CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1.BACKGROUND OFTHE STUDY:
Education is the act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or
physical ability of an individual. The educational system of every country is designed to
make learners acquire knowledge, skills, attitude and values that enhance the total
development of the individual, society and the nation at large. Quansah (1998:14) cited in
Aboagye (2002) says that “the goal of education in Ghana seeks to provide an improved and
relevant level of education for all Ghanaians such that they will live a healthy and productive
life through application of science and technology, develop a sense of justice and keen
entrepreneurship, acquire capability for enjoying his or her leisure time and be able to
participate fully in community and national affairs” (p.104). Everyone therefore needs to be
educated for personal development and the development of the nation at large.
In educational institutions, success is measured by academic performance or how well a
student meets the standard set out by the government and the institution itself. Although
Education may not be the only road to success in the working world, much effort is made to
identify, evaluate, track and encourage the progress of students in schools. Parents care about
their child’s academic performance because they believe good academic result will provide
more career choices and job security. Schools though invested in fostering good academic
habits for the same reason, are also often influenced by concerns about school’s reputation,
which hinges on the overall academic performance. The tracking of academic performance
1
fulfils a number of purposes. Areas of achievement and failure in a student’s academic career
need to be evaluated in order to foster improvement and make full use of the learning
process.
When educators are asked to indicate why students experience difficulty and fail in
school, they give four categories of causes which they also attribute to success in school.
They mentioned deficits, disorders, dysfunctions and disabilities suffered by the students as
the number one causal factor. They also mentioned home and family problems, lack of
effective instruction and the school organization as other additional factors (Salvia &
Ysseldyke, 1995).
A disability such as hearing impairment is a silent and hidden condition that may show
up only in the behaviour of the person but not easily in outward appearance (Offei, 2005).
The sense of hearing is a natural way that human beings listen to sound and have meanings
attached to them in a particular language familiar to the persons involved. Unfortunately, not
many people are able to function using the ears as the natural conductor of sounds in speech
that is transmitted into the brain for meaningful interpretation of what is heard. These are
people with hearing impairment, which means there is a natural defect, or damage to the
organs of hearing. Trauma, infection, drugs, accident or the problems of malfunctions, which
are inherited at birth or after birth, may cause the defect or damage.
The term hearing impairment is an umbrella term that refers to all degrees of hearing
loss, from slight to profound (Hunt & Marshall, 2002). The term hearing loss has different
meanings for different authors. For some, it describes a slight-to-moderate hearing loss
2
(Moores, 1989) cited in Heward (1996). For others it describes any hearing loss, mild or
severe (Paul & Quigley, 1994). The severity of hearing loss is determined by the individual’s
perception of sound as measured in decibels (dB).
A loss between 15 and 20 dB is
considered slight; increasing degrees of loss range from mild to severe and profound hearing
loss or deafness (Moores, 2001). Individuals classified as hard of hearing may be able to
hear and understand speech, or they can be assisted to do so with hearing aids. Persons with
hearing loss follow the same cognitive development as those without losses, but sometimes at
a slower rate.
Hearing impairment, like any other sensory impairment could pose serious academic,
communication and social problems. Boothroyd (1982) postulated that the sense of hearing plays
a key role in the use and development of verbal language and communication. Communication
has to do with acquisition and abstraction of meaningful information processing and storing in
short term and long term memory and retrieval of information. It includes language components
of phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics and pragmatics (Kirk, Gallagher & Anastasiow,
2003). Communication is the exchange of ideas, information, thoughts and feelings. It involves
two or more people interactively sending and receiving messages. The exchange of ideas is
communicated through listening, speaking, reading and writing. Language is the vehicle for
interpersonal communication. It is the primary agent for defining oneself, identifying
relationship with others and influencing or controlling the thoughts or actions of others
(Polloway & Smith, 1992). According to Bloom and Lahey (1978), it is “a code whereby ideas
about the world are expressed through a conventional system of arbitrary signals for
3
communication” (p.292). Through the linguistic code, speech sounds combine to represent
objects and items.
Essel, (1996) stated that the unborn foetus hears, hearing continues from birth yet a baby
is not able to talk meaningfully until it had gained some experience of verbal language around.
This shows that, apparently, language acquisition competency is developed through listening
rather than talking. Therefore, someone who has hearing problem may lack skills for proper
language processing and acquisition.
Generally, hearing problems affect academic performance of students. Paul & Jackson
(1993) report that “one of the most robust findings is that there is an inverse relationship between
hearing impairment and achievement, the more severe the impairment, the lower the
achievement; this discrepancy between ability and achievement hinges on the lack of mastery of
the English Language among students who are hearing impaired” (King & Quigley, 1985) cited
in Hunt & Marshall (2002, p. 344). Academic achievement is strongly related to the reading
ability of students regardless of the mode of communication used; the student must learn English
for reading and writing. English as the official language of Ghana holds the key to educational
attainment and meaningful participation in the socio-economic, political and technological
emancipation of the country and the individual. Students with hearing impairment also have the
same cognitive abilities to process written language. When they read, they use the same types of
knowledge and skills as hearing readers, but some of their knowledge skills are less welldeveloped. Because of diminished exposure to incidental information, they often have
incompetent background knowledge, yet comprehension depends on how much the reader
already knows about the topic. In the presence of hearing impairment, language symbols are not
4
perceived and learned, yet language, is a decisive factor in the development of one’s concept and
in the release of one’s potential intelligence (Hutchcroft, 1981).
Many students go to school today with problems that may be very difficult to detect or
comprehend. The problem of students and the large enrollment, resulting in overcrowded
classrooms today create difficulties for teachers who may not have specific training in
identifying students’ problems and therefore gloss over their unique needs. Consequently, those
who may be showing poor academic performance may not be identified as having any unique
problem, but may become relegated to the background and are often poorly served in the
classrooms. Medical examination conducted on students of Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School
from the year 2006 to 2009 revealed that some number of students have hearing problems. Since
hearing impairment affects communication and influences academic achievement, the writer sets
out to investigate communication barrier as a cause for low academic performance of students
with hearing problems.
1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
As indicated in the background statement, the academic performances of students have been
a major concern of governments, parents, and all stakeholders of education. Students’ poor
performances have been attributed to many factors. Parents wonder whether teachers have the
competence to teach. Failure in academic work has been attributed to complaint raised by
teachers’ absenteeism, lateness, drunkenness, large class size, excess entertainment and syllabus
non-completion (Daily Graphic, July 11 2007).
The West African Examination Council
(WAEC) Chief Examiner’s Report since 2003 to 2006 were constantly on candidates’ poor
5
language expression, poor comprehension and summary skills in the English language,
grammatical errors, spelling mistakes and inappropriate use of vocabulary in their writings.
Others are inadequate preparation for the examination as well as poor understanding of the
questions, concept and procedures. (WAEC Chief Examiner’s Report 2003-2006). Paul &
Quigley, (1987) espoused that even a slight hearing loss has been shown to have adverse effects
on academic achievement. These have prompted the topic to be researched into to examine how
far communication barrier is a cause for low academic performance of students with hearing
problem at Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School at Ho.
1.3. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
Since the problem is that hidden sensory impairment such as hearing problems in students
may affect communication and academic performance, the purpose of this study therefore is to
investigate whether communication barrier is a cause for low academic performance in students
with hearing problems at Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School at Ho.
Also to create the
awareness of the existence of sensory impairment in students, which may be the cause for low
academic performance in students as well as establishing the relevance of teacher competency in
identifying students with hearing problems in the regular classroom.
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the study are:
 To find out whether hearing impairment affects the communication of the individual
with hearing problem.
6
 To investigate whether communication barrier is a cause for low academic
performance of students with hearing problems.
 To ascertain if the age of onset of the hearing problem in the individual has any effect
on the academic achievement of the individual.
1.5. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research questions were used to guide the study:
1. Does hearing impairment affect communication of the individual with hearing problem?
2. Is communication barrier, a causal factor for the low academic performance of students
with hearing problems?
3. Does the age at the onset of the problem have any effect on communication capabilities
of the Individual?
4. Are teachers aware that hidden sensory impairment may affect their students’ academic
performance?
5. Do teachers have the skills in identifying students with hearing problems in their
classrooms?
1.6. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study will bring to light some pertinent issues pertaining to the academic performance of
students with hearing problems.
Besides, this research hopefully may enlighten school
authorities and teachers on the extent to which hearing impairment, resulting in communication
barrier affects the academic performance of students.
7
More so, the study will help teachers understand why some students perform below average
in their academic work. It is also the hope of the researcher that policy makers, in quest of
finding solution to the poor academic performance of students in the country may take a clue
from this study.
In addition, the findings of this study will add new knowledge to the existing ones and will
also serve as a reference for teachers, students as well as future researches.
1.7. DEFINITION OF TERMS
The terms, Academic performance, Adventitious hearing impairment, Hearing impairment
are defined. Any other words that appear in the work are also defined.
Academic performance:
This refers to how well students deal with their studies and how they cope with or
accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers (World Education Services
2011.Meaning of Academic Performance. Retrieved from http://www.ehow.com.meaningacademic performance).
Adventitious Hearing impairment:
Adventitious hearing impairment or deafness results when hearing loss or deafness
occurs after the onset of speech and language acquisition (Avoke, 1997).
Hearing Impairment:
8
A generic term used to identify anyone with a hearing loss regardless of the degree of
impairment (Reynolds & Flectcher-Jasen, 1991).
1.8. LIMITATION
This study was inhibited mainly by limited financial resources and time constraints, since the
researcher has to combine teaching work with the research work.
1.9. DELIMITATION
There are three Senior High Schools in Ho. This study cannot touch all of them due to
limited time and other resources. Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School, Ho has been chosen as the
research site because the researcher works there and the target group could be easily accessed.
1.10. STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY
The study consists of six chapters.
Chapter One, which is the introduction gives the
background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives, research
questions raised, significance of the study, definitions of terms, limitation and delimitations to
the study.
Chapter Two highlights on the relevant related literature reviewed on the concept of the
topic. It dwells on the concept of hearing impairment, concept of communication, effects of
communication on students’ academic performance, theoretical framework and the empirical
framework of the study.
9
Chapter Three deliberates on the methodology used for data collection and data analysis
of the study. It looks at the research design in gathering information, population, sample and
sampling technique used, procedure used for gathering information on the research and methods
for data analysis.
The Fourth chapter presents the result of the study. It looks at the background analysis of
the data and statistical presentation of the findings, while Chapter Five discusses the major
findings of the study with reference to the related literature and the concluding chapter, which is
the Sixth Chapter, gives the summary of the research findings, conclusion, recommendations and
suggestions on the study.
10
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. INTRODUCTION
The literature is reviewed on both empirical and theoretical issues relating to communication
barrier as a cause for low academic performance of students with hearing problems.
There are many written literature on communication as an effective tool for students’
academic achievement. In Ghana, many people are not aware that students in our general
classrooms may have slight to severe hearing problems, which may in one way or the other
affect their academic performance. Moreover, very little is known about communication
disorders and its devastating effects on students’ academic performance. Since this study is about
investigating communication barrier as a cause for low academic performance of students in
Mawuko Senior High School, Ho, the conceptual, theoretical and empirical framework of the
study are under the following themes:
 Concept of hearing impairment.
 Concept of communication.
 Hearing impairment and communication.
 Effects of communication on students’ academic performance
 The theoretical framework of the study. This will be viewed in respect of the following
themes:
Medical model, psychological and educational models of disability
 Empirical framework of the study.
11
2.1. CONCEPT OF HEARING IMPAIRMENT
Hearing is what happens when we detect and interpret minute disturbance in the air around
us. In human beings, the sense of hearing plays a key role in the use and development of verbal
language for communication (Boothroyd, 1982).
There is no universal definition of hearing impairment as both the cause of the loss and its
degree can differ from person to person. However a degree of loss a person has depends on how
loud a sound measured in decibels, a person can hear (National Institute on Deafness and other
Communication Disorders –Hearing Aids, 2002 Feb. NIH Pub. No. 99-4340).
Kentucky Office
for the American with Disability Act define hearing impairment as a hearing loss that prevents
a person from totally receiving sounds through the ear, If loss is mild the person have difficulty
hearing faint or distant speech. A person with this degree of hearing may use a hearing aid to
amplify sounds.
If the hearing loss is severe, the person may not be able to distinguish any
sound (ada.ky.gov/hearing_imp_def.htm).
Nicholosi, Herryman, Kreshock. (1972; p.196) define hearing impairment as hearing losses
which may range from mild to deafness. Kirk, Gallagher and Anastasiow (1983 p.11) stated that
over and above the degree of hearing loss and type of hearing loss which are variables dictating
definition of hearing impairment, the age at which the loss occurred is also vital. Age of onset
helps to determine pre-lingual and post-lingual cases of deafness.
