Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation as it Relates to Music Education
Jordan Ashley
5/3/2012

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 2
Introduction
Motivation is key to the success for children in an educational system. This pertains to all subject matter from reading and math to the arts. The fostering of motivation at an early age can have profound effects on all subjects in subsequent years of schooling. This intrinsic motivation provides students will, self-efficacy, and the desire to learn various subjects. While there are different opinions on the benefits or negative effects, it is clear that extrinsic and intrinsic motivation influence each other. Although motivation relates to all areas of education, this report will focus on the effects of motivation for music students of a primary age. If students are to become life-long participants and gain a love of music it is necessary that they become intrinsically motivated to continue studying the subject.
Problem Statement
While many schools have a music program, not all are effective at promoting a desire to continue studying the subject. Most music teachers have many extrinsic motivational factors in place, but will this work toward creating a love for music? Performance and competition are at the center of most music programs from elementary through secondary school. Students receive praise for well done performances, win competitions and prizes, and often receive parties or other rewards for participation and activeness within the program. All of these are external rewards that may be effective at that moment, but only hold student interest during the time that they are presented. How can music programs change this trend and most effectively cultivate a desire to study music that comes from within? Should a motivational model continue to use extrinsic motivators? What balance of motivational factors, goals, and activities build selfefficacy within the subject and ultimately result in a desire for life-long learning within music?

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Definitions
Motivation is central to success for students both academically and in other aspects of life. It is the driving force that causes a student to behave or act in a certain way. This can be for positive or negative means and applies to a variety of school, work, and pleasure activities. As defined by Lee et al (2012 p. 264), “Motivation is an internal state that investigates, directs, and maintains behavior…” In general this, “internal state” can be the influenced by either internal or external factors that come from either temporal or more sustained sources.
A motivation that is derived from an internal means is generally referred to as an intrinsic motivator. It keeps an individual on task simply for the task its-self and for the improvement of that skill. (Lee et al p. 265) There is no particular gain or external reason for which an individual seeks to master the trait or perform the activity. Simply, it is the desire to do something for the love of doing it. Conversely an action that is influenced from external factors is generally referred to as an extrinsic motivator. This is when someone receives a reward, grade or other incentive from completing a task or participating in an activity. Green and Hale (2012 p. 46) often refer to these types of motivation as being performance orientated, such as for a grade, or, mastery oriented, where learning is done for the sake of learning. These additional definitions of motivation provide insight into the use of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in a classroom setting. When a student learns for a grade they are typically extrinsically motivated and may become quickly discouraged by a low mark whereas someone who is learning for the sake of mastery would be considered intrinsically motivated.

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Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
The usefulness, preference, and interrelatedness of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation as it relates to education are debated amongst researchers. While some hold that there is place for one versus the other or some combination of the two, others believe that one may inhibit the other.
As was stated by Bo Wah Leung when discussing the use of composition to motivate music students, “Intrinsic motivation has been found to play a crucial role in the creative process, while extrinsic motivation (such as rewards) may be detrimental to creativity.” (2008 p. 48) As he points out the importance of intrinsic motivation he also considers the potential negative effects of external motivators. While most educators will agree that extrinsic motivators may produce desired immediate effects it should be noted that it may have potentially hazardous effects on continuing motivation. (Lee, McInerney, Liem, and Ortiga, 2010, p. 265) It has become commonplace for some educators to use external motivators in place of intrinsic motivation. (Lee et al, 2010, p. 265) While a strong case for decreasing the amount of external influence on motivation may be made, some hold that the correct way to motivate students is through a collaboration of both motivational types. As Green states, “Some students benefit from having different ways to measure their success. A student can care about being in a top performing group but also practice for the love of music and pursue their interest beyond class requirements for band or choir.” (2011, p. 46) When used properly it is possible that intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation can work together to produce desire results. (Lee, 2010, p 265) A third perspective believes that children are born with an innate desire to learn. (Bouffard, Marcoux,
Vezeau, and Bordeleau, 2003, p. 171) Since students are born with intrinsic motivation our job as educators shifts from creating motivation to nurturing what is already there. This desire in young students is closely linked to their perceived competence, which is often high at the onset

