The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation

Title:

The Impact of Senior Pastor Leadership Behavior on Volunteer Motivation

Stephen G. Fogarty

Alphacrucis College, Sydney Australia

1

Key Words: volunteer motivation, self-determination theory, extrinsic motivation, intrinsic motivation, nonprofit leadership, church leadership, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, trust, value congruence


Abstract:

2

This study examines the impact of organizational leadership on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations by exploring (a) the impact of the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on volunteer motivation within church congregations and (b) the mediating effects of volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor on this relationship.

Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory, which posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and connects these needs to levels of motivation from extrinsic to intrinsic. The leadership behaviors of senior pastors are conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership theory which employs the behavior categories of contingent reward, active and passive management by exception, idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration. A sample of 790 volunteers attending

28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) rated the leadership behaviors of their senior pastor as well as their own motivation and their trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor. Regression analyses indicated that senior pastors’ transactional leadership behaviors predicted volunteers’ extrinsic motivation and that transformational leadership behaviors predicted intrinsic motivation. In addition, volunteers’ trust in and value congruence with senior pastors partially mediated the relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. Theoretical and practical implications of these results are presented and suggestions for future research are discussed.


Introduction

3

Senior pastors of church congregations have a highly visible leadership role. They usually rely upon their ability to articulate a value-based vision and to model appropriate behaviors to motivate the members of their congregation to voluntary service. How can senior pastors motivate volunteers to higher levels of commitment and performance? This question focuses on the practical importance of leadership within nonprofit organizations.

Given the practical importance of this topic, relatively few studies have explored organizational leadership behavior and outcomes within church congregations or other volunteer settings (Bae, 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and

Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996; Catano, et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully,

2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark,

1996; Lichtman and Malony, 1990; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008; Rowold and

Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and none of these studies has focused on the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. The present study aimed at extending our understanding of the impact of organizational leadership behavior on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations. More specifically, the impact of the transactional and transformational leadership behavior of senior pastors on the motivation of volunteers in church congregations was investigated. Since previous studies have found that follower trust in and value congruence with a leader may increase their responsiveness to the leader (Jung and

Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al., 1990; Shamir, et al., 1993), this study also

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 4 investigated the mediating impact of these variables on the effects of leadership on volunteer motivation.

Volunteer Motivation

Volunteers are individuals who provide unpaid help in an organized manner to parties with regard to whom the volunteer has no obligations (Millette and Gagné,

2008; Snyder and Omoto, 2004; Wilson and Janoski, 1995). Volunteers are eagerly sought after because they add value to organizations and endeavors (Wilson and

Musick, 1997), and are typically employed in nonprofit organizations including churches and charities (Phillips and Phillips, 2010, 2011). Because volunteers do not receive direct personal tangible gains such as a salary, nonprofit organizations must find other ways to motivate volunteers to work well and to continue in volunteer activity, and by doing so retain the knowledge and skill resources of the organization (Millette and Gagné, 2008). Maintaining volunteer motivation at levels that result in sustained and productive voluntary service is critical to the effectiveness of nonprofit organizations in fulfilling their stated missions.

Volunteer motivation is conceptualized using self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008), which posits that people are motivated to satisfy their innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Autonomy refers to the desire to control one’s own behavior and activities in order to experience personal integration and freedom. Competence is one’s propensity to be effective in dealing with the environment while attaining valued outcomes within it.

Relatedness refers to one’s desire to be connected to others. According to Deci and

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 5

Ryan, the satisfaction of all three of these needs is “essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity, and well-being” (2000, p. 229).

Self-determination theory connects the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness to levels of motivation, from extrinsic to intrinsic. Extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in an activity for instrumental reasons, such as acquiring a reward or avoiding a penalty, where the primary motivators are external to the volunteer. By contrast, intrinsic motivatio n refers to engaging in an activity for its own sake, because one finds it enjoyable and interesting, where the primary motivators are internal to the volunteer as s/he seeks to fulfill the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Extrinsic motivation has been demonstrated to predict lower quality task performance and shorter volunteer tenure whereas intrinsic motivation predicts higher quality task performance and longer volunteer tenure (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008).

Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors

Millette and Gagné (2008) have suggested that supervisory style is likely to be an important factor impacting the level of volunteer motivation. Transactional and transformational leadership behaviors have been identified as appropriate and effective components of supervisory style within nonprofit organizations (Bae;

2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;

Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;

Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;

Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003). Therefore, the leadership behavior of

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 6 senior pastors is conceptualized using transactional and transformational leadership theory.

Transactional leadership involves a reciprocal process of exchange between leader and followers (Bass, 1985; Riggio et al., 2004). It is defined in terms of three interrelated behaviors: (a) contingent reward, (b) active management by exception, and

(c) passive management by exception (Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Contingent reward implies the provision of an adequate exchange of valued resources for follower support (Judge and Bono, 2000). Active management by exception involves monitoring performance and taking corrective action. Passive management by exception means intervening only when problems become serious.

Both active and passive management by exception involve enforcing rules to avoid mistakes (Judge and Bono, 2000). The impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer workers will be to provide them with a clear understanding of their tasks and the desired outcomes, to create in them an expectation of the rewards for achievement, and to assist them in improving their performance.

Transformational leadership “transcends transactional leadership because it is built around the notion that leaders and followers are held together by some higher-level, shared goal or mission, rather than because of some personal transaction” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 51). It involves a reciprocal process of inspiration between leader and followers which results in both performing beyond expected levels of commitment and contribution, and which is based on the leader developing

“positive, rich, emotional relationships with followers that build commitment to a common purpose or cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 50). Transformational leadership

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 7 is defined in terms of four interrelated behaviors: (a) idealized influence, (b) inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (4) individualized consideration (Riggio et al., 2004; Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Idealized influence involves leaders serving as idealized role models for followers (Avolio and Bass,

2004; Judge and Bono, 2000; Riggio et al., 2004). Inspirational motivation

“arouses followers’ enthusiasm and sense of team spirit” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 51) as the leader provides followers with a clear vision of the organization’s future, the value of high standards of operation, and a sense of meaningfulness in their work

(Avolio and Bass, 2004). Intellectual stimulation involves leaders encouraging followers to be innovators and creative problem solvers (Avolio and Bass, 2004;

Yammarino and Bass, 1990). Individualized consideration involves the leader’s attention to the unique gifts and talents of each follower and the leader’s ability to coach or mentor followers with challenges and opportunities that suit each individual (Avolio, et al., 1999; Bass, 1985; Yammarino and Bass, 1990;

Yammarino, et al., 1993).