Another significant thing to consider when defining hearing impairment is the difference that
exists in classifying hearing impairment and the difference in the use of labels as noted by
Blackhurst and Berdine (1981) cited in Avoke (1997:67).
Broadly, hearing impairment can be
classified into two main categories depending on onset period. These are post lingual hearing
12
impairment, which is also known as adventitious hearing impairment. This means the
impairment results usually after speech and language is acquired. The second is pre-lingual
hearing impairment. This results when hearing loss occurs before speech and language is
acquired and these are all based on the onset of hearing loss.
2.1.1 Categories of Hearing Impairment
The categories of hearing impairment suggest the degrees of loss experienced by individuals
with hearing impairment. The classification is done according to severity of loss.
Table.1. Classification of Hearing Impairment According to Severity of Loss
Degree of hearing impairment
Description
Label
0 – 20 dB
Normal
Normal hearing
21 – 40 dB
Slight
Hard of hearing
41 – 55 dB
Mild
Hard of hearing
56 – 70 dB
Moderate
Hard of hearing
71 – 90 dB
Severe
Deaf
91 + dB
Profound
Profound deaf
(Adapted from Paul & Quigley (1990) cited by Avoke (1997)*
In general, the degrees of severity of hearing impairment include the following: mild,
moderate, severe, profound and total hearing loss. Mild hearing loss is the kind of hearing loss
in which the individual is unable to hear sounds that fall below 20 dB or 30 dB and such person
13
needs hearing aid to help in amplification of sounds. Any person who presents mild hearing loss
needs intervention. With moderate hearing loss, sounds are not heard below 50dB; this difficulty
in hearing interferes with reception and expression of language usage. People with moderate
hearing loss may require some forms of hearing aid to help in the amplification of sound.
Individuals who are considered as having severe hearing loss have hearing ranges that fall below
80dB. As a result of this degree of loss, receptive and expressive language becomes a severe
problem. At this level even conversational sound may not be experienced. The effect of
profound hearing loss is more complicated. At this stage where the degree of loss is anything
from 91 dB and beyond, even ordinary sounds are not heard. Total hearing loss refers to what is
technically called anacusis. At this stage no sound is heard at all.
2.1.2 Types of Hearing Impairment
Apart from the above, hearing impairment is classified according to site or lesion of loss. This
is categorized as conductive hearing loss, sensorineural hearing loss and mixed hearing loss.
Conductive hearing loss is usually based on obstruction of sound in the external and middle ears.
When there is obstruction, sound waves are prevented from getting into the inner ear. In other
cases it can be as a result of disfunctioning of the middle ear bones (ossicles). In some instances
relating to conductive hearing loss, surgical correction has been useful in eliminating the
problems. Some examples of obstruction in the external canal are accumulation of wax in the
canal (meatus), foreign bodies in the ear canal as well as inflammation such as otitis media,
perforation of the ear drum (tympanic membrane) and reduced mobility of the ossicles (malleus,
incus, stapes) (Davis and Silverman, 1970; Essel, 1996).
14
In sensorineural hearing loss, there is damage to the cochlea and auditory nerve or the nerve
endings that lead to the brain. Infection such as German measles, meningitis are said to be some
causes of sensorineural hearing loss.
In recent times, cochlear implants have raised the
possibility of corrections. Mixed hearing loss however involves the external, middle and sensory
neural systems (Davis and Silverman, 1970). Surran and Rizzo (1979:50) suggest that hearing
loss may be consequence of impairment in the conduction of sound and of sensorineural damage.
In such instance only the conductive element of such hearing loss can be corrected medically.
Kirk et al. (2003), refer to conductive hearing loss as any problem of the outer or middle ear
when the inner ear is not affected. Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by problems in the inner
ear or along the nerve pathway from the inner ear to the brainstern.
2.1.3 How the hearing mechanism works:
To understand the causes of hearing impairment, it will be beneficial to understand how the
hearing mechanism works. The hearing mechanism can be described as divided into four (4)
parts and these are the outer, middle, inner and the brain. The outer ear consists of the pinna
(auricle) which is the cup or flap-like feature that shows out on the head and is ordinarily called
the ear, through the ear canal (meatus) up to the ear drum (the tympanic membrane) (Davis and
Silverman 1970; Northern & Downs, 1991).
The middle ear section starts from the ear drum to the oval window. It includes the whole
chamber that houses the ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes which are tiny bones), the opening of the
Eustachian tube and the exit to the mastoid process. The inner ear section is the cochlea,
thousands of hair cells; vestibular mechanisms comprising essentially the semi circular canal that
15
analyses the sound.
The brain section begins from the neurons leaving the cochlear to the
temporal lobe area of the brain and responds to the sound by interpreting (Davis and Silverman
1970; Northern & Downs, 1991).
Hearing is a complex mechanism that usually begins from the outer ear when the sound
waves are collected by the pinna; it transforms and transmits sound to the middle ear. The middle
ear receives the sound from the outer ear through the vibration of the tympanic membrane. The
tiny bones of malleus, incus and stapes transform and transmit the vibration into the inner ear,
which is the complex structure. Here the sound waves received are converted into electrical
impulses which then go through the pathway by the different nerves to the brain and
subsequently interpreted as messages. (Davis and Silverman, 1970) cited by Essel, (1996:6). The
brain consists of complex process of sound interpretation. Impairment can occur at any of the
sections to cause either conduction, analysis or interpretation problems leading to inability to
hear as expected. (Northern & Downs, 1991,) cited in Gadagbui, (2003: 2).
2.1.4 How Hearing Aids Understanding of Verbal Messages:
Rutter & Bax (1972) cite Kessen (1970) to say that: ‘even in the uterus the foetus may kick or
respond to a loud noise and it has long been observed that neonates can respond to different
sounds’ (p.90). This is evident from the observation by De Casper and Fiffer (1980) cited by
Minifie,(1994:190) that most new born babies will blink to sound of a tuning fork, turn their eyes
or condition to sounds and startle or be still in response to whistles. Experimental studies under
laboratory conditions have shown not only that neonates can hear but can also discriminate
between different types of sounds (Fried Lander (1970) cited by Dogoe (1996:18).
16
Knauf (1978) stated that the auditory system in a neonate is functioning and infants can make
fine discrimination among speech sounds as early as one month. Before infants are six months,
they obviously discriminate speech forms. They respond discriminately to intonation and stress
pattern that communicates the feeling and desires of adults. Espir and Clifford (1983) also stated,
at six months, the infant will distinguish between affection and scolding terms.
Apparently, language competency is developed through listening rather than talking. Social
learning theorists contend that imitation plays a major role in speech development. Parents act as
models for their children and the children imitate both words and general rules they hear,
Bandura (1977) cited by Bootzin (1986:12).
Essel (1996) again quoted Carhart (1970) in Hearing and Deafness chapter 14 as follows:
The child who hears low frequencies well but is insensitive to middle and high pitched
tones faces a different problem. It is likely to be years before this child’s deficiency is
discovered. Because he can hear low frequency sounds, he reacts to many of the sounds
in his world. People seeing his response, reason that his hearing is normal. They fail to
realize how distorted and imperfect are his impression of sound; confusion is this child’s
lot. He misses the acoustic elements which gives speech its distinctive character. One
outcome of his confusion is slow and uncertain development of language. Moreover, the
child incorporates in his own speech only the imperfect distinctions which he perceives in
the speech of others. The result is a musky and slurred pattern of talking which may
border on the unintelligible. (p.17)
17
Essel (1996) continued to say that speech is made up of sounds of different pitches
(frequencies). Ordinarily, these are summed up into vowels and consonants. The diversity of
hearing deficits may mean that some people respond to only vowels; others may have both
consonants and vowels distorted. But speech is made up of vowels and consonants and one need
to hear both in order to understand what is being communicated. For the quotation above, the
author makes a case that the child incorporates in his speech only the imperfect distinctions
which he perceives in the speech of others. This results in speech deviation although there are
other causes of speech deviation. Oppong, (2003: 47), listed some causes of speech deviation as
cleft palate, neurological disorders, abnormal dentition and lesion of the vocal cords. Cleft
palate is a condition resulting in complete or partial split of the upper lip, lower lip or both lips.
These he noted, poses problems for the speaker in the correct articulation of some speech sounds.
Neurological disorders, which refers to disorders in the nerves is a cause of speech deviation. If
the nerves responsible for the transmission of speech sounds to the brain and from the brain
(afferent and efferent nerves), are not functioning properly, or are faulty, one may be deviant in
speech sound production. Abnormal dentition is a term referring to malformation of the teeth.
The teeth may be wrongly arranged in the oral cavity or the front upper teeth may be abnormally
long or too short, these conditions interfere with speech sound production. Lesions of the vocal
cords or vocal folds may also cause deviations in voice and speech sound production since this
condition is inability of the vocal cords to vibrate as air passes through it from the lungs.
18
Another important thing that can be deduced from the above author’s case is that one must
perceive both low through to the high frequency sounds in order to understand a verbal message.
Poor sound perception causes speech distortion.
Hearing contributes greatly to understanding especially in a world where verbal communication
dominates. Essel (1996) had this to say: ‘hearing stimulates thinking, thinking is an exercise that
concerns the use of the brain and the brain develops in quality as enough stimulation is given
(p.18).
The impression has been created by many hearing persons that individuals with hearing
impairment are intellectually deficient. This assumption may be traced to the difficulty in
language usage, which makes it difficult for persons with hearing impairment to communicate
intelligibly with the hearing population. It could also be noted that speech is frequently
considered as the hallmark of intelligence and because persons with hearing impairment cannot
speak, they are dismissed as unintelligent. Avoke (1997) cited Essel (1996) to say that: ‘those
who do not hear live in silence; in isolation from the world of sound and that sound is what
guides us socially and intellectually’ (p.73).
In addition to this issue of feedback and environmental stimulation, is the difficulty hearing
impaired individuals have with reading. For many hearing impaired individuals, reading is a
difficult task to accomplish. Andrew and Manson (1991) said that some of the reasons why
reading is difficult for the hearing impaired children are:
19
Deaf readers lack background knowledge of prior experience
about many topics in commercial text. They often do not have
communication system until the age of two or three when
deafness is diagnosed; hence poor linguistic skills of the deaf
reader (p. 535).
They also cited Moores (1987) that ‘few children with deafness ever achieve fluency in
reading or writing despite years of schooling’ (Andrew and Manson, 1991 p.536). Blackhurst
and Berdine (1981) cited Mykelbust (1964:70) who reported that deaf children have a smaller
reading vocabulary than their normal hearing counterparts do (p 182).
Although hearing impaired individuals have intellectual problems, it is pertinent to
indicate that most do not have low intelligence nor do they function cognitively below normal
abilities. It is the impairment that made them seem unintelligent. Schlesinger (1983) suggested
that the most important thing to remember about children with hearing impairment is that most
of them posses normal intelligence.
2.1.5 Scientific Causes of Hearing Impairment:
The known scientific causes of hearing impairment in the individual are grouped
according to period of onset. Three main periods are identified and these are the pre-natal, perinatal and post-natal periods.
20
The pre-natal period is the period before birth. The period of pregnancy starts with
fusing of cells. These cells develop on the health of the mother. Diseases such as measles
jaundice, anemia, malnutrition or any condition affecting the health of the pregnant woman
especially in the first trimester of pregnancy affects the developing embryo and hearing
impairment or other impairments may be the result.
Maternal ototoxicity may also cause hearing impairment. This is the use of ototoxic drugs
such as kanamycin, gentamycine and streptomycin. These drugs are toxic and result in the
damage of the hair cells of the cochlea (Avoke, 1997: 70, Gadagbui 2003 p.18)
Genetic or hereditary factor is another cause of hearing impairment during this period. This
can happen when a parent with defective genes may have 50% chance of passing it to the child.
The genetic factor can also be sex linked, dominant or recessive genes. Dominant genes express
themselves when a single copy of the gene is present. For recessive genes, two copies of the gene
need to be present for the gene to be expressed (The world Book Encyclopedia 1994,vol.9H;
Gadagbui, 2003 p. 18) Waardenburg’s syndrome is an example of the dominant gene whereby
pigmentation anomalies are seen in the hair, eyes and skins. By the hair, the person has a white
forelock and blue eyes with consequent sensorineural hearing loss. Pendred’s syndrome is also
an example of the recessive gene type. The person has a sensorineural hearing impairment and a
defect of the thyroid gland. Hunter’s syndrome associated with mental retardation and mixed or
sensorineural hearing loss is an example of sex-linked syndrome (Gadagbui, 2003).