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 5 of schooling. (Bordeleau et al, 2003, p. 171) As schooling continues student become less confident in their abilities and therefore lose much of their desire to learn. These conclusions regarding motivation are debated in the educational community. While it seems that each follows valid logic that is supported by peer reviewed studies it becomes clear that each may hold a piece of the truth. More research may be required to determine which opinion holds the most validity.
Regardless of the interplay between the two types of motivation it should be noted that intrinsic motivation tends to create a learner that is more persevering. Rather than competing with others, students focus on improving themselves and have a greater desire to learn. This creates a person that will tend to keep to a task whereas someone who is only working for a grade or other external reward may give up more quickly. (Green, 2011, p. 46) Currently, the majority of classrooms are grade or performance oriented which means that most teachers make extensive use of external motivators and stress achievement based upon grade. This climate is one of competition and in many cases may not be fostering internal motivation. (Green, 2011, p.
46) As students progress through the schooling system there intrinsic motivation (learning orientation) tends to decline. (Crow, 2011, p. 1) This trend is one that could benefit from change.
Student’s who understand the reason for learning, will tend to seek out more information, retain more content, and be more affluent, life-long learners. (Crow, 2011, p. 1-2) An intrinsically motivated individual will desire to know more. (Crow, 2011 p. 2) Teachers are the largest influence on a student’s orientation toward a grade or toward a learning goal. (Green, 2011, p.
46) While there are many other factors at play, communication between students and the teacher may be the most important influence on a student’s motivation. (Leung, 2008, p. 58) It is therefore imperative that teachers understand the effectiveness of different motivators. It also

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 6 becomes clear that while there are different ways to motivate a student, intrinsic motivation may be the most successful way to foster life-long learning for a given subject.
Creating Intrinsic Motivation & Motivational Theories
The question regarding how to create intrinsic motivation has fashioned a variety of motivational theories and opinions. While opinions may vary they are not always at odds with one another and a valid answer may be found in the crossroads between different ideas. As every educator should desire students to become consummate gatherers of information, the need for fostering intrinsic motivation becomes paramount.
There seems to be a strong link between student self-efficacy within a subject and there intrinsic motivation to learn that subject. Self-efficacy can be defined as ones perceived personal ability within a subject. As expressed by Bo Wah Leung, “Students who possess high selfefficacy tend to be better at monitoring their work time, more persistent, and better in solving conceptual problems.” (2008 p. 48) Self-efficacy is an integral part of student success within a subject. (Ritchie & Williamon, 2011, p. 148) While many factors come into play, this affluence within a subject supersedes socio-economic factors and ultimately points to their continued success. (Ritchie & Williamon, 2011, p. 153) Ritchie and Williamon hold that there are four main ways to influence student self-efficacy: accomplishing a task, observing the completion of a task, verbal encouragement, and physical signals. (2011, p. 147) Student will tend to perform better with tasks that are enjoyable and gain self-efficacy more quickly. (Ritchie & Williamon,
2011, p. 154) This includes mastery experiences and a general sense of well being while performing the task ((Ritchie & Williamon, 2011, p. 157) While music can be a very rewarding