Overall, transformational leadership theory encapsulates a “sense of moral good and a passionate commitment to the cause” (Riggio et al., 2004, p. 52) that is essential for leadership in nonprofit organizations which are mission-driven and which rely on the motivation and performance of volunteers to achieve the organizational mission. The impact of transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer workers will be to augment the effect of transactional leadership behaviors by providing volunteers with vision and values to motivate them to

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation continue in voluntary activity at high levels of volition and quality performance

8

(Bass, 1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004).

Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Motivation

Linking the two literatures of self-determination theory and transactional and transformational leadership theory is the observation that the augmentation effect of transformational leadership on the effectiveness of transactional leadership is likely to be related to volunteers’ extrinsic and intrinsic motivation. Transactional leadership behaviors are likely to produce extrinsic motivation in volunteers as they are motivated to attain contingent rewards such as personal recognition or standing within the organization. Transformational leadership behaviors are likely to produce intrinsic motivation as volunteers are motivated by identification with and commitment to the mission of the organization. This personal identification and commitment is internally driven and volunteers are likely to sense that they are satisfying the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. A leader’s exercise of transformational behaviors will augment the impact of his or her use of transactional behaviors by stimulating volunteer intrinsic motivation and producing more sustained and higher quality task performance.

Trust and Value Congruence

The effective exercise of leadership is based upon leader–follower relationships that incorporate followers’ trust in and value congruence with the leader (Yukl,

2006). Trust in a leader is “faith in and loyalty to the leader” (Podsakoff et al.,

1990, p. 113). Value congruence with a leader is belief that the follower’s personal values are congruent with and aligned with those of the leader (Posner, 2010). Both

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 9 transactional and transformational leadership behaviors can inspire trust and value congruence in followers.

Transactional leaders build followers’ trust by engaging in consistent behavior and by honoring agreements (Bass, 1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff, et al.,

1990). They stimulate followers’ value congruence by identifying mutual aspirations and acknowledging followers’ expertise, experience, and education

(Jung and Avolio, 2000). Transactional leadership behaviors generate followers’ trust in and value congruence with the leader in relation to the nature of the organization, the task and outcomes required for efficient organizational operation, and the attendant contingent rewards. Jung and Avolio referred to such trust and value congruence as being “conditional” because they are established “through a reliable execution of contracts and exchanges” (p. 952). The trust and value congruence inspired in followers by a leader’s exercise of transactional leadership behaviors suffices to ensure a cooperative working relationship and the successful completion of the necessary tasks. It does not necessarily “change followers’ personal values” nor “develop a deep sense of trust and commitment to the leader”

(Jung and Avolio, 2000, p. 951). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to establish and maintain volunteers’ trust in the competence and fairness of the senior pastor and volunteers’ value congruence with the practices and desired outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional leadership behaviors on volunteers’ extrinsic motivation.


Transformational leaders increase followers’ trust levels by developing their skills and confidence to perform tasks and assume responsibility, by providing support and encouragement when necessary in the face of obstacles, difficulties, and fatigue, and through their own role modeling of desirable behavior and willingness to engage in sacrifice in order to achieve the organizational vision (Bass and

Avolio, 1990; Yukl, 2006). They influence followers to adopt and internalize the leader’s values and vision by providing and communicating a desirable vision and by raising followers’ level of awareness about the importance and value of desired outcomes (Avolio and Bass, 1988; Jung and Avolio, 2000). Jung and Avolio (2000) point out that “value congruence achieved through a value internalization process and demonstrated trust in the leader,” are core mediating aspects of transformational leadership (p. 950). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to increase volunteers’ trust in the character and competence of the senior pastor and to produce change in volunteers’ values and to increase their value congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation.

Study Model

The model presented in Figure 1 is based on self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008) and transactional and transformational leadership theory (Avolio and Bass, 2004; Avolio et al., 1999; Bass, 1985, 1998) and incorporates the mediating variables of volunteer trust (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Jung and Avolio,

2000; Onnen, 1987; Podsakoff et al., 1990) and value congruence (Burns, 1978;


Jung and Avolio, 2000). The model emphasizes the relationship between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors and the

11 extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The independent variable is the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors, and the dependent variable is volunteer motivation. The relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable can be direct or mediated by volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior pastor.

Volunteer trust in senior pastor

Senior pastor transactional leadership behaviors

Volunteer extrinsic motivation

Volunteer value congruence with senior pastor


Senior pastor transformational leadership behaviors

Volunteer intrinsic motivation


Figure 1: A model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.

Transactional Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation

Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transactional leadership behaviors are likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation leadership (Druskat, 1994) and to rate them as effective leaders (Butler and

Herman, 1999). Transactional leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers towards the achievement of desired organizational outcomes (Son, 2003). In the context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of transactional

12 leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers clearly understanding their task descriptions and the desired outcomes for the church that result from the performance of these tasks. Volunteers will perform their tasks so as to achieve the expressed expectations of the senior pastor and to receive the associated contingent rewards including personal recognition and standing within the church. Therefore, the practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce the extrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:

H

1

: The transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more strongly related to volunteer extrinsic motivation than will transformational leadership behaviors.


Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader are likely to have a mediating effect on the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on their performance

(Jung and Avolio, 2000). The leader’s clear specification of tasks, performance expectations, and contingent rewards builds follower trust in the leader (Bass,

1985; Jung and Avolio, 2000) and value congruence with the leader (Jung and

Avolio, 2000). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to establish and maintain volunteer trust in the competence and fairness of the senior pastor and volunteer value congruence with the practices and desired

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 13 outcomes of the senior pastor. This trust and value congruence is likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer extrinsic motivation. Thus:

H

2

: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the impact of the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors on volunteer extrinsic motivation.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors and Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation

Leaders of churches and nonprofit organizations who practice transformational leadership behaviors are also likely to inspire volunteers to be satisfied with their leadership (Druskat, 1994; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008) and to rate them as effective leaders (Onnen, 1987; Butler and Herman, 1999). Transformational leadership behaviors can motivate volunteers towards the achievement of desired organizational outcomes (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003) and congregational satisfaction (Bae, 2001; Rowold, 2008). They are also likely to produce increased volunteer morale and participation (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996), volunteer job satisfaction (Choi, 2006; Rowold, 2008), and volunteer extra effort and effectiveness in task performance (Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).

