2.2 Chemical environment – 2015 - 2020
Revised Draft: March 16, 2015
Andrzej Bytnerowicz, Stanislaw Małek, Ovidiu Badea, Hana Pavlendova, Tibor Priwitzer,
Diana Silaghi
State of Science
Ozone. Globally, ozone (O3) is the most phytotoxic air pollutant with predicted negative effects
on vegetation worldwide (Ainsworth et al., 2012). In the Carpathians O3 concentrations are
characterized by high spatial and temporal variability. Highest O3 concentrations in the
Carpathians occur in the southern Slovakia with concentrations which have not significantly
changed over the last 20 years (Hana Pavlendova, personal communication, 2014). Also in the
Czech Republic elevated O3 concentrations persist in many mountain ranges, including the
Moravskoslesky Beskid Mountains (Northwestern Carpathians). In those highly exposed areas,
O3 maximum hourly concentrations may reach 90 - 100 ppb (Bohumir Lomsky and Vit Sramek,
personal communication, 2013). In the Slovak Carpathians the O3 exposure doses considered
safe for sensitive vegetation (AOT values <10,000 ppb h for forest trees) often were reaching
~30,000 ppb h until 2007. However, recently recorded values have been significantly lower
(Hana Pavlendova, personal communication, 2014). In the last two decades, the lowest O3
levels (summer average less than 40 ppb) occurred in the Retezat Mountains of the Romanian
Southern Carpathians (Silaghi and Badea, 2012). Nevertheless, in these mountains in the last
15 years an increasing trend of O3 concentrations was observed (Silaghi, 2013). During the
same period in other Southern Carpathian ranges, the Bucegi and Piatra Craiului Mountains,
higher (summer averages higher than 40 ppb) and stable O3 levels were recorded (Silaghi et al.,
2013; Diana Silaghi, personal communication, 2014). Red-fruited elderberry (Sambucus
racemosa) is the most common and reliable shrub indicator while Swiss stone pine (Pinus
cembra) is a sensitive tree indicator of O3 phytotoxic effects (Manning, 2005).
Sulfurous and nitrogenous air pollution and deposition. Significant reductions of SO2
concentrations, S deposition and the SO4/NO3 deposition ratio have been observed for about 20
years in the Carpathians. Example from the Slovak Carpathians shows S deposition decreasing
from ~13 kg S ha-1 yr-1 in 1997 to ~6 kg S ha-1 yr-1 in 2013 (Tibor Priwitzer, personal
communication, 2014). During the 2006-2010 period, S and N deposition levels in Southern
Carpathians (Bucegi Mountains) were low with mean values ranging between 2.4 - 7.9 kg S ha-1
yr-1
and 1.1 - 6.6 kg N ha-1 yr-1, respectively (Barbu et al., 2013). In the north-western
Carpathians near the Polish-Czech border experiencing some of the highest levels of N
deposition in Europe (~30 kg N ha-1 yr-1 in mid 1990s), present levels do not exceed 10 kg N ha1
yr-1. At the same time there is an increasing importance of NH4+ over NO3- (Małek, 2010).
Critical loads for nutrient N deposition in the Tatra Mountains have been exceeded both for
forests and meadow ecosystems (Bowman et al., 2008). Current levels of N deposition inhibit
plant growth in acid soils due to a loss of basic cations and increased toxicity of heavy metals in
soil. These chemical factors together with changing climate, especially increasing temperatures
and periods of drought, negatively affect Norway spruce stands and contribute to the observed
bark beetle attacks and decline of forests in the western Carpathians. Air pollution in the
southern Carpathians is generally lower than in the western Carpathians, as indicated by
relatively low air pollution levels in the Romanian Carpathians (Badea et al., 2012). Significant
improvement of forest health condition in Romania was observed in last 10 years and was
attributed to increased precipitation combined with relatively low increase of ambient
temperatures (Ovidiu Badea, personal communication, 2014). However, careful control of the
Carpathian chemical environment is needed since even at relatively low levels of air pollutants
and atmospheric deposition negatively effects on forest health and growth could take place due
to interactive effects with other factors, such as extreme climatic events or pest and pathogens
attacks.