21
Studies by Vernon and Brown (1964) cited in Avoke, (1997) espoused that 5.4% of
pupils who entered Californian school for the deaf in Riverside, acquired deafness through
heredity.
Essel (1996) also cited the case of Adomorebe, a village 5 kilometers south of Aburi Akwapim which has significant percentage of the population being deaf due to hereditary or
genetic reasons. The author stated that this can be explained by the presence of times of
dominant mutant genes which express themselves in the form of hearing impairment in one child
or familial genes which express the tendency of the trait to appear frequently in a family. This
incidence he explained is mostly due to consanguineous marriages (Essel, 1996 p.20).
Wikipedia the free encyclopedia stated that hearing loss can be inherited. Both dominant gene
and recessive gene exist which can cause mild to profound impairment. If a family has a
dominant gene for deafness it will persist across generations because it will manifest itself in the
offspring even if it is inherited from only one parent. If a family had genetic hearing impairment
caused by a recessive gene, it will not always be apparent as it will have to be passed on to
offspring from both parents (Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia org/wikiHearingImpairment
modified on 22 Sept. 2011 @5:25 pm.)
Rhesus (Rh) factor or blood incompatibility cannot be ruled out as a cause of hearing
impairment. This results when mother’s blood is negative (Rh-); and father’s and fetus’ blood
being positive (Rh+). The condition will be such that the mother’s blood builds anti- bodies
against the fetus’ system in that the fetus’ red blood cells are destroyed due to mother’s excess
antibodies. When this happens, a yellowish pigment or jaundice generates in the fetus’ body, as
22
its immature liver cannot cope, hence the bile pigment which is the yellow colouring in the fetus’
blood stream, stains the cochlear nuclei portion of the central auditory system causing hearing
impairment in the unborn child (Davis and Silverman, 1970; Perkins, 1977; Gadagbui, 1998
p.47).
Other factors include emotional effects, over exposure of pregnant mother during first
trimester of pregnancy to x’ ray, alcoholism resulting in fetal alcohol syndrome and nicotine
through heavy smoking (Davis and Silverman, 1970; Perkins, 1977; Gadagbui, 1998 p. 47).
Peri-natal period is the period around birth. It is a transitional period around birth. It is a
transitional period around which even though the hearing mechanism might have been fully
developed in the uterus, may be damaged by factors including delay or prolonged labour, poor
birth presentation (breach baby), poor handling of neonate causing either suffocation or physical
damage to the tender head of the neonate which may destroy the temporal ‘lobe’ (the perceptual
sector of brain for auditory stimulus). Others are anoxia, that is lack of oxygen to the baby’s
brain due to kinked umbilical cord, placenta, death of the tissue of brain cells caused by
obstructed circulation of blood to the brain, wrong use of delivery collaborative, such as forceps,
low birth weight due to premature delivery or alcoholic or smoking mother (Ambron, 1981;
Hooley, Neale and Davidson, 1989; Shaver and Tarpy, 1993).
Post-natal is a period from twenty eight (28) days of delivery to adulthood. As life is a
continuum, hearing impairment cuts across ages therefore even though one may be born with
normal hearing, events after peri-natal period can destroy the hearing mechanism.
23
Post-natal hearing impairment can be caused by several factors including insertion of
foreign bodies such as sticks, pen tops, beads, seeds, pebbles, seeds, pieces of chalk into the ear
canal and some of which can perforate the ear drum which may result in middle ear infection
(Otitis media) or inflammation of the ear canal (meatus). These damages destroy and obstruct
sound transmission and transformation causing conductive hearing loss (Essel, 1996).
Gadagbui (2003), put diseases or infections such as mumps, a viral infection causing
unilateral hearing loss, measles also a viral infection and its medication has effect on the hearing
organs. Meningitis, a bacterial infection, causing inflammation of the covering of the spinal cord
and the brain (meninges) can result in hearing impairment as well as paralysis (destabilized
motor function); and typhoid fever, diphtheria and high fever which are also viral infections
(though now brought under control) cause few impairments (Davis & Silverman 1970) cited by
Gadagbui (2003:19). Other causes are severe jaundice, abuse of ototoxic drugs, meniere’s
disease found mostly in adults, which begins with sensation of dizziness and noise in the ears
(tinnitus). This happens when the fluid pressure in the inner ear increase abnormally until organ
of corti deteriorates permanently. (Gadagbui, 2003:19).
Old age is another cause of hearing impairment.
This is termed presbycusis.
Environmental noise injures the hearing mechanism. Sound has force and energy therefore when
noise is made at close range into the ear, the pressure it exerts can cause perforation in the ear
drum. According to Essel, (1996), cases have been seen clinically of multiple perforations due to
noise from excessive drumming. There are also cases of progressive hearing loss where some
24
people born with normal hearing begin losing their hearing as they grow older. It is a case of a
metabolic problem which may be inherited from parents, and starts weakening the auditory
system from about age ten (10) or more.
Abuse of the hearing mechanism by afflicting pain or creating unfavourable condition
destroys the hearing mechanism. These can be the use of walkman tape recorders on loud
volume, which impose so much noise on the hearing system to injure it through continuous use.
(Walkman tape recorder is a small radio and tape recorder with ear phone which the user puts in
his pocket as he walks about listening to music through the earphone which he puts into his ears).
Also, heavy slap or boxing the ear can cause fracture of the middle ear bones or the temporal
bone of the ear to affect the cochlear that analyses sound. As seen from the above, there are
many different causes of hearing impairment known scientifically. Any of these can happen to
anyone at any time.
2.1.6 Characteristics and Management of Persons with Hearing Impairment
The characteristics of hearing impairment manifest in many ways. Chalton & David
(1993) suggest symptoms which indicate possible hearing difficulties in a person as follows:
“Frequent lack of response when addressed in group, sudden changes in
attention and times of good response which recur at frequent interval (this
could also mean severe otitis media). In addition, difficulty in following oral
instruction, watching and following actions of others, defects in speech,
frequent
asking
for
repetition
of
questions
or
instructions
are
manifestations. Some others are head tilted to an angle in order to locate
25
sound rushing of words together when talking, fluid from the ear, complaint
of dizziness, frequent sore throat, and difficulty in following directives and
instruction and the person turns to be suspicious”(p.12)
Reynolds and Fletcher (1991) have said that the linguistic insufficiency of persons with
deafness constitute a serious handicap for their integration into the society owing to the attitude
of the society. In many instances, they turn to be suspicious of society generally and tend to stay
aloof even from family members.
Essel (1996) has this to say:
“Hearing impairment has been the cause of poor classroom performance,
poor social interaction, and denial of inheritance, rights and social status. It
attracts ridicule from others; it has also been the cause of break in
marriages, loss of jobs and created social isolation, language acquisition
delay in some cases, complete absence of speech and language, it has been
directly associated with dumbness even though dumbness can exist without
hearing
impairment
and
hearing
impairment
can
exist
without
dumbness”(p.18).
Individuals with hearing impairment are not dumb as has been associated with
them. They can make noise. The above author attested that one issue that needs to
be known is that often, one impairment exists in conjunction with others. For
26
example, hearing impairment with sight problem, with cerebral palsy or with
developmental or intellectual challenges.
Impairment in persons, with the local background of suspicion and prejudice about its
presence, becomes a worry to parents who as a result start shopping for cure that may not exist.
In such situations, two effects stand out. These are over protection of the impaired child or
rejection of the impaired child. Each of these disturbs the social and psychological development
of the child hence the need for management. Management in this case involves early
intervention, referrals and series of programmes to habilitate or rehabilitate the individual and the
family (Gadagbui, 1998). To do this needs team work of experts. First there is the need for
identification; there must be somewhere to go for advice. There are services at assessment
centers, basic, senior high and vocational schools. There are resource persons in
colleges and
universities to help them. There are also special education coordinators, trained to identify
children with problems, advise parents and teachers, and seek other management avenues such as
school placement, referral to hospitals, family support services and any other advice on
impairment in persons (Gadagbui, 1998).
2.2. CONCEPT OF COMMUNICATION:
Communication
between
people
is
the
sending
(expression)
and
receiving
(understanding) of message. It cannot take place in isolation. It involves two or more people. In
the words of McCormick & Schiefelbusch (1984), communication is the exchange of ideas or
information that involves the encoding of intended message by the sender and the decoding of
27
the message by the receiver. It is also the exchange of ideas, information, thoughts and feelings
(McCormick, Loeb & Schiefelbusch 1997) cited by Hunt and Marshal (2002).
Through communication, needs, feelings, desires and ideas are expressed. Information is
given and received through communication and in this way; one establishes one’s own identity.
Effective communication is an important step toward building of good relationship and
involvement in the community.
Communication can occur on other levels that are seen as non language. These are
gestures or eye contact or as paralanguage, such as crying, whining or laughing (James 1990). As
human beings, we communicate using language. Language involves sending and receiving
meaningful messages. These messages may be verbal (spoken, written, read) or non verbal
(signed, gestured, pictorial) (Offei, 2005) cited in Avoke (2005) Ed. The writer continued that
body language is also an important part of verbal and non verbal communication. Body language
involves other messages that are sent through the tone of voice, facial expression, body posture
and others. Effective communication uses combination of verbal, non verbal and body language.
Communication starts at birth, when a child first cries and a mother responds. Communication is
not an easy process as it seems. It involves the following steps:
1. Hear and see the message
2. Register what you see and hear
3. Recognize what you see and hear
4. Recognize the meaning
5. Decide on the response
28
6. Decide how to send the response
7. a. choose sound and the word (spoken)
b. choose signs (sign)
c. choose pictures, letters and words (written)
8. Know order of symbols
9. Send the response - monitor and correct it (Offei, 2005) cited in (Avoke, 2005, p.39) Ed.
If a person has difficulty with any of the above he or she may find difficulty with
understanding or expression or with both. People who are deaf therefore experience extreme
difficulty in communication.
In the human institution, most people use speech as their main source of communication
and support it with the other ways. According to Pickett (1983), speech is the prime way to
communicate. He continued that speech is communicative because it is coded to form words and
sentences in a language. The code of speech resides in its sounds. Thus a deep understanding of
speech communication depends on knowing the sound patterns of the code. Speech therefore is a
medium of oral communication that employs a code (language). Through this medium one can
express thoughts and feelings, understand those of others who employ the same code (Nicolosi,
Herryman, Kreshock, 1978). For Boothroyd, (1982), speech is made by people and therefore is
important to social development and interaction. We can therefore say that human beings interact
with each other through the verbal language system learned largely through the medium of
speech event. Thoughts and feelings are expressed through speech. Even the academic
achievement of a person largely depends on an understanding of a language which is usually
learned through the medium of speech. People who are unable to speak clearly, like some deaf
29
children, need to be encouraged to use other means of communication to get the message across.
Getting the message across is most important.
2.3. HEARING IMPAIRMENT AND COMMUNICATION:
As already stated, communication by speech is the most widely used communication
approach. Speech is peculiar and unique factor that distinguishes human beings from animals.
Speech acquisition begins only when the hearing and the speech mechanisms of a person are
functioning well. Gadagbui (2003) is of the view that the human ear and speech mechanisms are
intricately woven in their functions that they cannot be separated when dealing with them. The
normal processing of spoken language is through hearing. Children with hearing loss frequently
have significant communication problem (Hunt & Marshall, 2002). Lack of effective hearing and
speech cannot be ruled out as a deficiency of man. It has been documented that over ten percent
(10%) of speech defects are attributed to hearing impairment in the individual (Perkins, 1997).
Suran and Rizzo (1979) stated that speech and hearing loss can severely impair children’s
intellectual, social and personal development. Gadagbui (2003) cites Perkins (1997); Gadagbui,
(1998) that conductive hearing loss affects the individual’s hearing to the extent that the
individual will have to listen attentively for information missed. Voice may also not be loud; the
person may have poor linguistic or verbal output as well as loss of speech discrimination.
Likewise, sensorineural hearing impairment damages the speech of pre-linguals since they are
not able to hear speech aurally, and have to learn with difficulty through speech therapy. For the
post-linguals, speech production and comprehension will be difficult. The person may have
articulation problem of high frequency sounds such as /p, t, k, s, f, z/ because of reduced
sensitivity to sounds perception. Recruitment or inability to tolerate a little bit of increase in the
30
intensity of sound is another condition that may be found in someone with sensorineural hearing
impairment (Perkins, 1977, Bamford & Saunders, 1992). For the retro-cochlear hearing loss,
where damage goes beyond the cochlear through the auditory nerve pathway to the hearing
centers, which are the primary auditory area and the Wernicke’s area, there will be inability of
receiving auditory stimuli at the primary auditory area as a result, Wernicke’s area and other
areas of speech production cannot function (Gadagbui, 2003). It has been recorded that hearing
loss in children causes delay in the development of receptive and expressive communication
skills (speech & language). The language deficit causes learning problems that result in reduced
academic achievement and communication difficulties often lead to social isolation and poor
self-concept. It may have an impact on vocabulary choices and sentence structure (American
Speech-Language-Hearing
Association
(2010).