Transformational leadership behaviors are also likely to enhance positive emotions including joy, pride, admiration, and enthusiasm among volunteers, and to augment the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer satisfaction, extra effort, and rating of leaders’ effectiveness (Rowold and Rohmann, 2009).

In the context of a church congregation, the practice by senior pastors of transformational leadership behaviors is likely to result in volunteers understanding

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 14 and identifying with the importance of the tasks they are undertaking as contributions to the mission of the church. Volunteers will perform their tasks to a degree beyond the expressed expectations of the senior pastor because they are motivated by the vision and values of the church, the personal meaningfulness of their involvement, and the sense of goal attainment and positive feelings that they experience. Therefore, the practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce the intrinsic motivation of volunteers. Thus:

H

3

: The transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors will be more strongly related to volunteer intrinsic motivation than will transactional leadership behaviors.


Follower trust in and value congruence with a leader have been demonstrated to have a mediating effect on the impact of transformational leadership behaviors on their performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir, et al.,

1993). The leader’s clear, attractive, and attainable vision for the organization and demonstrated commitment to the organization and vision inspires follower trust in and value congruence with the leader and motivates them to do more than they originally expected to do (Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Avolio and Bass, 1995; Yukl,

2006). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to increase volunteer trust in the character and competence of the senior pastor and to produce change in volunteer values and to increase their value congruence with the senior pastor. This increased trust and value congruence is

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 15 likely to mediate the impact of the senior pastor’s transformational leadership behaviors on volunteer intrinsic motivation. Thus:

H

4

: Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors will mediate the impact of the transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors on volunteer intrinsic motivation.

Control Variables

In this study, it was likely that the age, gender, and length of tenure of participating volunteers could influence their assessment of their own motivation and of the senior pastor’s leadership. It was also possible that the length of tenure of the senior pastor could influence his or her exercise of leadership behaviors. Also, links between senior pastors’ leadership behaviors and congregational size have been demonstrated (Bae, 2001; Onnen, 1987; Son, 2003). Therefore, the study incorporated the control variables of age, gender, and length of tenure of the volunteer participant, length of tenure of the senior pastor, and congregational size.

Sample and Procedure

Sample

The sample for this study was drawn from volunteers attending and participating in

28 different Australian Christian Churches (ACC) congregations in Australia. The sample consisted of 790 subjects who served in a voluntary capacity within their congregation and who rated the leadership behaviors of their senior pastor. The selection of 28 different ACC congregations was designed to provide responses from volunteers within each of five congregational size categories that ACC recognizes. ACC, also known as the Assemblies of God in Australia, is a

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation fellowship of autonomous churches which had 1,087 registered churches throughout Australia as of May 17, 2010 (ACC, 2010). The 28 congregations represent 2.6% of the total number of ACC congregations. ACC conducts an annual census of all congregations in May. The census collects data on various

16 church activities, including weekend attendance which is measured as the total number of attendees at all services from Friday evening to Sunday evening on one weekend in May each year. ACC categorizes congregational sizes into five categories: (a) under 100 attendees, (b) 100-199 attendees, (c) 200-499 attendees,

(d) 500-999 attendees, and (c) 1000 and more attendees. In 2010, the average size of an ACC congregation was 208 attendees. The majority of congregations had less than 100 attendees. A summary of ACC attendance is displayed in Table 1.

Table 1: ACC Churches by Congregational Size

Year Under 100 100-199 200-499 500-999 1000+ Total

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

713

734

728

757

754

699

162

167

187

170

168

197

126

135

143

144

143

125

37

31

33

36

36

39

24

26

27

26

20

27

1062

1093

1118

1133

1121

1087

Note . Adapted from ACC 2010 Church Census Report , by Australian Christian Churches

National Office, 2010. Copyright 2010 Australian Christian Churches.

Congregations were approached to participate in the study on the basis that they contributed to a representative sample of ACC congregational sizes. The 28 participating congregations together represented each of the five ACC congregational size categories. An average of just over 28 volunteers completed the survey in each of the 28 participating congregations resulting in a total participation

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation of 790 volunteers. A summary of participating congregations and volunteers is displayed in Table 2.

Table 2: Participating Congregations and Volunteers by Congregational Size

17

Size

Under 100

100-199

200-499

500-999

1000+

Total n

8

6

6

4

4

28

Congregation

%

28.6

21.4

21.4

14.3

14.3

100.0 n

127

129

185

198

151

790

Volunteers

%

16.1

16.3

23.4

25.1

19.1

100.0

The sample comprised of 365 males (46.2%) and 425 females (53.8%).

Participating volunteers were well spread over five age categories (Table 3) and most had served as volunteers in their congregation for more than 5 years (Table 4).

Table 3: Demographics—Volunteer Age Groups

Age group n

Under 21

21-30

31-40

41-50

Over 50

90

192

136

123

249

Table 4: Demographics—Volunteer Tenure

Tenure

Less than 1 year

1-5 years

More than 5 years n

68

253

469

%

11.4

24.3

17.2

15.6

31.5

%

8.6

22.0

59.4


Procedure

An initial approach was made to the senior pastors of selected potential participating congregations explaining the study and inviting their participation.

This was followed up with an email detailing the study. As affirmative responses

18 were received, appointments were made for the researcher and/or research assistants to attend a Sunday worship service or a midweek leaders meeting in order to obtain responses from volunteers. During the worship service or leaders’ meeting, a short explanation of the study was made to those in attendance.

Congregational members who served as volunteers in the church were invited to meet with the researcher and/or research assistants after the service or meeting in order to participate in the study.

A Volunteer Response Pack was provided to each participating volunteer, containing: (a) a covering letter, (b) an informed consent form, (c) a personal demographic form, and (d) the questionnaire. The control variables of age, gender, and length of tenure of the subject were incorporated into the demographic form.

The researcher and research assistants helped subjects to complete and submit the survey immediately after the service or meeting.