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 7 experience in and of its-self, it is important that student experience choice, gratification, including mastery experiences, and experience joy while participating in it.
The constructivist perspective would agree that students need to experience choice when working toward mastery of a subject. If a student has choice and is allowed more liberties, such as with more open ended assignments, they may experience more gratification and in turn gain self-efficacy. (Crow, 2011, p. 2) Constructivist believe that in order to construct intrinsic motivation students must be allowed to discover subject matter on their own. If they are able to problem solve, and be active guides in their own learning, the desire to learn more for the sake of simply learning the subject will be fostered. It becomes incredibly important that students become motivated to find information for themselves rather than simple being handed the answers. In this type of model the teacher acts as more of a guide than dictator or lecturer. (Scott,
2010, p. 19) Sheila Scott (2010 p 20) outlines four basic principles of constructivist thinking.
First, new information must be made personal to the student. Second, teachers are to “facilitate group conversations.” Third, planning and lessons are centered around the students rather than executed as has been predetermined by the curriculum. Fourth, students must be provided with the opportunity to explore the subject. And finally, students must be constantly reflective regarding their own work. This may take the form of constructive criticism to ones-self. While routines are a necessary part of education, in this kind of class, a lesson is fluid enough to adapt according to the direction that students are taking. If these principles are followed, it can be begin the process of discovery and in turn foster intrinsic motivation. (Scott, 2010, p. 25)
Students will be receiving mastery experiences that increase both actual and perceived competence that build a student’s self-efficacy, self-perception, and in turn motivate them into a life-long love of the subject.

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This constructivist approach may also develop the perceived confidence and selfperception of a student. (Bouffard et al, 2003, p. 172) A student’s perception of them self and their perceived competence are important as they directly relate to their intrinsic motivation. If a student is confident in themselves they are more likely to value learning and persevere due to a greater amount of intrinsic motivation within a variety of subjects. (Bouffard et al, 2003, p. 172)
This general sense of self differs from a student’s efficacy within a subject. Whereas a student’s self-efficacy relates to their competence within a subject, their self-perception is a student’s confidence in themselves to succeed. Both can influence a student’s motivation and should be carefully nurtured. (Green & Hale, 2011, p. 2011) A knowledge and awareness of oneself can contribute to greater self-perception. Music, sports and other fine arts activities may be help students to discover themselves. These types of activities can help foster intrinsic motivation.
(Simpkins, Vest, and Becnel, 2010, p. 1368) While there is much research to support these conclusions there have been some studies showing controversial results. It has been determined by Bouffard et al (2003 p. 173) that more research is needed in this area.
These concepts of self-efficacy and perception relating to the intrinsic motivation of student agree with the expectancy-value theory. This theory hypothesizes that students will achieve to the level that they believe they are capable of. (Leung, 2010, p. 48) There are two areas of this theory that relate to motivation. First, students will only achieve to their perceived ability, and second, that there are “achievement values [for] individuals toward specific domains, which include achievement, intrinsic value, utility value, and cost.” (Leung, 2010, p. 48) In the end students most see the value in what they are studying, gain an interest in it, and believe that they can accomplish the assigned task in to become intrinsically motivated toward accomplishing it. (Simpkins et al, 2010, p. 1368)

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Researchers who prescribe to the achievement goal theory would dispute that students need goals in order to build intrinsic motivation. (Green, 2011, p.46) This viewpoint doesn’t disagree with other theorist, but rather adds another element to the discussion. As stated by Lee et all, “central to a performance goal is a focus on one’s ability and sense of self-worth.” (2010, p. 265) According to this theory students have two different kinds of goals, performance goals and mastery goals. Performance goals are used to build a student’s ego and have the purpose of self-gratification. As gratification, in this case, is an external motivator these goals relate to a students need for extrinsic support and motivation. Conversely, mastery goals are oriented toward a specific task and are related to a student’s desire to learn. They are intrinsically motivated and help to build a student’s confidence. A student does not need the gratification of others if they believe that they have achieved their goal. (Lee et al, 2010, p. 265) This theory is in concordance with other motivational theories. This is stated best in the following statement:
“Central to a mastery goal is the belief that effort leads to success: the focus of attention is the intrinsic value of learning. With a mastery goal, individuals are oriented towards developing new skills, trying to understand their work, improving their level of competence or achieving a sense of mastery. In other words, students feel successful if they believe they have personally improved or come to understand something. Their performance relative to others is irrelevant; of greater importance to them is the task.” (Lee et al, 2010, p. 265)
It is collaboration between perception, efficacy, personal achievement, and the setting of mastery goals and gaining of mastery experiences.
It can be concluded that while there are many motivational theories they tend to agree in some aspects. Student’s must value what they are doing and find success in learning. Ultimately students will be best intrinsically motivated when they gain self-efficacy within a subject or gain personal-efficacy through learning it. There are other factors at play such as gender, (Simpkins et al, 2010, p. 1370) social factors, (Scott, 2010, p. 20) and support. In order for motivation to