Retrieved
February
2nd,
2010
at
http:/www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/effect.htm)
It could be deduced from the above that the normal processing of spoken language is
through hearing. Hearing plays an important role in the acquisition and development of speech
and language. Individuals with hearing loss frequently have significant communication problems
in the normal hearing world. This in turn has pervasive effect on their academic achievement.
2.4. EFFECT OF COMMUNICATION ON STUDENTS’ ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE:
In the general education classroom, instruction is largely done through the medium of
voice spoken language. Hunt & Marshall (1999) are of the view that the impact of hearing loss
on a person’s ability to acquire naturally the spoken language of his or her community is often
31
substantial. Those communication difficulties may then adversely influence school achievement,
social and emotional development and interaction with others.
Hoemann & Briga, (1981), are of the view that the problems that students who are hearing
impaired often experience in education and adjustment may be largely attributable to a bad fit
between their perceptual abilities and the demands of spoken and written English. Command of
English language is an indicator of a person’s intelligence and ability, especially in the English
speaking world such as Ghana.
Academic achievement is strongly related to reading ability of the student. Regardless of
the mode of communication used, the student must learn English for reading and writing. Paul &
Jackson (1993) report that” one of the most robust findings is that there is an inverse relationship
between hearing impairment and achievement, the more severe the impairment, the lower the
achievement (p.34). This discrepancy between ability and achievement hinges on the lack of
mastery of the English language among students who are hearing impaired. English by virtue of
its status as official language of Ghana holds the key to educational attainment and meaningful
participation in the socio-economic, political and technological emancipation of the country and
the individual. English language learning involves the ability of learners both hearing impaired
and non-hearing impaired to create responses suitable for different kinds of situation. The
presentation of English language demands a lot of oral practice through dialogue, memorization,
pattern drills, substitution tables and many others (Odusina, 1989; Maduekwe, 1998; Ikonta &
Maduekwe 2005). In the presence of hearing impairment, language symbols are not perceived
and learned, yet language is a decisive factor in the development of one’s concept and in the
release of one’s potential intelligence (Hutchcroft, 1981). Norris (1975) points out that grammar
32
and structure of English often do not follow logical rules, and persons with pre-lingual hearing
loss must exert a great deal of effort to read and write with acceptable form and meaning. He
continued that many students who are hearing impaired tend to write sentences that are short,
incomplete, or improperly arranged. They may omit endings of words such as the plural s, -ed or
ing. They may have difficulty in differentiating questions from statements. We can comfortably
say that effective communication for academic purposes depends on one’s ability to learn a
language and be proficient in it through reading and writing. Any barrier to effective
communication, may severely affect one’s academic achievement.
However, Moores, (1985); Paul & Quigley (1990) came up with five variables that
appear to be closely correlated with the academic achievement of students with hearing
impairment. The first is the severity of the hearing loss. The greater the hearing loss the more the
child will experience difficulty in learning language and academic skills. Even a slight hearing
loss has been shown to have adverse effects on academic achievement (Paul & Quigley, 1987).
The age of onset of the hearing loss is the second variable. A child who loss hearing
before acquiring speech and language (usually before age 2) is at a much greater disadvantage
than a child with post lingual hearing loss.
The third variable mentioned is intelligence test scores of the individual. They say as with
hearing children, higher standardized test of intelligence are correlated with greater amounts of
academic success. With the hearing impaired, although most of them have normal intellectual
capacity and it has been repeatedly demonstrated that their scores on non-verbal intelligence tests
33
are approximately the same as those of general population, hearing impairment imposes
limitations on their use of language.
The fourth variable is the socio-economic status of the family. A child with hearing
impairment whose parents are affluent and college educated is more likely to achieve academic
success than a child from a low-income, less educated family.
The fifth variable is the hearing status of the parents of the individual with hearing
impairment. Hearing impaired child of hearing impaired parents is considered likely to achieve
academic success than a hearing impaired child with normal hearing parents; particularly if the
parents are highly educated.
We can deduce from the above variables that the attributing factor of these boil down to effective
and ineffective communication. Effective communication is a key to academic success.
For Wolk & Allen (1984), regardless of whether spoken English, simultaneous
communication or American Sign Language is used for communication, the child must learn
English for reading and writing. When teachers spend instructional time on reading
comprehension, strategies that encourage students to think deeply about what they read, they can
be proficient and enthusiastic readers (Schirmer, 1993, 1995, Schirmer and Winter, 1993,
Schimer & Woolsey, 1997).
Instructional strategies for students with hearing loss are particularly effective when they
emphasize experiential learning, build on the student’s current knowledge and skills, require
34
them to interact with peers, capitalize on the visual medium and reduce environmental
distraction. (Turnbull, Shank, Leal, 1999)
2.5. THEORETICAL CONTEXT AND FRAMEWORK
2.5.1 Introduction
As already stated in the introduction of this study, the researcher aimed at investigating
communication barrier as a causal factor for low academic performance of students with hearing
problems at Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School at Ho. To strengthen the discussion, the
researcher located the work within some models of disability. Models are people’s perspectives,
understandings and ideas about disability (Turnbull & Stove, 2001). The theoretical context will
be critical during the analysis and discussion of the results. It is therefore important to discuss the
models before the methodology, the analysis and discussion of the findings. This study is
underpinned by the model of Human Capacity Studies proposed by Turnbull and Stove (2001).
The model of Human Capacity Studies deals generally with the sciences of human development.
Thus, how individuals acquire various capacities. These are set within three sub models, namely
medical/public health model med psychological and educational.
35
.5.2 Medical/Public Health Model
The medical/public health sub model generally regards the person with a disability as
having a disease or condition that renders him or her sick and that is properly addressed through
the usual means whereby physicians treat their patients. Turnbull & Stove continue that the two
aspects of the medical and public health which are the physical, medicine and psychiatry have
played significant role in disability policy and in the lives of families. Initially they were a source
of the institutionalization and eugenics movements. They were also the setting for the debate
concerning the sanctity and the quality of life of newborns with disabilities. They have been the
foundations for various interventions that have been praised, condemned and accepted. Medical
and related health interventions are often times highly effective responses to the physical,
cognitive, emotional, or behavioural impairments that individuals experience. The core concepts
related to this sub model are prevention and amelioration, privacy and confidentiality and
appropriate services and the concept that arises from the original theory of the
deinstitutionalization efforts, namely, to reform the institutions by preventing people from being
admitted and to secure the discharge of those who are already institutionalized. This concept is
protection from harm. The Individualized Disability Education Act (IDEA) contains two
examples of the medical/public health sub model which are an evaluation of the student’s
physical and developmental characteristics and provision of health-focused related services
(Turnbull & Stove, 2001)
Avoke, (2005) emphasized that the medical model views all disability as the result of
some physiological impairment due to damage or disease. Marks (1999) states that the model
interprets learning disabilities as caused by some organic brain damage. Mark argues that the
36
way in which people with learning difficulties are treated needs to be understood within the
context of a frame work of cultural representation and institutional practices that have
consistently devalued the lives of people with learning difficulties.
Corbett, (1998) is of the view that the medical model also champions a narrow stereotype of
normality rather than fostering a celebrated difference. According to Avoke, (2005), this model
has been influential in defining practices and service delivery for persons with disability in
Ghana.
2.5.3 The Psychological Sub model
The psychological sub model regards behaviour as a learned consequence to external
stimuli. It holds that in order to modify behaviour, it will be necessary to control the
environments and the conditions within these environments that produce behaviour. These
psychological submodels gave rise to the intervention known as applied behavior analysis and
more recently, to the intervention known as positive behaviour supports. The IDEA reflects in its
requirements for a non discriminatory evaluation of the student and in the use of applied
behavioural analysis and its newer version, positive behavioural supports, when a child’s
behaviour impedes his or others’ learning or when a child is subjected to discipline. The core
concepts associated with this sub model in addition to the core concepts associated with the
medical/public heath sub model are empowerment and participatory decision making (Turnbull
& Stove 2001).
37
This means in addition to the treatment services rendered by the medical model, the
individual with a disability should be psychologically empowered to participate in decision
making process of the environment in which they may find themselves.
Avoke (2005) is of the view that the greatest influence on models of disability has been
that of intelligence testing which has resulted in the psychological model of disability. The
principles underpinning the psychological model encourage the notion within child factors of
disability. He cited Farrell (1997) who argued that many IQ tests were not designed to be
administered to pupils with learning difficulties because the profile of these children are typically
very uneven and this is not reflected in an IQ score. Sanderson (2003) also remarks that there is
now a better understanding of the learning process of people therefore greater emphases needs to
be placed on the understanding of learning styles rather than a set of categories measured against
IQ figures.
The above therefore means the academic performance must not be equated with intelligence.
Persons with disability may have normal intelligence but the nature of the IQ tests imposes
limitations on the cognitive capabilities of the individual.
2.5.3 The Education Sub model
The educational sub model holds that everyone can learn; there is no such person as one
who is uneducable; and that, accordingly, all people who are of school age have a right to attend
school.
This sub model, which arose from the research on language acquisition, was the
38
foundation of cases that all children can learn. The Educational sub model is associated with the
core concept of antidiscrimination.
The educational sub model is also reflected in IDEA’s principle of non-discriminatory evaluation
and especially in the requirement for an evaluation of a student’s cognitive capacities. It is also
inherent in IDEA’s provisions that the students with disability should have access to the general
curriculum where it is assumed; the student will learn certain skills (with accommodations) that
will lead to an independent, economically self sufficient, productive and fully participatory life.
This sub model is associated with the core concepts of integration, productivity and contribution
and autonomy (independence). It is responsible for a variety of teaching techniques tailored to
the needs and capacities of the student, which collectively are expressed as individualized and
appropriate education and related services (Turnbull & Stove, 2001).
With the above, there is the need to help the individual with disability, and for this study,
those with hearing problems to acquire knowledge, skills and capabilities to become productive
and contribute to the manpower resources of the country as well as becoming independent in
future.
39
2.6. EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK.
Academic Achievement of Students with Hearing Impairment
Over the years, a number of surveys taken as a whole paint a gloomy picture of the academic
progress of the hearing impaired, particularly, the deaf. The situation does not appear to be
improving. In Britain, Conrad (1979), reported on the Wide Span Test of 1972 for all deaf
students leaving school in England and Wales in 1976. His study involved 468 students who
were aged 15 to 16 years with hearing losses of over 85dB. His research showed that these
students had a mean reading age equivalent to that of a hearing 9 years old. Only 5 profoundly
deaf students had reading ages which were comparable to their chronological ages. A reading
age of 9 years is below the generally accepted level of functioning literally, so most of these
students were leaving school functionally illiterate. Furth (1973 claim that only a small
percentage of deaf individuals understand language well enough to read a college-level text
book.
Further, this author notes that in terms of national norms, this indicates that the mean
average score over a span of five years increased from a grade equivalent of 2.8 to grade 3.6,
never reaching the norm for beginning grade 4. More over hardly 10% of the total sample scored
above grade 4, a reading level that experts consider to fall within ‘Functional Literacy’ (Furth,
1971 p.69).
Using special edition of the Stanford Achievement Test that was standardized on 6,871 hearing
impaired children, Trybus and Karchemer (1977) also found severe under achievement in
reading. By age 20, only about half of the students were able to read at mid fourth grade level.
That is one of the highest areas of achievement for the hearing impaired. By age 20, less than
40
half of the students were able to work at an eighth –grade level. Studies assessing the academic
achievement of students with hearing impairment have routinely found them to lag far behind
their peers. Several surveys’ of the academic achievement of students with hearing impairment
have been carried out and reported by the Center for Assessment and Demographic Studies
(CADS) at Gallaudet University (Di Francesca 1972, Gentile & Di Francesca 1969, Trybus &
Karchemer 1972). The results were essentially the same. Students with severe and profound
hearing loss were reading at about a fourth grade level or lower and their mathematics
performance was around the fifth –grade level. Growth in reading achievement was between 0.2
and 0.3 grade levels per year of schooling. The most recent C A D S survey repeated the
findings of the earlier studies for the oldest group of students(16 – 18 years), the median grade
level for reading comprehension ranged from 2.9 t0 3.2, for arithmetic computation, it ranged
from 7.0 to 7.5(Allen, 1986). Holt (1993) reported that the average reading level of 18 years old
deaf or hard of hearing students was between the third and fourth grade. In a study carried out
by William and Vernon (1970) suggested that many of the deaf students over 16years in USA
were below grade level, while 30% were found to be functionally illiterate.