A Senior Pastor Response Pack was provided to each participating senior pastor, containing: (a) a covering letter; (b) an informed consent form; (c) a personal demographic form; and (4) an adapted version of the questionnaire consisting of 32 items measuring their self-rating of their practice of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors. The control variable of senior pastor tenure was incorporated into and ascertained from the personal demographic form.


Measures

The survey questionnaire employed 56 items for measuring the various proposed effects. The effects measured were: (a) volunteers’ self-assessment of their volunteer motivation, (b) volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors, and (c) volunteers’ selfassessment of their trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor. The 56 items consisted of 12 items adapted from Millette and Gagné (2008) to measure volunteer extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, 32 items adapted from the Multifactor

Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ-5X; Bass and Avolio, 2000) to measure volunteer assessment of the senior pastor’s practice of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors, 6 items adapted from Podsakoff et al. (1990) to measure volunteer trust in the senior pastor, and 6 items adapted from Posner (1992, 2010) and Posner et al. (1985) to measure volunteer value congruence with the senior pastor. Control variables were volunteers’ age, gender, and length of tenure, senior pastors’ length of tenure, and congregational size.

Volunteer Motivation

Volunteers’ assessment of their own motivation to engage in voluntary activity was measured using an adapted form of the Volunteer Motivation scale (VMS), developed by Millette and Gagné (2008), and consisting of 12 items loaded onto the two scales of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation utilizing a 5-point

Likert scale: 0 ( completely disagree ), 1 ( disagree ), 2 ( not sure ), 3 ( agree ), 4

( completely agree ). The reliabilities were α = .76 for extrinsic motivation and α =

.74 for intrinsic motivation.


Transactional and Transformational Leadership Behaviors

Volunteers’ assessment of the senior pastor’s transactional and transformational

20 leadership behaviors was measured using an adapted form of the MLQ-5X Rater

Form consisting of 32 items loaded onto the two leadership scales (Avolio and

Bass, 2004) utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 ( not at all ), 1 ( once in a while ), 2

( sometimes ), 3 ( fairly often ), 4 ( frequently, if not always ). The reliabilities were α =

.68 for transactional leadership and α = .84 for transformational leadership.

Trust

Volunteer trust in the senior pastor was measured using an adapted form of the

Trust in the Leader scale (TLS), developed by Podsakoff et al. (1990), consisting of six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0 ( completely disagree ), 1 ( disagree ), 2 ( not sure ), 3 ( agree ), 4 ( completely agree ). The reliability was α = .76.

Value Congruence

Volunteer value congruence with the senior pastor was measured using an adapted form of the Values Congruency Index (VCI), developed by Posner (1992, 2010), consisting of six items loaded onto the one scale utilizing a 5-point Likert scale: 0

( completely disagree ), 1 ( disagree ), 2 ( not sure ), 3 ( agree ), 4 ( completely agree ).

The reliability was α = .78.

Descriptive Statistics

The mean scores and standard deviations of the independent, dependent, mediating, and control variables and correlations among the variables are shown in Table 5.

Table 5: Mean Scores, Standard Deviations, and Correlations among Study Variables ( N = 790)

Variable M

1. Volunteer age

2. Volunteer gender

3. Volunteer tenure

4. Senior pastor tenure

3.32

1.54

2.51

2.52

5. Congregational size

6. Transactional leadership

3.15

1.69

7. Transformational leadership 3.24

8. Trust 3.63

9. Value congruence

10. Extrinsic motivation

11. Intrinsic motivation

* p

<

.05. ** p

<

.01.

3.62

1.27

3.80

SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1.42 –

.65 .19** .05

.70 -.14** .01

.58 .03

.50 -.07

.46 -.04

.43 -.01

.78 -.06

.50 .02

–

1.34 -.28** -.01 .06

–

.15**

–

.53** –

-.02 .00 .08** -.02

–

.03

-.01

-.01

-.07

-.06

-.03

.02

-.03

-.10** .03

-.10** -.03

.

15** –

-.01 .

66**

–

-.10** -.01

.01 -.04

-02 .

61** .

77**

–

.

25** .02 -.

08** .

09**

–

.67 -.06 .09* .04 .07 .14** .

08** .

32** .

28** .

30** .

16**


Regression Analysis

22

Hierarchical regression analysis was conducted in order to test the four hypotheses.

Examination of Normal Probability Plots (P-P) and scatterplots confirmed the normality and homoscedasticity of the regression residuals for the relationships predicted by all four hypotheses. Examination of the Tolerance and Variance

Inflation Factor (VIF) values for each variable demonstrated the absence of multicollinearity among the independent and control variables. Congregational size was dummy coded to provide a series of dichotomous variables in order to measure its impact on the relationships studied (Hair et al., 2010; Pallant, 2011).

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1, explaining 1.3% of variance in extrinsic motivation. After entry of transactional leadership and transformational leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 7.7% ( F [10, 779] = 6.48, p < .001). The two independent variables of transactional leadership and transformational leadership explained an additional 6.4% of the variance of extrinsic motivation after controlling for the other variables (Δ R 2 = .064, Δ F [2, 779] = 26.90, p < .001). In the final model, two variables were statistically significant, with transactional leadership recording the higher beta value (

β

= .26, p < .01) and volunteer age the lower beta value (

β

= -.08, p < .05). Transactional leadership predicted extrinsic motivation, but transformational leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 6 and 7.


Table 6: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H

1

– Transactional Leadership and Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation

23

Step c

R R

2 ∆

R

2 P

1

2

.114

a

.277

b

.013

.077

.013

.064

.242

.000 a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-

999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size

200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transactional leadership, transformational leadership. c Dependent variable: extrinsic motivation.

Table 7: Regression Coefficients for H

1

– Transactional Leadership and

Transformational Leadership Predicting Extrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B

Volunteer age

Volunteer gender

Volunteer tenure

Senior pastor tenure

Congregational size < 100 (omitted)

Congregational size 100-199



Congregational size ≥ 1000

Volunteer age

Volunteer gender

Volunteer tenure







Transactional leadership

Transformational leadership

Note . Step 1 R 2 = .013; Step 2 R 2 = .077.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Step 1

-.04

-.10

-.02

.04

–

-.01

-.12

-.10

-.17

Step 2

-.04

-.09

-.01

.00

—

-.02

-.10

-.03

-.15

.35

-.04

.02

.06

.04

.05

–

.10

.09

.10

.11

.02

.05

.04

.05

—

.10

.09

.10

.11

.05

.06

Β

-.07

-.07

-.02

.04

–

.00

-.06

-.06

-.09

-.