Water chemistry. The chemical composition of the Carpathian spring, stream and runoff water
shows a great diversity as a result of geological structures and water-bearing horizon lithology
and forest management (Żelazny et al., 2011). In addition, changes in discharge during flood
events affect chemical characteristics of water and concentrations of various ions. Recent
surface sediments in the high elevation southern Carpathian lakes in Romania showed elevated
levels of selected heavy metals, probably affected by an increased atmospheric deposition of
particulate matter from the long-range transport of polluted air masses.
Recommendations for future research:
(1) Develop common Carpathian Mountains monitoring system of air pollution (O 3, NO2, SO2,
NH3) and deposition (especially N, S, heavy metals). This could be done by expansion of the
ICP Forests Level I and II plots.
(2) Efforts for evaluation of critical loads for N and S deposition and acidity as well as critical
levels for O3 exposures should be continued and expanded.
(3) More extensive surveys are needed and a better understanding of the long-term ozone
effects on plant growth and reproduction in relation to biodiversity should be obtained.
(4) Both ecosystem-level research and large-scale studies are needed to understand spatial
distribution of N and S pollution and mechanisms of its impact on ecosystems, especially related
to Norway spruce dieback.
(5) Water chemistry related to natural and anthropogenic processes across the Carpathians
should be further investigated.
(6) Establish a centralized depository for the environmental chemistry monitoring data from
Carpathians and recommendations for field and laboratory procedures.
(7) International research and monitoring collaboration between the Carpathian Region and
other mountainous regions of Europe and North America should be expanded.
References:
Ainsworth, E.E., Yendrek, C.R., Sitch, S., Collins, W.J. , Emberson, L.D. 2012. The effects of
tropospheric ozone on net primary productivity and implications for climate change. Annu.
Rev. Plant Biol., 63, 637-661.
Badea., O. Bytnerowicz, A., Silaghi, D., Neagu, S., Barbu, I., Iacoban, C., Iacob, C., Guiman,
G., Preda, E., Seceleanu, I., Oneata, M., Dumitru, I., Huber, V., Iuncu, H., Dinca, L.,
Leca, S., Taut, I. 2012. Status of the Southern Carpathian forests in the long-term
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Barbu, I., C. Iacoban, G. Guiman and C. Iacob. 2013. Chapter 3.7. Atmospheric Deposition and
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Forest Ecosystems of Bucegi Natural Park. Ed. Silvica, Bucharest, pp 127-168
Bowman, W. D., Cleveland, C. C., Halada, L., Juraj Hresko, Baron, J. S,. 2008. Negative
impact of nitrogen deposition on soil buffering capacity. Nature Geoscience 1, 767 –
770.
Małek, S., 2010. Nutrient fluxes in planted Norway spruce stands of different age in Southern
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Manning, W. J. 2005. Pinus cembra, a long term bioindicator for ambient ozone in subalpine
regions of the Carpathian Mountains. Polish Botanical Studies, 19, 59-64.
Silaghi, D. 2013. Research on the state of forest ecosystems in Retezat National Park under the
influence of atmospheric pollution and other stress factors. PhD Thesis, Transilvania
University of Brasov, Romania.
Silaghi, D. and O. Badea. 2013. Monitoring of Ozone in Selected Forest Ecosystems in
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Silaghi, D., O. Badea, S. Neagu, C. Iacob and G. Guiman. 2013. 3.6. Air Quality. In: O. Badea
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Żelazny, M., Astel, A., Wolanin, A., Małek, S., 2011. Spatiotemporal dynamics of spring and
stream water chemistry in a high- mountain area. Environmental Pollution 159, 10481057.