In the like manner, Ikonta and Maduekwe (2005) carried out a research to find out the level of
performance of hearing impaired students in English Language in a conventional secondary
school in the Lagos state, Nigeria. The past performance in English of the hearing impaired was
compared to that of their hearing counter parts based on their internal and external examinations
for five consecutive years. The findings revealed that the hearing impaired students were
significantly out-performed by the hearing group due to poor vocabulary and communication
ability of the hearing impaired students. They explained that the problems of language and
communication are among the most persistent and pervasive stumbling blocks in hearing
41
impaired students’ life. The result of their findings further confirmed that students with hearing
and language disorders have communication challenge that affects learning. They could not
express themselves correctly and have difficulty in oral and written communication and in the
processing and production of language.
42
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0. INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the methodology of collecting data for the research. The issues
captured include the research design, gaining access, population, sample and sampling technique,
the kind of instrument used and the procedure involved in collecting data.
Avoke, (2005) cited Butt (1998), Avoke (2003), to say that the methodology and strategy
involved in data collection must be selected to meet clearly identified research needs. He
continued to cite Yin (1994) who relates that the selection of research methodology or strategy is
influenced by three main considerations and these are as follows:

The type of research question.

The control an investigation has over actual behavioural events.

The focus on contemporary as opposed to historical phenomena.
Thus the nature of the research questions is critical in determining the methodological approach
to the adopted.
3.1. RESEARCH DESIGN
Research designs are features you can use to collect analyse and interpret data using
qualitative and quantitative research approaches. Experimental, correlation and survey designs
are quantitative approach; whiles grounded theory, ethnographic and narrative designs are
43
qualitative approach. Mixed method and action research designs combine qualitative and
quantitative approaches (Creswell, 2005). Research designs can be thought of as the structure of
the research.
The research design employed in this study is mixed method design. Mixed method design
is a procedure for collecting, analyzing, and mixing both qualitative and quantitative data in a
single study to understand a research problem (Brewer &Hunter, 1989) cited in Creswell (2005).
This design was used because themes were developed from the interviews conducted and these
were combined with the examination results of the students and analysis was made in order to
relate their performance to their hearing problems.
3.2. GAINING ACCESS:
Permission was sought from the headmistress of Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School for
the setting and the population for the study. In the same vein the parents of the target group have
been informed through their wards. Teachers and students were informed about the study in
order to solicit their co-operation and assistance.
3.3. POPULATION:
The population of this study includes all students with hearing loss and teachers of Mawuko
Girls’ Senior High School. Avoke (2005) cited Polit and Hangar (1996) who view population as
the entire aggregation of cases that meet a designated set of criteria. Creswell (2005) is of a
44
similar view that population is a group of elements of cases, individuals or objects that conform
to specific criteria. Agyedu, Donkor and Obeng (2007) postulated that population is the
complete set of individuals (subjects), objects or events having common observable
characteristics not necessarily refers to people. Population refers to the totality of whatever
objects or measurements that the researcher is investigating (Amoani, 2005).
Mawuko Girls’ have been cited for the study because the writer works in the school and it
is easier to access the target group. This study used all the students who have been identified as
having hearing problems and fourteen (14) teachers who teach the students were drawn from
forty (40) teachers.
3.4. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUE:
Sample is a group or subset selected from the larger group (population) and it is meant to
be representative of the population.
Purposeful and convenient samplings have been employed for this study. In purposeful
sampling, researchers intentionally select the individuals and sites to learn or understand the
central phenomenon. Amoani (2005), Creswell (2005), Sarantakos (1997) contend that in
purposeful sampling the respondents are handpicked to be included in the sample and to develop
samples that are satisfactory in relation to the researchers’ need. Patton (1990) opines that the
standard used in choosing the participants and sites is whether they are information rich. On
these bases, the students with hearing loss have been handpicked, since they have already been
identified as having hearing problems hence information rich.
45
Convenient sampling according to Creswell (2005) is used when respondents can provide
useful information to answer questions. Selection of teachers was based on convenient sampling
since they teach the students directly and therefore can provide useful information on the
behaviour and academic performance of the students.
3.5. INSTRUMENT:
The methodological instruments used for gathering information for this study were
interviews observations and documentation.
3.5.1. Interviews
Interviews are an important aspect of qualitative studies. They are a way of verbally
interacting with participants or respondents in conducting research. Interviews can also be
described as a form of conversation between two people. In terms of structure, they can be fully
structured, semi-structured or conversational or unstructured (Avoke, 2005). He continued that
interviews could also be in-depth as in the case of ethnographic study, and specific strategies of
interviewing which could involve the use of telephone, face to face or one-on-one or focus
groups.
For this study, specific strategy of interviewing involving one-on-one interview method was
employed. One-on-one interview is a data collection process in which the researcher asks
questions and records answers from only participants in the study one at a time (Alhassan, 2006).
46
One-on-one interview is also ideal for interviewing participants who are not hesitant to speak and
who can share ideas comfortably.
The researcher used fully structured interview questions which were conducted for the students
and the teachers of the target group since they were available to be interviewed.
3.5.2. Observation
Observation technique was included in order to examine the physique as well as the
manner of articulation of speech sounds by the students. Observation gives opportunity of
looking at what is happening or have taken place. Avoke (2005) cited Morrison (1993) to say
that observation enables the researcher to gather data on the physical, human interactional
settings and programme of study. He continues that observation is employed when the
researcher knows in advance what is being looked for. Semi-structured observation is done
when there is a clear agenda of issues you are seeking the data to show. Unstructured
observation is used when the researcher needed clearer information, therefore what is observed
in the field would determine the significance of it.
For the purpose of this study, the writer made use of semi-structured observation where the
physical appearance of the target group was observed for clues for any malformation in their
physique. Any congenital physical deformity may give clue to other hidden handicapping
conditions which hearing impairment cannot be ruled out. There may be deformities such as
improper positioning of the pinna, face not symmetrical and others. Also, manner of articulation
of speech sounds was observed. Observation was made for any behavioural attitudes such as
direct stare in the face of the speaker, turning one ear to the source of the sound, need for higher
47
volume of sound, requests that information be repeated, inattentiveness and others that the
student may display.
The observation was done by three people including the researcher over a period of three weeks.
Each of the students in the target group was checked against all the statements in the test items.
The scoring was done by putting (X) against the statement which was exhibited by the student.
There was inter-observer discussion after the exercise. The results of the three observers on each
of the respondents were compared. The highest number of times that a statement of the items
was ticked as being exhibited by the respondent was what was agreed upon as the true behaviour
of the respondent.
For example, Student cups the hand behind a particular pinna when listening.
Student looks directly into the face of the speaker.
Student turns a particular ear towards a speaker.
Student speaks softly but demands a shout in order to understand what is said.
Student asks for repetition of what was said.
The rest of the test items could be found in appendix (C).
Scoring the Items:
Each of the test items were scored as follows:
No
=0
Sometimes
=1
Always
=2
The total scores that each respondent attained for the responses were added (example total score
for student A =26).
48
Percentage of the total score was then computed by dividing total score by maximum score and
multiply by 100% (example: Total score = 26, maximum score = 40 (that is: 2 x 20 items). :. %
= 26/40 x 100 =65%.
The results were evaluated and graded as follows:
Range
Status
Result
Action worth taken.
0% -49%
Pass
Normal Hearing.
No referral
50% - 100%
Fail
At risk
Referral for diagnosis.
Based on the percentage score, the student is considered as having a hearing problem
which needs referral for diagnosis. The score sheet is hearing loss identification rating scale. It is
a tool for the identification of pupils and students with hearing impairment in the general
classroom.
Adapted from Offei (2005)’s hearing loss identification rating scale. (Below is the
example of the score sheet).
SCORE SHEET FOR THE OBSERVATION ITEMS
Instruction: Place a cross – mark (X) appropriately
Statement
No (0) Sometimes (1)
49
Always (2)
Score
1. Student cups the hand behind a
particular pinna when listening.
X
1
2. Student looks directly into the face of
the speaker
X
2
X
2
3. Student turns a particular ear towards a
speaker
4. Student speaks softly but demands a
shout in order to understand what is
X
0
said
5. Student asks for repetition of what is
said
X
2
X
2
6. Student asks speakers to raise their
X
0
voices in order for her to hear
X
0
7. Student has fluid in the ear
X
1
8. Student drags feet when walking
9. Student frequently inserts fingers or
pen tips into the ear canal.
X
2
10. Student is unable to articulate high
frequency sounds for example/s/when
speaking
X
1
11. Student exhibits compensatory
behaviours such as fidgeting, anxiety,
X
excessive talking.
50
2
12. Student does not respond to sound
from
X
behind.
1
X
2
13. Student complains of itching in the ear.
14. Students complains of noise in the ear
X
(tinnitus)
1
X
0
15. Student complain ear ache.
X
16. Student experiences nasal blockage
1
X
2
X
2
X
2
17. Student complains of heaviness in the
ear
18. Student tends to guess when she is
asked a question
19. Student is seen by teachers and peers
to be dull, lazy, day – dreamer
20. Student tends to withdraw
Total Score
4 (0)
6
The statements on the table were scored as follows:
i.
No
=0
ii.
Sometimes
=1
iii.
Always
=2
The total score each student attained for the responses was computed.
51
10 x2
26
The percentage total score was gained by dividing total score by the maximum score x 100% (the
maximum score is multiple by 2)
The results were graded and evaluated as follows:
Range
Status
Result
Action to be taken
0% - 49%
Pass
Normal
No referral
50% - 100%
Fail
At risk
Refer for diagnosis
3.5.3. Documentation:
Documentation was another instrument used in the data collection process. Johnson
(1985) cited in Avoke (2005), says documents to a researcher are important source of
quantitative data, and documentary analysis of educational files, and records can prove to be
extremely valuable. Also to Creswell (2005), documents consist of public and private records
that qualitative researchers obtain about a site or participant in a study and they can include news
papers, minutes of meetings, personal, journal and letters. They also include, school records,
folders, registers, archival records, correspondents or official government papers.
In view of these, documents such as student’s terminal examination reports, class
exercise books, cumulative records were reliable sources for this work. The terminal reports
will reveal the general academic performance of the students in each subject. Sometimes the
class exercise books alone cannot reflect the true performance of the student since they may be
helped by friends hence the need for the terminal examination reports. The cumulative records
of the students will also give the continuous performance of the students. These documents
52
would help assess the devastating effect of communication barrier on students’ educational
achievement.
3.6. DATA ANALYSIS:
The interview responses from the total sample size were analysed descriptively using
frequencies and percentages. Inferences from the literature review and other relevant studies
were drawn to buttress findings.
53
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.0. INTRODUCTION
In chapter three, interviews and observations were administered and documents were
studied with the intention of gathering data from students with hearing problem and teachers who
teach them at Mawuko Senior high school at Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana.
This chapter therefore deals with the presentation and analysis of the data collected.
There were twenty respondents comprising six (6) students with hearing problems and
fourteen (14) teachers who teach them. The presentation and analysis of the data has subsections which include:
Background Analysis of Data.
A. Preliminary data on the hearing impaired individuals.
B. Preliminary data on the teachers.
C. Data exclusively on the students with hearing problem.
D.Data exclusively on teachers.
E. Analysis of the observation reports.
4.1. BACKGROUND ANALYSIS OF DATA
The study dwells on the topic, investigating communication barrier as a cause for low
academic performance of students with hearing problem at Mawuko Girls Senior High School at
Ho in the Volta Region of Ghana. The study revealed that there are students in Mawuko Girls
54
Senior High school classrooms who have problem with their hearing. They are not hearing well
and are going through frustration and stress as they struggle on with their hearing peers. Some
teachers are not aware that there may be some students in their classrooms who are not
benefiting fully from their teaching. In the like manner, some parents are also not aware of their
ward’s problem since they did not complain to them.
Communication barrier affects academic performance of students since proficiency in the
official language in which all subjects are taught is a key to academic achievement. The
communication barrier came as a result of defective hearing on the part of the students. These
can be found from the following proceedings.
4.2. A. PRELIMINARY DATA ON STUDENTS
i. Data on the Age Ranges of Student Respondents
The data on the age ranges of the student respondents shows that three (3) representing
50% of the respondents fall within age range 13-16 years. Two (2) representing 33% of the
respondents fall within age range 17 – 20 years, and two (2) representing 17 % are within 21-24
years. (See table 1. below).
