Video Modeling
Running head: VIDEO MODELING
Video Modeling with Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Andrea Brown Harper
University of West Georgia
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Video Modeling
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Abstract
With autism on the rise and mainstreaming becoming the least restrictive environment, video
modeling is one way that teachers and parents can assist autistic children in a more inviting way.
This literature review will discuss how video modeling can assist children with autism spectrum
disorder with social skills, reciprocal play and emotion recognition. In review of the research
literature, autistic children were more engaged in learning through video modeling.
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Video Modeling with Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
The diagnosis of autism and autism spectrum disorder has been on the rise in the last five
years and research supporting this has been on the rise also. Autism spectrum disorder is
inclusive of those with a mild autism diagnosis known as Asperger’s Syndrome to those with
severe autism which may include non-verbal, low-functioning abilities.
Due to the increase in autism spectrum disorder, researchers have examined video
modeling to assist these students with social skills, reciprocal play and emotion recognition. The
purpose of this paper is to discuss a variety of ways to use video modeling. The research
questions guiding this review are as follows: (1) How does video modeling use self and peer
models to teach social skills? (2) What are the effects of video modeling with reciprocal play?
(3) Does video modeling assist with emotion recognition? Analyzing these questions can assist
educators with increasing the social skills, reciprocal play and emotion recognition of students
with autism spectrum disorder.
Method
A search of the electronic databases via the University of West Georgia was used to
locate peer reviewed articles. Using the databases at Galileo and ERIC EBSCOhost, key word
searches, such as video modeling, autism, and assistive technology, were used to locate relevant
articles that related to the research questions. In all, 15 articles were reviewed for evidence of
video modeling. Most of the studies in this paper were qualitative in nature and used a variety of
data analysis and methods.
Video Modeling with Social Skills
With the increase of video cameras, editing software, authoring tools and electronic
media outlets, video modeling has many educators and parents teaching social skills to students
with autism. Not only do students with autism spectrum need to learn to respond appropriately in
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social situations but they must learn to initiate social interactions. Nikopoulos and Keenan (2007)
completed two experiments with four children diagnosed with autism. Each experiment
demonstrated “a video clip of three different behaviors was imitated by all children when a
history of one or two behaviors had been established” (Nikopoulos & Keenan, 2007, p. 687).
While video modeling can increase wanted behaviors, Gul and Vuran (2010) suggest self
modeling and peer modeling be used when teaching. This is supported by Marcus and Wilder
(2009) experiment which included three students with autism. These students were shown videos
with peers and themselves identifying Greek and Arabic letters. Within 13 sessions, the three
students scored 100% correct with self-modeling and 80% with peer-modeling (Marcus and
Wilder, 2009). With this type of success in self-modeling and peer-modeling, educators need to
have access to equipment to create videos in the classroom for these students with autism
spectrum disorder.
Social stories and video modeling is another way educators can introduces specific social
skills. Scattone (2008) followed Matthew, a nine year-old student with Asperger’s Syndrome, for
a period of 15 weeks. Matthew was “observed to have talked about several topics that were
mentioned in the story” at school with peers and during clinic visits (Scattone, 2008, p. 398).
While using three social stories and a video modeling three targeted behaviors - eye contact,
smiling and initiations, Matthew made improvements on two targeted behaviors - eye contact
and initiations. This study suggest further research be conducted with multiple students and
effects of the intervention with multiple baseline across participants.
Along with social stories, interactive books with music are suggested by Carnahan et al
(2009). Their study “demonstrated that music paired with interactive books promotes increased
rates of engagement during small group instruction” (Carnahan, Basham, et al, 2009, p. 83).
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Since educators are familiar using compact disc players incorporating music to interactive stories
it would be of relative ease for them to incorporate this concept into daily classroom use.
Personal digital assistants (PDAs) were studied by Mechling et al (2009) with secondary
students to complete a given task. Three high school students were given PDAs to complete tasks
which include making a Hamburger Helper mail, making grilled ham and cheese, and making a
single serve pizza. “Video, pictures, and auditory prompts can serve as effective self-prompting”
to assist students with autism spectrum disorder (Mechling, Gast, et al, 2009, p. 1429). An FM
auditory trainer was studied by Baharav and Darling (2008) and indicated “significant treatment
effect on the subject’s communication and socialization behaviors” (p. 773). These two pieces of
equipment will assist and allow the students to feel independent.