08*

-.06

-.01

.00

—

-.01

-.05

-.02

-.08

.

26**

-.02


Hypothesis 2

24

Hypothesis 2 was not supported. Trust and value congruence were regressed separately on transactional leadership to determine if it predicted either. In both cases there was no statistically significant effect of transactional leadership. If transactional leadership had been shown to have a statistically significant effect on trust or value congruence, then the following step would have been to test the mediation of trust and value congruence on the relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation. The regression analysis model summaries and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 8 to 11.

Table 8: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H2 – Transactional Leadership

Predicting Trust

Step b

R R

2 ∆

R

2

1 .001

a

.000 .000 a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.

P

.967


2

– Transactional Leadership Predicting

Trust

Variable B SE B

Β

Step 1

TRL

Note . Step 1 R 2 = .000.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

.00 .03 .00


2

– Transactional Leadership

Predicting Value Congruence

Step b

R R

2 ∆

R

2 p

1 .022

a

.000 .000 .540 a Predictor (constant) transactional leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.



2

– Transactional Leadership Predicting

Value Congruence

25

Variable B SE B

β

Step 1

-.02 .03 -.02 Transactional leadership

Note . Model 1 R 2 = .000.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3 was supported. The control variables were entered at Step 1, explaining 3% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of transformational leadership and transactional leadership at Step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 13.3% ( F [10, 779] = 11.99, p < .001). The two independent variables of transformational leadership and transactional leadership explained an additional 10.3% of the variance of IM after controlling for the other variables (Δ R

2

= .103, Δ F [2, 779] = 46.37, p < .001). In the final model, five variables were statistically significant. Transformational leadership recorded the highest beta value

( β = .32, p < .01). The other four statistically significant variables were congregational size 200-499 (

β

= .14, p < .01), congregational size ≥ 1000 (

β

= .13, p < .05), congregational size 500-999 (

β

= .12, p < .05), and volunteer gender (

β

=

.08, p < .05). Transformational leadership predicted intrinsic motivation, but transactional leadership did not do so. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 12 and 13.



3

– Transformational

Leadership and Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Step c

R R

2 ∆

R

2 P

1

2

.174

a

.365

b

.030

.133

.030

.103

.002

.000 a Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size 200-499, congregational size 500-

999, congregational size ≥ 1000. b Predictors (constant) volunteer age, volunteer gender, volunteer tenure, senior pastor tenure, congregational size 100-199, congregational size

200-499, congregational size 500-999, congregational size ≥ 1000, transformational leadership, transactional leadership. Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.


3

– Transformational Leadership and

Transactional Leadership Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B

β

Step 1

Volunteer age

Volunteer gender

Volunteer tenure







Volunteer age

Volunteer gender

Volunteer tenure









Note . Step 1 R 2 = .030; Step 2 R 2 = .133.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Step 2

-.01

.12

.03

-.01

–

.06

.20

.21

.26

-.01

.11

.04

.03

–

.11

.22

.19

.23

.43

.04

.02

.05

.04

.04

–

.09

.08

.09

.10

.02

.04

.04

.04

–

.08

.08

.08

.09

.05

.04

-.03

.

09**

.03

-.01

–

.04

.

13*

.

14*

.

15**

-.02

.

08*

.04

.04

–

.06

.

14**

.

12*

.

13*

.

32**

.03


Hypothesis 4

27

Hypothesis 4 was supported. It was tested by conducting initial regression analyses to determine if transformational leadership predicted trust or value congruence, and then conducting further regression analyses to determine whether trust and value congruence had mediating effects on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. Control variables were not used in these regressions.

Trust was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if transformational leadership predicted trust. This regression explained 43.4% of the variance in trust

(Δ R

2

= .434, Δ F [1, 778] = 604.39, p < .001). Transformational leadership was statistically significant, recording a beta value of .66, p < .01. Transformational leadership significantly predicted trust. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 14 and 15.


4


Leadership Predicting Trust

Step b

R R

2 ∆

R 2 P

1 .659

a .434 .434 a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: trust.

.000

Table 15: Regression Coefficient for H

4

– Transformational Leadership Predicting

Trust

Variable B SE B β

Step 1

.61 .02 .

66** Transformational leadership

Note. Step 1 R 2 = .434.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.


In order to test the mediating effect of trust on the relation between

28 transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation further regression analysis was conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining 10.3% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of trust at Step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 11.2% ( F [2, 787] = 49.60, p < .001). Trust explained an additional 1% of the variance of implicit motivation after controlling for transformational leadership (Δ R

2

= .009, Δ F [1, 787] = 8.16, p < .01). In the final model, transformational leadership (

β

= .24, p < .01) and trust (

β

= .13, p <

.01) were statistically significant. The change in the regression coefficient for transformational leadership indicates the mediation of trust. Transformational leadership had a regression coefficient of .43 ( SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a regression coefficient of .32 ( SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.

The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational leadership regression coefficients (.43, .32) was tested by converting the values to a z score using the formula: z = b

1

– b

2

/ √ SEb

1

+ SEb

2

(Paternoster, Brame,

Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The z score is the standard normal distribution with a mean of 0 and quantifies the score in terms of the number of standard deviations from the mean. The result was z = .43 - .32 / √ .046

2

+ .060

2

= 1.47. Using a 95% confidence level (p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate the likelihood of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = 1.47 falls within this range indicating that the change in the transformational leadership coefficient was not significant although it was substantive.


Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after entry of trust, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for transformational leadership and trust were statistically significant, then trust exerted a partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in

Tables 16 and 17.


4


Leadership and Trust Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Step c

R R

2 ∆

R

2 P

1

2

.321

a

.335

b

.103

.112

.103

.009

.000

.004 a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, trust. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.

Table 17: Regression Coefficient for H

4

– Transformational Leadership and Trust

Predicting Intrinsic Motivation




Trust

Note . Step 1 R

2

= .103; Step 2 R

2

= .112.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Step 1

.43

Step 2

.32

.19

.05

.06

.05 .

.

.