Table: 4.1. Age Ranges of Student Respondents
Age Ranges
Frequency
Percentages of respondents
13 -16
3
50%
17 – 20
2
33%
21 – 24
1
17%
Total
6
100
55
This data shows that all the respondents were mature enough to understand the items used for
the interview and this somehow validated any findings on them.
ii. Educational Background of Parents of the Student Respondents
Data on the educational background of parents of the student respondents show that six
(6) of the parents representing 50% of the respondents have secondary education before
branching to their various professions.
Four (4) of the parents representing 33% of the
respondents had tertiary education, while two (2) representing 17% had their basic education.
This data was taken in order to ascertain parents’ conceptual capabilities. (See table below).
Table 4.2. Educational Background of Parents of the Students
Educational Level
Frequency
Percentage of Respondents
Basic Education
2
17%
Education
6
50%
Tertiary education
Total
4
33%
12
100
56
iii.
Age of Onset of Hearing Problem
The age of onset of the hearing problem of the students reveal that the entire student
respondents have adventitious problem. There was none within the ages of zero to five years (05), as well as six to ten years (6 – 10) years. Three (3) of them had the problem between the ages
of eleven to fifteen years (11-15) representing 50% of the student respondents. The other three
(3) falls within the age ranges of sixteen to twenty years (16 – 20) representing 50% of the total
student respondents. (See the table below).
Table 4. 3. Age of Onset of the Students’ Hearing Problem.
Age Range of Students
Frequency
Percentage of Respondents
0–5
0
0
6 – 10
0
0
11 – 15
3
50%
16 – 20
3
50%
Total
6
100
57
4.2. B. PRELIMINARY DATA ON TEACHER RESPONDENTS
i. Academic Qualification of Teachers
It could be deduced from the data collected on the academic qualification of teachers that
out of the fourteen respondents, comprising seven (7) females and seven (7) males, one (1) male
representing 7% of the respondents was a second-degree holder. Eleven (11) , made up of six (6)
males and five (5) females, representing 79% of the respondents were first degree holders and
two(2) females representing 14% of the respondents were diploma certificate holders (see table
below).
Table 4.4 Academic qualification of Teachers
Academic
qualification
of
Frequency
Males
Females
Respondents
Percentage
Respondents
Second degree
1
1
-
First degree
11
6
5
79%
Diploma
2
-
2
14%
Total
14
7
7
100%
58
7%
of
ii. Teaching Experience of Teachers
The data again, revealed that all the teacher respondents were experienced teachers who
were teaching from five years and above. One (1) of them representing 7% of the respondents
had over 24years teaching experience. Two (2) representing 14% had 20 – 24 years teaching
experience. Six (6) representing 43% of the respondents had 15 – 19 years teaching experience.
Three (3) representing 22% had 10 - 14 years teaching experience. Two (2) representing 14 %
had 5 -9 years teaching experience. None of the respondents representing 0% had below 5years
teaching experience (See table below).
Table 4.5.Teaching Experience of Teachers in Years
Years
Frequency
Percentage of respondents
Over 24
1
7%
20 – 24
2
14%
15 – 19
6
43%
10 – 14
3
22%
5–9
2
14%
Below 5
0
0%
Total
14
100
59
4.2. C. DATA EXCLUSIVELY ON STUDENT RESPONDENTS
i. Effect of Hearing Problem on Communication of the Individual in General Education
Classroom.
Response to the research question, whether hearing problem affects communication of
the individual with hearing problems opens this section. The data revealed that hearing problem
affects communication of the individual in the general education classroom.
When the
respondents were asked whether they hear all that the teacher says in the classroom, all of them
agreed that they hear part of the proceedings in the classroom but not all. They confess that they
often ask for help from friends to repeat what the teacher says. When asked whether they
converse fluently with their friend; four (4) of the respondents representing 67% said ‘not
always’ because they do not hear all parts of their friends’ conversation but their friends hear
them well and this embarrassed them. Two (2) representing 33% replied with great sorrow that
they become reserved because sometimes when they asked for repetition of what they have said
their friends become offended. But the few who understood their problem do have patience with
them.
ii. Communication barrier as a cause for Low Academic Performance of Students with
Hearing Problem.
The response to the question whether the respondents have problem with their studies
revealed that they all have problem with their studies since almost all of them said they cannot
make out differences in speech sounds.
Two of them representing 33% of the respondents said
they usually spent much time on reading their textbooks or notes. Moreover, they find it difficult
to retain what they have read. They therefore like subjects that involve calculations (that is
60
mathematics) more than reading.
Three respondents
representing 50% , said that in an
examination room, they need to read the questions several times before they could understand,
which made them not able to answer all questions required before time is up.
One (1) of the respondents representing 17%, who had unilateral hearing problem as well as
visual problem which makes it difficult for her to localize source of sound, had complained
bitterly of the frustrations she usually goes through in the classroom which affects her studies
hence her low academic achievement.
iii. The Effect of the Age of Onset of the Hearing Problem on the Communication
Capabilities of the Students.
The data collected on the age of onset of the problem of the students as shown on table
4.3 revealed that all the students have adventitious hearing problems. They had the problem
after the age of 10, and therefore have already acquired enough verbal language in their mother
tongues. Also, their chronological ages determined that they were advanced in their basic
education before the hearing problem set in.
They could therefore converse meaningfully in
their mother tongue as well as in the official English language. This made their problems not
easily noticed. They appeared ‘normal’ as any other student but the hidden problem has a
devastating effect on their effective communication capabilities.
Another issue of interest was that, when the students were asked if they have ever
complained to their parents about their problems, four (4) of them admitted that they did not tell
their parents about their problems. One (1) said she has complained but her parents did not take
61
any action. Another one has complained and she was sent to the hospital for ear wash after
which she could hear a little clearer than before. Meanwhile all the students agreed that they did
not complain to any teacher about their problems but rather to their friends.
4. 2. D. DATA EXCLUSIVELY ON TEACHER RESPONDENTS
i. Teachers’ Awareness of the Effect of Hidden Sensory Impairments on their
Students’Academic Performance.
The part of the interview question for the teachers that begins with whether all students
perform well in the subjects that they are teaching opens this section. The data on this revealed
that all teachers agreed that there are some students who do not do well in the subjects that they
teach. When asked to give reasons why some students do not do well in the subjects that they
teach, eight (8) representing 57% of the teacher respondents said ‘it is because the students are
lazy and do not read’. Four (4) representing 29% of the respondents said some students may be
having a sensory impairment and two (2) representing 14% of the respondents said those
students may be having some psychological problems worrying them (see table 4.4 below).
62
Table 4. 6. Response to Reasons why some Students are below average.
Teachers’ Responses
Frequency
Students are lazy, they do not
Percentage of Respondents
8
57%
4
29%
2
14%
read.
Some students may be having
sensory impairment.
Students may be having some
psychological problems
Total
14
100
The response to the question whether teachers have ever taken the time to find out why
some students perform poorly in their classes other than speculating, they all responded ‘not at
all’.
Meanwhile, the response to the question whether teachers observe students in their
classrooms as having problem, shows they make out students with visual problems easily. Only
two, representing 14% of the respondents agreed that they identified those with hearing problems
as well.
When asked if they are aware that sensory impairment such as hearing impairment
may affect their students’ academic performance, seven (7) representing 50% of the respondents
agreed that they are aware that sensory impairments such as hearing impairment can affect
students’ academic performance.
Four(4) representing 29%
argued that since the hearing
impaired are attending school and are writing the same examination with their hearing
counterparts, there should not be any problem with their academic achievement, and three (3)
63
representing 21% of the respondents admitted not having any knowledge of hearing impaired
person in the general education classroom ( see table 4.5 below).
Table 4.7.
Response to awareness of the effect of sensory impairment on the academic
performance of students.
Teachers’ Responses
Aware
academic
of
its
Frequency
effect
performance
on
Percentage of Respondents
7
50%
4
29%
3
21%
14
100
of
students
There shouldn’t be any effect
on academic performance.
No knowledge of the hearing
impaired in the
classroom
general
Total
64
ii. Teachers having the competency in identifying students with hearing problem in
the classroom.
The response to the question whether teachers have any training in identifying students
with peculiar problems in the classroom ,ten (10) representing 71% of the respondents responded
in the affirmative, while four (4) representing 29% of the respondents responded in the negative.
When asked of the kinds of problems that they noticed among their students, eight (8)
representing 57% of the respondents reported of identifying students with visual problems. Four
(4) representing 29% said they could identify students with hearing problems as well and two (2)
representing 14% of the respondents reported of identifying students with learning difficulties.
In addition to these, when the respondents were asked how they managed these students
identified as having problems in the classroom, six (6) representing 43% of the respondents said,
they make referral to the Municipal Special Educational Needs Coordinator through the
headmistress of the school. Five representing 36% of the respondents said they change their
seating positions in the classroom in order to enable them benefit from the proceedings in the
classroom. Three representing 21% of the respondents said they give them special attention in
the classroom.
4.2. E. ANALYSIS OF OBSERVATION REPORTS.
Observation technique was included in the data collection in order to examine the
physique as well as the manner of articulation of speech sounds, inattentiveness and others that
may inhibit academic performance of the student.
65
Observations on the physical appearance of the target group, revealed no physical deformities.
For the manner of articulation, which was observed through short conversation with the students,
there were omissions of the /s, k, m/ sounds at the final position of some words which show up in
the writings of some of them. In another development, the results of the scores from the test
items used for the behavioural attitudes of the target group, gave the indication that all the
members of the target group have various degrees of hearing problems since they all fall within
50% - 70% range, meaning they all failed the test, indicating they all have problems with their
hearing. (See sample score sheet in appendix D).
66
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
This chapter discusses the findings of the research. The empirical framework of the
studies shows that individuals with hearing impairment lag behind in their academic laurels
when compared with their hearing counterparts. Ikonta and Maduekwe, (2005) said this happens
due to poor vocabulary and communication ability of the hearing impaired. They are of the view
that students with hearing and language disorders have communication challenge that affects
learning.
Communication in our general education classroom is usually through voiced language.
Obviously if a person cannot properly hear information, the ability to receive and accurately
decode that information will be affected. Gadagbui (2007) cited Posse & Melgosa (2006) to say
that possessing an acceptable level of communication skills can be more important than basic
attributes as high intelligence and positive motivation.
This means that although great
intelligence is enjoyable, failure to communicate well render them unable to transmit their
valuable ideas.
The study revealed that hearing impairment affects communication of the
individual with hearing problem in the general education classroom. All the student respondents
agreed that they hear poorly in the classroom. They depended mostly on friends as their hearing
mediators. With this situation, they cannot get all the information accurately and cannot ask for
better explanation from the teacher nor give excellent answers to questions asked because they
felt they may be ridiculed by friends and teachers who are not aware of their problems. In view
of this, they have decided to keep to themselves. These students need to be encouraged by the
teachers to be more independent in the classroom.
67
This they can do by psychologically
empowering them to participate in the lessons by fostering cordial relationship between the
students with hearing problem and other students in the class.
Communication barrier is a cause for low academic performance of students in the senior
high school. Communication skills are very essential for school learning therefore; when these
skills are affected school achievement too suffers (Gadagbui, 2007). It could be deduced from
this study that distorted speech sounds affect language processing and understanding. It affects
both reading and writing skills as well as attention deficits which have implication in the area of
language reception.
Without the ability to focus the attention on the speaker, the spoken
message may never be perceived; without the ability to focus on the printed page, the written
message may never be received. Language serves as the vehicle for many thought processes.
The influence of language on thought is illustrated by the concept of verbal mediation, which
facilitates learning, retention and understanding (Polloway & Smith, 1992). The students with
hearing problems of this study, find reading difficult; they have poor retentive memory and
difficulty in understanding what they read.
These students are slow therefore could not finish
answering the required number of questions during an examination hence their poor academic
achievement. We can conclude that hearing contributes greatly to understanding especially in a
world where verbal communication dominates. Their distorted speech sounds affected their
language processing and understanding hence their reading difficulty, poor retentive memory,
and difficulty in understanding what they read. Essel, (1996) puts it ‘hearing stimulates thinking,
thinking is an exercise that concerns the use of the brain and the brain develops in quality as
enough stimulation is given’ (p.18). These students are slow because of poor linguistic skills for
effective communication.
68
The study also revealed that students with adventitious hearing impairment are living
with the problem undetected. Since they have already acquired speech and can process language
effectively, people do not know how distorted their language thought is. Table 4.3 revealed that
all the respondents fall within age range 11 – 20 years before their problems set in. Their parents
and teachers could not detect their problems; they kept it to themselves and friends. Their
problems could not be detected since they can hear low frequency sounds; they react to many
sounds in their environment. People seeing their responses thought their hearing is normal; but
they miss acoustic elements which give speech its distinctive character. This result in their slow
and uncertain development of language (Carhart, 1970) cited by Essel, (1996) hence their
inability to read with understanding.