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 10 persevere “anchor relationships” or people to support student’s interests are needed. (Crow,
2011, p. 13) Especially in subjects that require multiple individuals for success, such as music or sports, students may benefit from, “communities of practice,” where proficiency is gained and motivated through participation with others. (Scott, 2010, p. 20) While there may be more than one way to initially motivate a student, if we hope to build life-long learners we must find ways to intrinsically motivate a student and teach them to enjoy learning a craft for their own personal enjoyment.
Future Potential / Benefits of Intrinsically Motivating Students
Motivation is key to the success of student academically and necessary if we hope to cultivate students for a life-long love of music. While extrinsic motivation may be helpful in initiating immediate classroom participation it will not ultimately result in a prolonged desire to preserve and pursue the subject. Music study requires commitments and perseverance and requires long hours of practice. (Green, 2010, p. 47) It is through self-efficacy and a personal satisfaction that student will accomplish proficiency in musical performance. While musical excellence should be celebrated by its own right there are other benefits to intrinsically motivating students study music. Music can promote self-efficacy for other subjects through an improved self-perception. (Ritchie & Williamon, 2011, p. 148) According to Simpkins (2010, p.
1369) individuals who are motivated in one area may become motivated in another. It can create a shift from a need for gratification from other individuals and extrinsic rewards to a desire to learn for the sake self improvement. It has been noted that participation in fine arts subjects is key to keep students from dropping out of school. (Green, 2011, p. 45) I believe that intrinsically motivating students to study music can have tremendous positive effects on many other aspects of schooling. As music preference is learned at a young age (Simpkins et al, 2010, p. 1383) it is

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION AS IT RELATES TO MUSIC EDUCATION 11 very important that students enjoy music and gain meaningful experiences in music at the onset of schooling.
Conclusion
While there remains conflicting viewpoints on the best blending of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations we know that a shift in music classrooms is needed. Music concert attendance for fine arts events had dramatically decreased in recent years. (Green, 2010, p. 45) If we hope to change this trend students must begin to become motivated to study, perform, and appreciate music from a young age. Past musical experiences are the greatest influence on future motivation for music. (Leung, 2008, p 48) These experiences should not require extrinsic motivators to encourage participation, but rather hold student enjoyment and interest in their own right.
Students should begin to see themselves as competent within the subject holding both high selfefficacy toward music study and high perceptions of them self. As a student’s inclination toward liking the subject begins at a very early age students should be having age appropriate, enjoyable, mastery experiences at the earliest age possible. If we hope to change the current trend in music education, where students give up on more than just cursory listening, a change in the way students experience and study music is necessary.

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Work Cited
Bouffard, Therese, Marie-France Marcoux, Carole Vezeau, and Luce Bordeleau. "Changes in self-perceptions of competence and intrinsic motivation amoung elementary schoolchildren."
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Crow, Sherry R. "Exploring the Experiences of Upper Elementary Children Who Are
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Green, Susan K., and Connie L. Hale. "Fostering a Lifelong Love of Music: Instruction and
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Lee, Jie Q., Dennis M. McInerney, Gregory Arief D. Liem, and Yasmin P. Ortiga. "The
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Ritchie, Laura, and Aaron Williamon. "Primary School Children's Self-Efficacy for Music
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Scott, Sheila. "A Minds-On Approach to Active Learning in General Music." General Music
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<http://gmt.sagepub.com/content/24/1/19>.
Simpkins, Sandra D., Andrea E. Vest, and Jennifer N. Becnel. "Participating in Sports and Music
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Elementary School." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 3916 Sept. (2010): 1368-86. Web.
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