous author?)…is it caused from people
moving or the mosquitoes moving? Panic causes violence
Dipped mail from Philadelphia in vinegar, tarred and feathered people traveling from Philadelphia, sink
ships
Cities sent aid
Chapter Eight-This Unmerciful Enemy
Primary Source-list of dead page 121 with 78 on this page alone
Organization ceases some panic
Deaths seem to increase
Reverend Helmuth still blaming sin-Could one religious group be more infected than another?
Who was shunned?
Why would cold weather stop illness?
Why would crime increase, committee decides to ignore, good idea? Pg. 84
Landlords raise rents, greed? Taking advantage of a bad situation?
Rush gets Yellow Fever again
Fever appears in outer part of city
Primary Source-Record of Mortality
What are “Quacks”?
Phillip Freneau-editor of the National Gazette- (Is this the National Enquirer of 1793?) has no real
news, pokes fun in his editorializing Pg. 87
Andrew Brown-editor of the Federal Gazette, only uninterrupted news throughout crisis
Is the media biased or non-biased?
Freneau Poetry 87-88
Piercy’s verse pg. 89 headstone warning?
Chapter Nine-A Delicate Situation
Washington had left and put Secretary of War Henry Knox in charge of government. Knox was
supposed to report back to Washington, but Knox fled to Manhattan Island, was turned away and ended up in
Elizabethtown NJ—two weeks in quarantine
Washington couldn’t get reliable information
Would a President today be allowed to stay in a plague-ridden city?
All papers and files in Philadelphia, Washington trying to make decisions-Washington embarrassed and
frustrated
Could Congress convene?
Federalists-Alexander Hamilton-yes convene elsewhere
Anti-Federalists-Thomas Jefferson and James Madison
Attorney General Edmund Randolph-No, congress may not convene
State’s Rights vs. Executive Powers
Mail slowed-dipped in vinegar, illness, and lack of workers
Washington and Jefferson-trouble getting back-massive inflation
Would politicians accept the conditions today that the politicians of 1793 endured?
What did people returning to the city find? Clean, exhausted survivors, mercury poisoning
October 31-Bush Hill-NO MORE SICK PERSONS HERE
WHY WAS THE COLD WELCOME-
Washington rides into Philadelphia unaccompanied-staff shocked
No real numbers for deaths
Chapter Ten-Improvements and the Public Gratitude
People wanted to pretend like the plague didn’t occur-especially if they had left town
Charlie Biddle claims all the dead were foreign born or strangers to city
Plague had changed too many lives profoundly to pretend that it hadn’t occurred
Dolley Madison lost first husband, son
Pennsylvania legislature didn’t want to admit failure-it might affect their elections! Sound familiar?
Citizens saw the value of keeping the city clean- link disease to filth
Public health wasn’t made a budget priority so in poor areas, plague raged in future summers
Change in water systems-wells had been dug close to privy pits, Delaware River polluted by human and
animal waste
1799-Benjamin Latrobe designs Philadelphia water works-This is the first water system in the United
States-created better, cleaner water, water pressure and people can bathe regularly (No wonder they were
sick!)
Washington established “summer White House” to avoid plague during the summers-Camp David now
The French Problem is solved by the plague----bigger things to worry about, survival!
Doctors are still arguing-College declares that the plague had not originated ever in the US; Rush
resigns furious Pg. 110-Then the doctors all publish their own version of events
William Cobbett-Englishman that hates Rush due to Revolution and he begins to write against Rush in
papers “The Porcupine’s Gazette”
Rush moves to Princeton to escape criticism-Alexander Hamilton blocks Rush’s appointment as faculty
to Columbia University
Rush’s reputation is tarnished
Spiritual leaders didn’t want citizens to ignore plague
Heroes received both praise and criticism-Committee because they were common, middle class???
Committee spent $3,245.12 more than received in aid-CAN YOU BELIEVE THE COMMITTEE MEMBERS
WERE LABLE FOR DEBT!
Israel went on to run for the Pennsylvania state legislature and he told the truth about the rich who
didn’t care for the citizens, Israel won, but B.R. Morgan claimed poor voters had given an oath of allegiance
(similar to voting boundary issues of today)-Reelection, Morgan winds due to Quaker vote, they didn’t want a
“grog shop” owner in government-Now his occupation is used against him
Carey prints book-treats fugitives lightly but spoke horribly of FAS-HAS CAREY EVER BEEN NONBIASED???
Jones and Allen reply in their own book-FIRST TIME BLACK STAND UP FOR THEMSELVES IN WRITINGAMAZING FOR ITS TIME-ENDED WITH A NOTE FROM MAYOR CLARKSON
Chapter Eleven-A Modern Day Time Bomb
Plague strikes again-now we use quarantine
People are still claiming that it is an imported disease
Irish in a quarantine hospital in Manhattan-burned in beds-no arrests made
1878 Remedy-cool, avoid patients and meds and bad whiskey, and be cheerful
1848 Dr. Josiah Nott-noticed link to mosquitoes but thought impossible
1880-Dr. Carlos Finlay used human subjects and allowed infection by mosquitoes-other Drs claimed
evidence was inconclusive
1880s-Pasteur and Robert Koch isolated bacteria-dispel end to humor theory
1890s -Loffler and Frosh discover “virus”
1900- Jesse Lazear-US Army yellow fever commission/Spanish American War-400 die in battle, 2000
die from disease
Walter Reed thought bacterium found in swamps was the culprit
Lazear afraid he’d be criticized like Finlay and Nott if he pursued mosquito theory, Lazear died of fever
James Carroll and Aristikes Agramonte, follow Lazear’s theory
Reed was willing to further experiment-female mosquito was the carrier
What would have happened if Reed had been narrow minded????
1929-vector mosquito from monkeys (rainforest-Africa and Americas)
1937-vaccine
Mosquitoes lay eggs, larvae to adult 7 days, virus moves through mosquitoes in 12 days
Preventative-destroy breeding grounds
Panama Canal-30,000 died
Use DDT to eradicate mosquitoes
Rachel Carson “Silent Spring” 1962-bioaccumulation in raptor populations
Humans became more susceptible to Yellow Fever, because no one was building up immunity
Yellow fever still in Africa, Vietnam
Today-Yellow Fever still a threat