32**

24**

13**

Value congruence was regressed on transformational leadership to determine if transformational leadership predicted value congruence. This regression explained

37.4% of the variance in value congruence (Δ R 2 = .374, Δ F [1, 788] = 471.44, p <


.001). Transformational leadership was statistically significant, recording a beta

30 value of .61, p < .01. Transformational leadership significantly predicted value congruence. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 18 and 19.

Table 18: Regression Analysis Model Summary for H4—Transformational

Leadership Predicting Value Congruence

Step b

R R

2 ∆

R

2 p

1 .612

a

.374 .374 .000 a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Dependent variable: value congruence.


4

—Transformational Leadership Predicting

Value Congruence


Step 1

.53 .02 .

61** Transformational leadership

Note . Step 1 R

2

= .374.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

In order to test the mediating effect of value congruence on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, further regression analysis was conducted. Transformational leadership was entered at Step 1, explaining

10.1% of variance in intrinsic motivation. After entry of value congruence at Step

2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 10.5% ( F [2, 787] =

46.38, p < .001). Value congruence explained an additional .4% of the variance of implicit motivation after controlling for transformational leadership (Δ R

2

= .004, Δ F

[1, 787] = 3.87, p < .05). In the final model, transformational leadership (

β

= .27, p

< .01) and value congruence (

β

= .08, p < .05) were statistically significant. The

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation change in the regression coefficient for transformational leadership indicates the

31 mediation of value congruence. Transformational leadership had a regression coefficient of .43 ( SE = .05, p < .01) at Step 1 and a regression coefficient of .36

( SE = .06, p < .01) at Step 2.

The statistical significance of the difference between the two transformational leadership regression coefficients (.43, .36) was tested by converting the values to a z score using the formula: z = b

1

– b

2

/ √ SEb

1

+ SEb

2

(Paternoster, Brame,

Mazerolle, and Piquero, 1998). The result was z = .43 - .36 / √ .046

2

+ .058

2

= .95.

Using a 95% confidence level ( p = .05), z scores between -1.96 and +1.96 indicate the likelihood of the null hypothesis (Pallant, 2011). The z score of t = .95 falls within this range indicating that the change in the transformational leadership coefficient was not significant although it was substantive.

Because the regression coefficient for transformational leadership was smaller after entry of value congruence, but not significantly smaller, and because the betas for transformational leadership and value congruence were statistically significant, then value congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through value congruence. The regression analysis model summary and regression coefficients are presented in Tables 20 and 21.



4


Leadership and Value Congruence predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Step c

R R

2 ∆

R

2 P

1

2

.318

a

.325

b

.101

.105

.101

.004

.000

.050 a Predictor (constant) transformational leadership. b Predictors (constant) transformational leadership, value congruence. c Dependent variable: intrinsic motivation.

Table 6: Regression Coefficient for H4 – TFL, VC, and I Transformational

Leadership and Value Congruence Predicting Intrinsic Motivation

Variable B SE B

β



Value congruence

Note . Step 1 R

2

= .101; Step 2 R

2

= .105.

* p < .05. ** p < .01.

Step 1

.43

Step 2

.36

.13

.05

.06

.07 .

.

32**

.27

**

08*

Transformational leadership significantly predicted trust and value congruence.

Trust and value congruence both exerted partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust and value congruence.

Summary of Findings

The goal of this study was to examine the relationships between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors of church congregations and the levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation experienced by volunteers within those congregations. It also sought to investigate whether volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors mediated the relationships between

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation. The study expanded on previous

33 theoretical understanding of transactional and transformational leadership in church congregations and similar nonprofit organizations and of volunteer motivation by testing the impact of leadership behaviors on motivation. Previous studies which employed self-determination theory to examine volunteer motivation or which examined transactional and transformational leadership in church and nonprofit settings, had not tested the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. Table 22 summarizes the findings of the study.

Table 7: Summary of Multivariate Results

Variable



Trust

Value congruence

Trust

+

–

Value congruence

+

–

Intrinsic motivation

+

–

+

+

Note . + = significant positive relationship, and – = no significant relationship.

Extrinsic motivation

–

+

Transactional Leadership Behaviors Predict Volunteers’ Extrinsic Motivation

The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer extrinsic motivation, but that transformational leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with transactional leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes an exchange relationship with followers offering rewards for services rendered (Bass, 1985;

Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory which

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation connects extrinsic motivation to external and instrumental motivators (Deci and

34

Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice of transactional leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce extrinsic motivation among volunteers within church congregations.

It is noteworthy that survey subjects rated senior pastors low in transactional leadership ( M = 1.69) and high in transformational leadership ( M = 3.24), and themselves low in extrinsic motivation ( M = 1.27) and high in intrinsic motivation

( M = 3.80). These results indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as more typically exercising transformational rather than transactional leadership behaviors and themselves as more typically experiencing intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation.

Transactional Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting

Volunteer Extrinsic Motivation

The results of regression analysis indicate that the transactional leadership behaviors of senior pastors did not significantly predict volunteer trust in or value congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated no significant positive correlation between transactional leadership and trust or value congruence.

Because transactional leadership did not have a statistically significant effect on trust or value congruence, these two variables did not have a mediating effect on the relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.

These results are not consistent with the findings of Jung and Avolio (2000) that transactional leadership predicts trust and value congruence and that these variables mediate the impact of transactional leadership on follower performance. They are

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation also not consistent with transactional leadership theory which posits that transactional leaders build follower trust and value congruence by engaging in consistent behavior, honoring agreements, sharing mutual values, and acknowledging the abilities and contributions of followers (Bass, 1985; Podsakoff et al., 1990).

The absence of a relationship between transactional leadership and trust and value congruence is likely to be related to the low mean obtained for transactional leadership ( M = 1.69). Survey subjects perceived senior pastors as more typically

35 engaging in transformational ( M = 3.24) rather than transactional leadership behaviors. It is possible that this significant difference in ratings of transformational and transactional leadership is in part related to an implicit leadership theory commonly held by church volunteers (Offermann, Kennedy, and

Wirtz, 1994). Transactional leadership behaviors are practiced by effective senior pastors in order to enable volunteers to clearly understand their task descriptions and the desired outcomes that result from the performance of these tasks (Butler and Herman, 1999; Druskat, 1994; Son, 2003). This is an integral component of congregational leadership which is augmented by transformational behaviors (Bass,

1985; Judge and Piccolo, 2004; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009) and should likely have been rated more highly by subjects (Onnen, 1987).