Most teachers in our general education classrooms are not aware that hidden sensory
impairment affects their students’ academic performance. They consider all students as the same
and therefore learn at the same pace, have the same intelligence, the same ability and background
and therefore learn best through one teaching method. On teachers’ responses to the question
whether they are aware that sensory impairment such as hearing impairment can affect the
academic performance of students, seven (7) of the teachers representing 50% of the teacher
respondents agreed that they are aware of its effect on the academic performance. Four of the
teachers representing 29% argued that there should not be any adverse effect of hearing
impairment on the academic performance of the individual with hearing impairment since they
attend school and write the same examination with their hearing counterparts. This shows they
are ignorant about the devastating effects that hearing impairment can have on the academic
69
achievement of students. They need to be made aware that even a slight hearing loss has been
shown to have adverse effects on academic achievement (Paul & Quigley, 1987).
Three (3)
representing 21% of the respondents did not have any knowledge of persons with hearing
impairment in the general education classroom. They are unaware that students present learning
difficulties because of sensory or any other impairment. These teachers have the tendency of
highlighting the weakness of students and sometimes humiliate those who have specific learning
problems by calling them names such as ‘fools’ ‘never do well’ ‘hopeless’ and many others. In
situations like these, teachers must have in mind the psychological model that individuals with
disability need to be psychologically empowered to participate in decision making process of the
environment in which they may find themselves.
This can be done by fostering cordial
relationship between the individual with disability and others.
In addition to the above, some teachers have the skills or training in identifying students
with problems in the classroom. When the teacher respondents were asked whether they have
any training in identifying students with peculiar problems in the classroom, 71% of the
respondents responded in the affirmative while 29 % replied in the negative. They could mostly
identify students with visual problem other than hearing problem. 57% of the respondents could
identify students with visual problem, 29 %, hearing problem and 14% learning difficulty. For
the management of the students in the classroom, 43% of the respondents refer them to the
Municipal Coordinator of Special Needs Children through the headmistress of the school. 36%
change their seating positions and 21% give them special attention for their maximum benefit.
Sometimes teachers have knowledge of deviations in students but in practice the teacher
experiences difficulty in handling the deviations. The educational sub model which holds that
70
every one can learn and there is no such persons as one who is uneducable and that all people
who are of school age have the right to attend school, teachers need to adopt variety of teaching
techniques to help students with hearing problem in the general education classroom.
71
CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1. SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS.
The study, Investigating Communication Barrier as a Cause for Low Academic Performance
of Students with Hearing Problem in Mawuko Girls’ Senior High School, Ho was geared toward:

Finding out whether hearing impairment affects the communication of the individual with
hearing problem.

Investigating whether communication barrier is a cause for low academic performance of
students with hearing problems.

Ascertaining if the age of onset of the hearing problem in the individual has any effect on
the academic achievement of the individual.

Creating awareness of the probability of existence of hidden sensory impairments in
students which may be the cause of low academic performance in students.

Establishing the relevance of teacher competency in identifying students with hearing
problems in the general regular classrooms.
The study used six (6) purposively sampled respondents, who have problem with their
hearing out of the population of students with sensory impairments and fourteen (14) teachers
who have been conveniently sampled to provide useful information on the student respondents.
72
Research questions were formulated upon which interview and observation questions were
designed.
The first research question sought to find out whether hearing impairment affects the
communication of the individual.
It was found out that hearing impairment affects
communication of the individual with hearing problems. Poor hearing and dependence on friends
for most information in the classroom, pain and noise in the ear, affect understanding and
processing of information hence poor academic performance.
The second research question was designed to fetch information on whether communication
barrier is a cause for low academic performance of students with hearing problems. The study
revealed that, poor language processing affects students with hearing problem’s academic
performance. These students find reading difficult, they have difficulty in understanding what
they read, and they have poor retentive memory, rendering them slow and unable to complete
answering required questions during examination hence their poor performances.
The third research question intended to find out if the age of onset of the hearing problem in
the individual has any effect on the academic achievement of the individual. In the study, it was
found that adventitious hearing impairment, as it was with all the respondents, has devastating
effect on the individual’s academic performance in the sense that most of them go undetected for
proper intervention and management for improvement in their academic work hence their poor
performance.
The fourth research question which sought to find out whether teachers are aware that hidden
sensory impairment may affect their students’ academic performance revealed that some teachers
73
are not aware that impairment such as hearing problem can be with students in the general
education classroom. Some others are not aware that hearing impairment can affect students’
academic performance; few are aware that hearing impairment can affect students’ academic
performance. Teachers who obtained their degrees from the University of Education, Winneba
had basic knowledge about the various sensory impairments that can be found among students.
They are therefore aware that sensory impairment, such as hearing problem, affects students’
academic achievement in one way or the other.
The last research question which intended to find out if teachers have skills in identifying
students with peculiar problems in their classrooms revealed that some teachers have training in
identifying students with sensory problems in their classrooms. Visual problem was the one
easily identified other than hearing problem and learning disability. Hearing impairment as
already stated is a hidden impairment that may affect any one at any time in course of life. One
needs to observe certain behaviours in the individual and refer the one for further investigation
before one can be declared as having hearing impairment or not. In this study, some teachers
refer suspected cases to the Municipal Coordinator of Special Needs Children. Some put in
management procedures by placing them at certain positions in the classroom for maximum
benefit.
CONCLUSION
In educational institutions success is measured by the academic performance of students.
Parents care about their child’s academic performance, since good academic results, they believe
will provide more career choices and job security. Schools are also often influenced by concerns
74
about school’s reputation which hinges on the overall academic performance. The academic
performances of students have been a major concern of the government and other stake holders
of education over the years now. Although failures in academic performance of students have
been attributed to complaints raised on teachers’ non performance, and students not adequately
prepared for the examination, hidden sensory impairments in students cannot be ruled out.
Several unidentified auditory problem may exist among students which may promote academic
delay. There are students in the senior high schools living with hearing difficulty and most of
them are not dealing with their problems for various reasons. Some parents do not know where
to go for help, others simply cannot afford the cost involved in seeking intervention; they
therefore pretend as if they do not know about the problem. Impairment such as hearing problem
affects individual’s effective communication.
Communication difficulties adversely influence
school achievement, social and emotional development and interaction with others.
6.2. RECOMMENDATIONS/ SUGGESTIONS.
Based on the studies, it could be recommended that, policy makers in quest of finding
solutions to the poor academic performance in students in our Ghanaian schools must include ear
and hearing screening as compulsory requisite for admission of children and students at all levels
of the educational ladder.
Secondly parents must not be satisfied with their children’s level of hearing at birth or
through infancy. They must continue to observe their children critically all the times. Any
deviation in their normal hearing should be immediately reported for early intervention and
75
management of the problem. Pupils and students should be encouraged to report to their teachers
any problem that they are aware of which is affecting their friends or mates.
All tertiary institutions must include studies on disabilities in the course content of all
areas of learning in their institutions. In the various areas of the society, one may come across a
person with any disability to interact with. This will help one to offer useful assistance to the
person.
Teachers in our general education classrooms need to be mindful of the probability of the
presence of students with hidden sensory impairments in their classrooms which may affect their
academic achievement. There is the need to investigate students thoroughly before drawing
conclusion on their academic performances.
Teachers must often be given in-service training to equip them with skills that can make
them identify and manage students with any impairment in their classrooms.
6.3. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
This study covered only one school due to the limited time.
It also covered only students with hearing problems who have been identified
There might be other students who might have been living with similar impairment or different
impairments that may be equally affecting their educational achievement.
Future researches could involve other senior high schools in the Ho Municipality as well as
other sensory impairments which may equally affect students’ academic achievement.
76
REFERENCES
Aboagye, J. K. (200). Historical and Philosophical foundation of Education in Ghana. Accra:
Media
Guard Limited.
Agyedu, G. O., Donkor, E. & Obeng, S. (2007). Research Methods. Kumasi: U.S.T. Press
Limited.
Allen, T.E. (1986). Patterns of Academic Achievement among Hearing Impaired Students: 19741983, In A.N. Schildroth & M.A. Karchmer (Eds), Deaf Children in America. Austin, Tx:
Pro- Ed., pp. 161-206.
Alhassan, S. (2006). Modern Approaches Research in Educational Administration for Students.
Winneba: University of Education.
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (2010). Making Effective Communication a
Human
Right Accessible and Achievable for All. Retrieved February 17th 2010 from
http:/www.asha.org/public/hearing/disorders/effect.htm
Ambron, S. R. (1981). Child Development (3rdEd.). New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Amoani, F.K. (2005).
Introduction to Research Methodology.
Winneba: University of
Education.
Andrew, J. & Manson, L. (1981). Strategy Usage among Deaf and Hearing Children: Exceptional
77
Children. 57 (6).
Avoke, M. (1997). Introduction to Special Education for Schools and Colleges. Accra: City
Publishers.
Avoke, M. (Ed). (2005) Rudiments of Special Education. Winneba: Special Educational Books.
University of Education.
Avoke, M. (2005). Special Educational Needs in Ghana Policy, Practice and Research. Winneba:
Special Educational Books: Department of Special Education. University of Education.
Bandura, A. (1997). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bamford, J. & Sanders, E. (1992). Hearing Impairment auditory perception and language disability (2nd
Ed.). London: Whurr Publishers.
Blackhurst, A. E. & Berdine, W.H. (1981). An Introduction to Special Education. Boston: Little Brown
and Company.
Boadu, K. A. Ghana needs new breed of teachers. Daily Graphic (Accra). Wednesday, July 11, 2007.
P.29.
Bloom, L. & Lahey, M. (1978). Language Development and Language Disorders. New York: John
Wiley.
Boothroyd, A. (1982). Hearing Impairment in Young Children. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall Inc.
Bootzin, R. (1986).Psychology Today: An Introduction (6th Ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
78
Carhart, R. (1970). Development and Conservation of Speech. In H. Davis and S.R. Silverman (Eds.)
Hearing and Deafness. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc.Chapt.14.
Chief Examiner’s Report: Core and Universal Subjects, May / June 2003 -2006, West African Senior
School Certificate Examination. Accra: The West African Examination Council.
Conrad, R. (1979). The Deaf Child. London: Harper & Row.
Corbett, C. (1998). Special Educational Needs in the Twentieth Century: A Cultural Analysis. London:
Cassel.
Creswell, J.W. (2005). Educational Research Planning, Conducting, and Evaluating Quantitative and
Qualitative Research (2nd Ed.) New Jersey: Pearson & Merrill Prentice Hall, 623p.
Davis, H, & Silverman, S. R. (1970). Hearing and deafness (3rd Ed,) New York: Holt Rinehart and
Wiston.
Di Francesca, S. (1972). Academic Achievement Test Result of National Testing Programme for Hearing
Impaired Students (series D, no. 9) Washington D C. Gallaudet University. Center for
Assessment and Demographic Studies.
Dogoe, R. K. (1996). When Speech Sound are Acquired in the Ewe Language of Ghana-
A Pilot
Study. Long essay, (SPED), University College of Education of Winneba.
Espir, M.L.E. and Clifford, R.F. (1998). The Basic Neurology of Speech and Language (3rd Ed).
London: Blackwell Scientific Publishing.
Essel, J. (1996). Introduction to Special Education (Hearing Impairment) .Unpublished Monograph.
Winneba: Department of Special Education.
79
Farrel, P. (1997). Teaching Pupils with Learning Difficulties: Strategies and Solution. London: Cassel.
Furth, H. G. (1973). Deafness and Learning: A Psychosocial Approach. Belmont California Wadsworth.
Gadagbui, G.Y. (1998). A Hand book of Language and Speech Deviation. Accra: City Publishers.
Gadagbui, G.Y. (2003).
Screening for Hearing & Speech Impairment in Children.
Winneba:
Department of Special Education, University of Education.
Gadagbui, G. Y. (2007).
Communication Disorders and Performance in Learning Environments.
Winneba: Department of Special Education, University of Education.
Gentile, A. & Di Francesca, S. (1969). Academic Achievement Test Performance of Hearing Impaired
Students: United States, Spring 1969(series D, No 1). Washington D C, Gallaudet University,
Centre for Assessment & Demographic Studies.
Heward, W. L. (1996). Exceptional Children: An Introduction to Special Education. New Jersey.
Prentice Hall Inc. (P 342 – 345)
Hoemann, H.W. & Briga, J.I. (1981). Hearing Impairments. In J.M. Kauffman, & D. P. Hallahan,
(Eds.), Handbook of Special Education. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Holt, J.A. (1993). Stanford Achievement Test (8th ed.): Reading, comprehension subgroup results.