Video Modeling with Reciprocal Play
Reciprocal play involves students responding appropriately to a playmate in a given
situation. MacDonald and Sacramone (2009) paired autistic students with typically developing
students to study reciprocal play. Students watched each of three videos using three different
play sets: Fisher-Price Little People airport, Fisher-Price Little People Animal Sounds zoo, and a
Playskool grill. Student responses were gathered based on the video for each play set and the
appropriate responses for the play set. In this study, “video modeling produced extended
sequences of reciprocal pretend play” between the autistic students and the typically developing
peer (MacDonald and Sacramone, 2009, p. 51).
Kroeger et al (2007) studied teaching social skills through direct teaching through video
modeling and play activities. In their study, it was determined that students made “consistently
more gains” in the direct teaching group than did the students in the play activities group.
Reagan et al (2006) had similar findings. An autistic student’s sibling was used in the video
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modeling of four scenarios in reciprocal play. Positive outcomes were reported by the student’s
parents and siblings.
Point of view video modeling has been studied by Hine and Wolery (2006). This type of
video modeling uses a video camera at the eye level of two preschoolers to role play.
Experimenters used sensory bins designed for each student, a gardening set of materials and a
cooking set of materials. Results indicated “video modeling was effective in teaching specific
actions on toys and sensory materials” (Hine & Wolery, 2006, p. 91).
Video Modeling with Emotion Recognition
Students with autism spectrum disorder typically have difficulty recognizing emotions on
other individuals. Apple et al (2005) suggests video modeling can teach “compliment giving
responses and initiations” with explicit rules (p. 33). Two experiments were conducted - the first
assessed the effectiveness of compliment-giving initiations and responses with peer models; the
second added the self-management phase. This study replicates the findings that video modeling
is an effective tool but admits limitations that include using adults as models can be more
efficient for teachers.
A pilot study by Lacava et al (2007) explored The Mind Reading software in emotion
recognition with autistic spectrum disorder. Two girls and six boys, age eight to eleven, used the
software for ten weeks. It was discovered that students “improved their recognition of basic and
complex emotions in faces and voices” (Lacava, 2007, p. 179). The Mind Reading software can
be used in multiple settings, paired with typically developing students, in multiple therapies, and
along with other systems of reinforcement.
Collaborative virtual environments (CVEs) hold “great potential” for people with autism
spectrum disorder (Moore, et al, 2005, p. 231). Virtual avatars can be created to show emotion
for autistic students to study and learn to recognize emotions. This study involved 34 participants
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from age seven to age sixteen. A high level of success was achieved in 30 of the 34 participants.
These humanoid avatars allow students to recognize emotions in 18 different scenarios.
Additional Strategies
Video modeling can be utilized in the classroom by educators to teach various
interpersonal skills. Hess et al (2008) surveyed 249 special education directors and autism
consultants/specialists in 159 Georgia counties. They found floor time and gentle teaching
assisted in interpersonal relationships with autism spectrum disorder students. Assistive
technology was used to teach skill-based lessons and information.
Conclusion
Although video modeling can be used in multiple ways, teaching specific social skills
seems to be the most frequent. These videos can be used in the classroom, during therapies and
at home. While further research should be conducted, educators can begin using video modeling
in the classroom with adult models. However, autism spectrum disorder students cannot create
these videos themselves. Educators need to begin teaching these social skills, reciprocal play
skills and emotion recognition.
Future Research
With the autism spectrum disorder diagnosis increasing, further research needs to be
conducted to replicate many of the studies here. Many of these studies using video modeling use
a small number of participants. It is imperative to determine if the results can be replicated in
order to be generalized. Studying how teachers can assist students using the Mind Reader
software need to be investigated with other populations, larger sample size and control groups.
Self-management in using social skills needs to be further investigated so that autism spectrum
disorder students can begin to recognize the skill they are working towards.
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References
Apple, A., Billingsley, F. et al (2005). Effects of video modeling alone and with selfmanagement on compliment-giving behaviors of children with high functioning ASD.
Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions (7)1, 33-46. Retrieved from ERIC database.
Baharav, E. & Darling, R. (2008). Case Report: Using an auditory trainer with caregiver video
modeling to enhance communication and socialization behaviors in autism. Journal of
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Carnahan, C., Basham, J. et al (2009). A low-technology strategy for increasing engagement of
students with autism and significant learning needs. Exceptionality (17), 76-87. DOI:
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Gul, S. & Vuran, S. (2010). An analysis of studies conducted video modeling in teaching social
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Hess, K., Morrier, M., et al (2008). Autism treatment survey: Services received by children with
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Scattone, D. (2008). Enhancing the conversation skills of a boy with asperger’s disorder through
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