Offermann et al. (1994) observed that “individuals possess their own naïve, implicit theories of leadership and are readily willing to determine their boundaries and characteristics” (p. 44). Such theories are developed through socialization and past experiences, and represent cognitive schemas specifying traits and behaviors that

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation followers expect from leaders. They are stored in memory and activated when

36 followers interact with a person in a leadership position (Epitropaki and Martin,

2004). These implicit leadership theories provide the basis for follower understanding of and response to leader behavior. The possibility that transformational leadership is the implicit leadership theory for senior pastors among congregational members is consistent with previous findings that church volunteers prefer clergy to exercise transformational leadership behaviors (Bae,

2001; Druskat, 1994; Callahan, 1996; Choi, 2006; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008) and with Christian understandings of leadership as being charismatic and virtuous

(e.g., 1 Corinthians 11:1; Barrett, 1971; Fee, 1987; Morris, 1980).

The existence of an implicit theory of transformational leadership held by church volunteers in regard to clergy is supported by Onnen’s (1987) finding that laity in churches seemed to perceive all clergy as being transformational even when the church was not growing or was declining. She suggested that a “halo” effect was likely to be present when laity rated clergy. A halo effect is present when a rater has a general conception of a person as being at a certain level and therefore possessing certain qualities. In the case of clergy, the role is identified with charisma and virtue as ministers seek to motivate laity through weekly preaching and related activities and are understood to exemplify Christian values. The position of senior pastor is likely to attract a “halo” which results in higher transformational and lower transactional ratings of the incumbent by volunteers, regardless of the actual performance of the senior pastor.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors Predicting Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation


The results of hierarchical regression analysis indicated that the transformational

37 leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predict volunteer intrinsic motivation, but that transactional leadership behaviors do not do so. Correlation analysis also indicated a significant positive correlation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. These results are consistent with transformational leadership theory which posits that such leadership establishes a moral and inspirational relationship with followers which motivates them to work for transcendental goals and for aroused higher-level needs for self-actualization

(Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). They are also consistent with self-determination theory which connects intrinsic motivation to internal motivators to fulfill the needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). The practice of transformational leadership behaviors by senior pastors is likely to reinforce intrinsic motivation among volunteers within church congregations.

Transformational Leadership Behaviors, Trust, and Value Congruence Predicting

Volunteer Intrinsic Motivation

The results of regression analysis indicate that the transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors significantly predicted volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors. Correlation analysis also indicated significant positive correlations between transformational leadership and trust and value congruence. Further regression analysis indicated that both trust and value congruence exerted a partial mediation on the relation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation. This indicated that some, but not all, of the

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation 38 effects of transformational leadership on intrinsic motivation occurred through trust and/or value congruence.

These results are consistent with the findings of Podsakoff et al. (1990), Shamir et al. (1993), and Jung and Avolio (2000) that transformational leadership predicts trust and value congruence and that these variables mediate the impact of transformational leadership on follower performance. They are also consistent with transformational leadership theory which posits that transformational leaders inspire follower trust and value congruence by means of personal example and vision-casting (Bass, 1985; Bennis and Nanus, 1985; Podsakoff et al. 1990).

Survey subjects rated senior pastors high in transformational leadership ( M = 3.24), and themselves high in intrinsic motivation ( M = 3.80), trust ( M = 3.63), and value congruence ( M = 3.62). As well as the significant positive correlations between transformational leadership and trust and value congruence, there were also significant positive correlations between trust and value congruence, trust and intrinsic motivation, and value congruence and intrinsic motivation. These results indicate that volunteers perceived senior pastors as typically exercising transformational leadership behaviors and themselves as typically experiencing trust in and value congruence with senior pastors, as well as intrinsic motivation.

Overview of Findings

Senior pastor transactional leadership behaviors have positive relationships with volunteer extrinsic motivation and transformational leadership behaviors have positive relationships with intrinsic motivation. Volunteer trust in and value congruence with senior pastors has a partial mediation effect on the relationship

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, but not on the

39 relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation.

These results are consistent with transactional and transformational leadership theory (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978) and with self-determination theory (Deci and

Ryan, 2000, 2008). They are also consistent with previous studies which have found that transactional and transformational leadership have positive organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit organizations (Bae;

2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999; Callahan, 1996;

Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994; Johnson, 2007;

Knudsen, 2006; Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Onnen, 1987; Rowold, 2008;

Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003), and that trust and value congruence have mediating effects on the impact of transformational leadership on follower performance (Jung and Avolio, 2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993).

The contribution of this study has been to identify positive relationships between leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, as well as mediating effects of trust and value congruence.

Revised Study Model

A revised study model is presented in Figure 2. It emphasizes the relationship between the transactional and transformational leadership behaviors of senior pastors and the extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of church volunteers. The relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation can be direct or mediated by volunteer trust in and/or value congruence with the senior

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation pastor. The relationship between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation

40 is direct and not mediated.

Senior pastor transactional leadership behaviors

Volunteer extrinsic motivation


Senior pastor transformational leadership behaviors

Volunteer intrinsic motivation


Figure 2: A revised model of the relationships between senior pastor transactional and transformational leadership behaviors and volunteer motivation, with volunteer trust in and value congruence with the senior pastor as mediating variables.

Theoretical Implications

This study contributed to the leadership and motivation literature by: (a) connecting transactional and transformational leadership theory with self-determination theory in order to examine the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation in a nonprofit setting, and thereby demonstrating (b) positive relationships between transactional leadership and extrinsic motivation and transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation, and (c) mediation effects of trust and value congruence on the relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation.