American Annals of the Deaf, 13, 172-175.
Hooley, J. M. Neale, J. M. & Davison, G.C. (1989). Readings in abnormal Psychology. New York: John
Willey & Sons, Inc.
Hunt, N. & Marshall, K. (2002). Exceptional Children and Youth: An Introduction to Special Education
(3rd Ed.) Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
80
Hunt, N. & Marshall, K. (1999). Exceptional Children and Youth: An Introduction to Special Education
(2nd Ed.). New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Hutchcroft, E. (1981). Making Language Work. London: McGraw-hill Book Company.
Ikonta, N. R. & Maduekwe, A. N. (2005). A study of Hearing-Impaired Students (In English Language)
In a Conventional Secondary School in Lagos State, Nigeria. African Journal of Special
Educational Needs. Vol. 4 (1): 28-39
James, S. L. (1990). Normal Language Acquisition. Austin, TX: Pro –Ed.
Johnson, D. (1984) ‘Planning small research’, In J. Bell, T. Bush, A. Fox, J. Goodey & S. Goulding
(Eds.)
Conducting Small-scale Investigations in Educational Management. London: Harper
and Row.
Kentucky’s Office for the Americans with Disabilities Act (1999). Definition and Accommodation for
Hearing Impairment. Retrieved from ada.ky.gov/hearing_mp_def.htm.
Kirk, S. Gallagher, A. Anastasiow, J. (1993). Educating Exceptional Children. Boston: Houghton
Mufflin Company.
Kirk, S. Gallagher, A. Anastasiow, J. (2003). Educating Exceptional Children (10th Ed.) New Jersey:
Houghton Mufflin Company.
Knauf, V. H. (1978) Language and Speech Training. In J. Katz, Handbook of Clinical Audiology
(2nd.Ed.). Baltimore: William & Wilkins Company.
81
Maduekwe, A. N. (1998). An Evaluation of English for Academic Purposes (EAP) Programme in
selected Nigeria Universities. Unpublished Ph. D Project.
McCormick, L. & Schiefelbusch, R. L. (1984). Early Language Intervention. Columbus, OH: Merril
Publishing.
Miller, C. (1992). Speech and Language. In Gulliford, R. &Upton, G. (Eds). Special Educational
Needs. London: Routledge.
Minifie, F. D. (1994). Introduction to Communication Sciences and Disorders. San Diego: Singular
Publishing Group Inc.
Moores, D. F. (1985). Educational Programme and Services for Hearing Impaired Children: Issues and
Options. In F. Powell, T. Finzo-Hieber, S. Friel-Patti, & D. Henderson (Eds.) Education of the
Hearing impaired Child. (Pp.3-20) San Diego: College Hill.
Moores, D.F. (1987). Educating the Deaf: Psychology, Principles and Practices (3rd.Ed.). Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Morris, J. (1993). Independent Lives. Basingstoke: McMillan Press.
Mykelbus, H. R. (1964). The Psychology of Deafness (2nd. Ed.). New York: Grune & Stratton.
Nicolosi, L. Herryman, E. Kreshock, J. (1978). Terminology of Communication Disorder. Baltimore:
William and Wilkins Company.
Norris, C. (Ed.) (1975). Letters from Deaf Students. Eureka, CA: Alindu Press.
Northern, J.L. & Downs, M. P. (1991). Hearing in Children. (4th ed.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
82
Odusina, M. Olu (1989). Trends in Language Education. In Jubril and T. Macauley, (Eds.). Handbook
for Junior Secondary school English Language Teachers. Lagos: NERDC.
Offei, N. Y. (2005). Communication for the Deaf. In M. Avoke, (Ed.) Rudiments of Special Education.
Winneba: Special Educational Books. University of Education, pp.38-44.
Oppong, A. M. (2003). Understanding and Effectively Educating the Special Needs Student. Winneba:
University of Education.
Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and Research Methods (2nd.Ed.) Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Paul, P. V. & Quigley, S. P. (1990). Education and Deafness. New York: Longman.
Paul, P, V. & Quigley, S. P. (1994). Language and Deafness (2nd.ed.) San Diego: Singular.
Paul, P.V. & Jackson, D.W. (1993). Toward a Psychology of Deafness. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Perkins, W. (1997). Speech Pathology. An applied behavioural Science (2nd.ed.). St. Louis: The C.V.
Mosby Company.
Pickett, J. M. (1980). The Sounds of Speech Communication. A Primer of acoustic Phonetics and
Speech Perception. Baltimore: University Park Press.
Polloway, E. A. & Smith, Tom. F.C. (1992). Language Instruction of Students with Disability (2nd. Ed.)
U.S.A: Love Publishing Company.
Posse, R. & Melgosa, J. (2006). For Raising your Child. Fuenlabrada, Madrid, Spain: Talleres.
Reynolds, C. and Fletcher-Jansen, E. (1991). Concise Encyclopaedia of Special Education. New York:
John Willey and Sons Inc.
83
Rutter, M. and Bax, M. (1972). Normal Development of Speech and Language. London: William
Heinemann Medical Books Ltd.
Salvia, J. & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1995). Assessment (6th.Ed.) Boston: Toronto.
Sanderson, S. (2003). ‘The Role of the Educational Psychologist in the Inclusive Process’, In C. Tilstone
& R.Rose (eds.) Strategies to Promote Inclusive Practice. London and New York: Routledge
Falmer.
Sarantakos, S. (1997), Social Research (2nd.Ed.) London: McMillan Press Limited.
Schirmer, B.R. & Woolsey, M.L. (1997). Effect of Teacher Questions on the Reading Comprehension of
Deaf Children. Journal of Deaf Children. Deaf Studies and Deaf Education.
Schlesinger, H. (1983). Early Intervention and Prevention of Multiple Handicapped. In Merchiand and
S. Gerber (Eds.). The Multiple Handicapped Child p, 83 – 166.
Shaver, K. G. & Tarpy, (1993). Psychology. New York: McMillan Company.
Surran, B. & Rizzo, J. (1979). Special Children: An Integrative Approach. IIinois: Scott Foresmen and
Company.
The World Book Encyclopedia (1994). Hereditary. Vol. 9 H. Chicago,Sydney, Toronto: World Book,
Inc.
Trybus, R.J. & Karchmer, M.A. (1977). School Achievement Scores of Hearing Impaired Children:
National Data on Achievement Status and growth patterns. American Annals of the Deaf
Directory of Programs and Services, 122.
84
Turnbull, A. Turnbull, R. Shank, M. Leal, D. (1999). Exceptional Lives. Special Education in Today’s
Schools (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Turnbull, III. H.R. & Stowe, M. J. (2001). Five Models for Thinking about Disability: Implication for
Policy Responses. Journal of Disability Policy Studies Vol. 12 (3): 199-201.
Vernon, M. and Brown, (1964). A Guide to Psychological Text and Testing Proceeding in the Evolution
of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children: New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia (2010). Meaning of Hearing Impairment. Retrieved from
“http://en.wikipediaorg/wikiHearing Impairment Modified on September 22nd 2011 @5.30 pm.
Wikimedi Foundation Inc.
World Education Services (2011). Meaning of Academic Performance. Deman medi Inc, 1999-2011.
Retrieved from www.ehow.com.meaning-academic performance.
Wolk, S. & Schildroth, A.N. (1986). Death Children and Speech Intelligibility: A National Study. In
A.N. Schildroth & M.A. Karchmer (Eds.) Deaf Children in America. Austin, Tx: Pro – Ed.,
pp.139-159.
Yin, R.K. (1994). Case Study Research Design and Methods (2nd.Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
85
APPENDIX A
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS WITH HEARING DIFFICULTY
1. How old are you?
2. How many are you in the family?
3. What is your birth order?
4. What are your parent’s levels of Education?
5. What are your parent’s occupations?
6. Are your parents living together as married couples?
7. When did you realize that there is problem with your hearing?
8. Do you experience pains in your ears?
9. Is there any discharge from any of your ears?
10. Do you hear all that the teacher says when teaching?
11. Do you often ask for help from friends to repeat what the teacher said?
12. Do you converse fluently with friends?
13. Do you have problem with your academic studies?
14. Have ever complained to your parents or teachers of your hearing / ear problem?
15. Have you ever visited any hospital or assessment centre with your problem?
86
16. Have your friends ever complained of not hearing you properly when you talk with
them?
17 Are your parents aware of your hearing problem?
18. Are your friends and teachers aware of the problem?
19. In what ways do your friends help you in the classroom?
20. Do you appreciate what your friends are doing to help you?
87
APPENDIX B
INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS
1. How old are you?
2. What is your highest level of education?
3. What subjects do you teach?
4. How long have you been teaching?
5. Do all your students perform very well in the subject you are teaching?
6. If ‘yes,’ do they all perform at the same level of excellence?
7. If ‘no’, what do you think is/are the reason(s) why some students do not do well in your
class?
8. Have you ever taken time to find out why some students perform below average in your
class?
9. Do you observe some students in your class as having any hearing problem?
10. Are you aware that sensory impairments such as hearing impairment can affect the
academic achievement of students?
11. Do you have any training in identifying students with peculiar problems in the
classroom?
‘Yes’ or ‘No’.
12. If ‘yes’ what kind of problem(s) did you notice among your students?
13. If ‘no’, what kind of behavioural problems do you notice among your students in the
classroom?
14. How do you manage those identified to have hearing problem(s) in class?
88
APPENDIX C
TEST TTEMS USED FOR OBSERVATION
Section A:
Biographical Data.
1. Name of Student
2. Age
3. Sex
4. School
5. Class
6. Date of observation
7. Time of observation
8. Duration of observation.
Section B:
Test items
1. Student cups the hand behind a particular pinna when listening.
2. Student looks directly into the face of the speaker
3. Student turns a particular ear towards a speaker
4. Student speaks softly but demands a shout in order to understand what is said.
5. Student asks for repetition of what is said.
6. Student asks speakers to raise their voices in order for her to hear.
7. Student has fluid in the ear canal.
8. Student drags feet when walking.
9. Student frequently inserts her fingers or pen tips into the ear canal.
89
10. Student is unable to articulate frequency sounds for example /s/ when speaking.
11. Student exhibits compensatory behaviours such as fidgeting, anxiety, excessive talking.
12. Student does not respond to sound from behind.
13. Student complains of noise in the ear (tinnitus)
14. Student complains of itching in the ear.
15. Student experiences nasal blockage.
16. Student complains of heaviness in the ear.
17. Student complains of ear ache.
18. Student turns to guess when asked a question.
19. Student tends to withdraw.
20. Student is seen by teachers and peers to be dull, lazy, day – dreamer.
90
APPENDIX D
SCORE SHEET FOR THE OBSERVATION ITEMS FOR STUDENT C.
Instruction: Place a cross – mark (X) appropriately
Statement
No (0) Sometimes (1)
1. Student cups the hand behind a
Always (2)
X
Score
1
particular pinna when listening.
2. Student looks directly into the face
X
2
X
2
of the speaker
3. Student turns a particular ear
towards a speaker
4. Student speaks softly but demands
X
0
a shout in order to understand what
is said
5. Student asks for repetition of what
X
2
X
2
is said
6. Student asks speakers to raise their
voices in order for her to hear
7. Student has fluid in the ear
X
8. Student drags feet when walking
0
X
1
X
1
9. Student frequently inserts fingers
or pen tips into the ear canal.
10. Student is unable to articulate high
frequency sounds for
X
91
2
example/s/when speaking
11. Student exhibits compensatory
X
2
behaviours such as fidgeting,
anxiety, excessive talking.
12. Student does not respond to sound
X
2
from behind.
13. Student complains of itching in the
X
1
ear.
14. Students complains of noise in the
X
1
15. Student complain ear ache.
X
1
16. Student experiences nasal blockage
X
1
X
1
ear (tinnitus)
17. Student complains of heaviness in
the ear
18. Student tends to guess when she is
asked a question
X
2
peers to be dull, lazy, day –
X
2
dreamer
X
2
19. Student is seen by teachers and
20. Student tends to withdraw
Total Score
2(0)
The statements on the table were scored as follows:
92
8
10 x2
28
No
=0
Sometimes
=1
Always
=2
The total score each student attained for the responses was computed.
The percentage total score was gained by dividing total score by the maximum score x 100% (the
maximum score is multiple by 2).
Total score
= 28
Maximum score = 40
:. %
= 28/40 x100
= 70%
The results were graded and evaluated as follows:
Range
Status
Result
Action to be taken
0% - 49%
Pass
Normal
No referral
50% - 100%
Fail
At risk
Refer for diagnosis
93