No previous study had examined relationships between transactional and transformational leadership and volunteer motivation in a nonprofit setting. Selfdetermination theory had previously linked volunteer intrinsic motivation to situational variables including social environment and work context (Deci et al.,

1994; Deci and Ryan, 2000, 2008). Environmental conditions that supported satisfaction of volunteers’ needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness were found to predict intrinsic motivation. Millette and Gagné (2008) suggested that leadership behaviour was likely to be an important factor impacting on volunteer

41 motivation while noting that such research had not been conducted. This study employed self-determination theory to conceptualize volunteer motivation, and demonstrated that transactional leadership predicts extrinsic motivation and transformational leadership predicts intrinsic motivation. This finding builds on and adds to existing understanding that transactional and transformational leadership have positive organizational outcomes in church congregations and nonprofit organizations (Bae; 2001; Balswick and Wright, 1988; Butler and Herman, 1999;

Callahan, 1996; Catano et al., 2001; Choi, 2006; Crain-Gully, 2003; Druskat, 1994;

Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Johnson, 2007; Knudsen, 2006; Onnen, 1987;

Rowold, 2008; Rowold and Rohmann, 2009; Son, 2003).

While previous studies had identified that trust and value congruence increase followers’ responsiveness to a leader and task performance (Jung and Avolio,

2000; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Shamir et al., 1993), none had investigated mediation effects of these variables on the relationship between leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. This study demonstrated mediation effects of trust and value

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation congruence on the positive relationship between transformational leadership and

42 intrinsic motivation. The relationship between transformational leadership and intrinsic motivation and the mediation effects of trust and value congruence indicate that transformational leadership augments the impact of transactional leadership on volunteer motivation. Such an augmentation effect had previously been demonstrated in relation to follower performance (Bass, 1985; Judge and

Piccolo, 2004), but not to volunteer motivation. The exercise of transformational leadership behaviors will augment the impact of transactional leadership behaviors on volunteer motivation in nonprofit organizations by inspiring trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation.

Practical Implications

Nonprofit organizations that depend on volunteer workers require leaders who can inspire intrinsic motivation in volunteers (Larsson and Ronnmark, 1996; Riggio et al., 2004). The organizational problems of shorter tenure and poorer task performance are less likely to occur among volunteers in nonprofit organizations where leaders exercise transformational leadership behaviors directed towards the enhancement of volunteer trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation.

Therefore, this study provides the following practical implications for nonprofit organizations: (a) leader selection criteria should incorporate evidence of effective demonstration of transformational leadership behaviors; (b) leader training should incorporate transformational leadership behaviors that enhance volunteer trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation; and (c) leadership strategies should incorporate the goal of building volunteer intrinsic motivation.


Self-determination theory posits that volunteers are motivated to satisfy their innate psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness. As these needs are met through voluntary activity, a volunteer is more likely to be intrinsically motivated and to provide higher quality task performance over a longer period of time (Deci and Ryan, 2008; Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study has shown that transformational leadership predicts trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation, and augments the impact of transactional leadership. Therefore, evidence of effective demonstration of the four interrelated transformational leadership behaviors of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration should be added to the transactional leadership behaviors of contingent reward and management by exception

(Yammarino and Bass, 1990) as core criteria for leader selection.

Training in transformational leadership behaviors should be provided to intending and incumbent organizational leaders. The findings of this study provide components of a transformational leadership training program. It should include training in how transformational leaders motivate volunteers and enhance their task performance. This would counter the tendency to mystify transformational leadership by mainly focusing on the leader’s charismatic qualities and personal characteristics (Jung and Avolio, 2000). Leaders should also be educated in selfdetermination theory and assisted in devising and implementing strategies to inspire volunteers’ intrinsic motivation. Practical training in critical behaviors that build trust, enhance value congruence, and increase intrinsic motivation should be built into a transformational leadership training program.


Study Strengths and Weaknesses

44

A key strength of this study is that it adds to the field of research regarding leadership behavior and volunteer motivation. Previous research had not studied transactional and transformational leadership behaviors as predictors of volunteer motivation (Millette and Gagné, 2008). This study was able to identify positive relationships between leadership behaviors and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation among volunteers.

Another strength of this study was the sample which consisted of 790 subjects from

28 different churches across a range of congregational sizes and rating the leadership behaviors of 28 different senior pastors. Although the congregations were selected to represent different size categories, the subjects were self-selected.

The sample size and its representativeness suggest the findings may generalize to the broader population of church congregations and nonprofit organizations.

A general weakness of this study was the self-reporting of volunteers’ motivation.

The low rating of extrinsic motivation and the high rating of intrinsic motivation across subjects might indicate that the existence of socially desirable responses. In order to limit social desirability response bias, subjects were guaranteed response confidentiality and anonymity. However, some subjects may have responded according to who they would like to be rather than who they actually are. If so, this would likely result in higher intrinsic motivation self-ratings and lower extrinsic motivation self-ratings.

A related weakness was the possible existence of an implicit theory of transformational leadership—a “halo” effect—at work in volunteers as they rated

Senior Pastor Leadership and Volunteer Motivation the leadership of senior pastors. It is likely that subjects gave higher ratings of

45 senior pastors’ transformational leadership and lower ratings of transactional leadership because of their implicit perceptions of the appropriate characteristics of the position of senior pastor.

Another weakness was the quantitative and cross-sectional design of the survey. As a quantitative study, it lacked the qualitative data that might be obtained from interviews and observations. This placed a limit on understanding why subjects provided the ratings that they did. The cross-sectional design did not allow for changes in the key variables and relationships over time.

Directions for Future Research

The results of this study indicate that future research should examine the existence of implicit theories of leadership held by congregational members in regard to clergy and the impact of such perceptions on their ratings of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors. Studies incorporating leaders’ self-ratings and peer ratings, as well as volunteer ratings, of nonprofit organizational leaders’ behaviors are likely to provide greater insight into the exercise of transactional and transformational leadership behaviors.

The relationships between transactional and transformational leadership, trust and value congruence, and extrinsic and intrinsic motivation could be further explored by conducting similar studies in other nonprofit and for-profit organizations. Such studies across other organizations and industries would be needed to verify the findings of this study and to demonstrate whether they can be generalized.


A longitudinal study could examine whether the relationships change over a longer period of time with increasing incumbent tenure. A related longitudinal study could examine whether interventions in the form of transformational leadership training produced stronger relationships with trust, value congruence, and intrinsic motivation.

Finally, future studies should include qualitative research in a mixed methods design with interviews among volunteers in church congregations and other nonprofit settings.

In-depth interviews of a subsample of subjects would provide a richer perspective on why volunteers continue in their roles and what leadership behaviors contribute to the enhancement of intrinsic motivation.


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