Lesson Objectives
Explain where organisms get the energy they need for life processes.
Define cellular respiration.
Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Lesson Summary
Chemical energy is stored in _______________.
Energy is released when ________________ in food molecules are broken.
Energy is measured in a unit called a ____________, the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1 gram of water 1 degree Celsius.
__________ store more energy per gram than do ___________ and ___________.
________________________ is the process that releases energy from food in the presence of
oxygen.
Cellular respiration captures the energy from food in three main stages:
 ____________
 ______________
 _____________________
______________ does not require oxygen. The _________ cycle and __________ transport
chain both require oxygen.
 ____________ pathways are processes that require oxygen.
 _____________ pathways are processes that occur without oxygen.
The energy in _________________ and ____________________ flows in opposite directions. Their
equations are the reverse of each other.
Photosynthesis removes ______________ from the atmosphere, and _________________ puts it
back.
Photosynthesis releases ________________ into the atmosphere, and cellular respiration uses
oxygen to release __________ from food.
Lesson Summary
Chlorophyll and Chloroplasts In _____________, photosynthesis occurs in organelles
called ____________. Chloroplasts house __________________________.
Light is a form of energy. Sunlight is a mixture of all the different colors of _____________.
Light-absorbing molecules called ___________ capture the sun’s energy.
______________ is the principal pigment in photosynthetic organisms. Chlorophyll absorbs
_________________ and ___________________ but reflects _______________light.
Chloroplasts have a complex internal structure that includes:
 _________________: saclike photosynthetic membranes that contain chlorophyll and other
pigments and are arranged in stacks called grana.
 _________________: the fluid portion outside of the thylakoids.
High-Energy Electrons The energy in light raises some of the _______________ in
chlorophyll to higher energy levels. These high-energy _______________ are used in
photosynthesis.
Electron carriers are used to transport the electrons from chlorophyll to other molecules during
photosynthesis.
_______________ is a compound that can accept and hold 2 high-energy electrons and 1
hydrogen ion. This process converts NADP+ into NADPH.
An Overview of Photosynthesis Usually summarized by a simple chemical reaction,
photosynthesis is a complex process that involves two interdependent sets of reactions.
The _________________________ require light, light-absorbing pigments, and water to form
NADPH, ATP, and oxygen.
The _________________________ do not use light energy. They use carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere, NADPH, and ATP to make energy-rich carbon compounds.
Lesson Summary 11.2
Probability and Punnett Squares ___________ is the likelihood that a particular
event will occur. Probability predicts the recombination of alleles:
Of an allele pair, the probability of each allele in a gamete is ½, or 50 percent.
Organisms that have two identical alleles for a gene are _______________ for that trait. If
they have different alleles for the same gene, they are ________________ for that trait.
Physical traits are an organism’s _________________. Its ______________ is its genetic
makeup.
A _________________________ is a mathematical tool that helps predict combinations in
genetic crosses.
A Summary of Mendel’s Principles
___________ are passed on from parents and determine traits.
Where two or more alleles for a gene exist, some may be _____________ and others
__________________.
In _______________ reproducing organisms, _____________ receive a copy of each gene from
each parent. The alleles ____________ when forming gametes.
Alleles for different genes usually segregate independently.
Lesson Summary 11.3
Beyond Dominant and Recessive Alleles Some alleles are neither
dominant nor recessive:
In cases of _____________________, neither allele is completely dominant over the other.
The phenotype is a blend of the two homozygous phenotypes.
In cases of ___________________, both alleles in the heterozygous genotype are
expressed in the phenotypes.
Genes with _____________________ have more than two forms of the same gene.
There may be more than one dominant form and several different phenotypes.
____________________ are controlled by the interaction of two or more genes and
exhibit a wide range of phenotypes.
Use the following genotypes to complete the Punnett square below. Use page 316 in your
textbook as a reference to complete the test cross. Answer the questions about the offspring
when you have finished the test cross.
P1 Ss
P2 ss
1. What percentage of the offspring will be homozygous?
2. What percentage of the offspring will be heterozygous?
3. What percentage of the offspring will Show the dominant trait?
4. What percentage of the offspring will Show the recessive trait?
11.4 Meiosis
Lesson Summary
______________________ chromosomes are pairs of chromosomes that correspond in body cells.
One chromosome for each pair comes from ________________.
A cell that contains both sets of homologous chromosomes has a ______________ number of
chromosomes (meaning “_____________”).
____________ cells contain only one set of chromosomes.
____________ (sex cells sperm and egg) are haploid.
_______________ is the process that separates homologous pairs of chromosomes in a diploid cell,
forming a haploid gamete (sex cell). The phases are as follows:
Meiosis I: which is preceded by a replication of chromosomes. Its stages are
 Four __________ cells form. They are the ____________.
 During sexual reproductive fertilization, two gametes unite forming a ____________.
Comparing Meiosis and Mitosis
Mitosis is one cell division that results in _________ genetically _________ diploid cells.
Meiosis is two cell divisions that result in ________ genetically __________ haploid cells.
Darwin describes and provides evidence for his explanation of how ____________ occurs. He called
this process ______________ because of its similarities to artificial selection. Darwin’s theory of
evolution by natural selection can be summed up as follows:
More offspring are _______________ than can survive to reproduce. There is _______________ for
limited resources, or a struggle for existence.
Individuals exhibit __________________ in their traits and some of these differences can be passed
on to their ______________.
Adaptations are inherited traits that increase an organism’s ability to ______________ and
___________
Differences among adaptations affect an individual’s ___________—the ability to survive and
reproduce in a specific environment.
Only the ______________ organisms live to reproduce and pass on their adaptive traits to offspring.
This is known as the _________________________.
From generation to generation, populations continue to ______________ as they become better
adapted, or as their _______________ changes.
Darwin argued that all species are descended, with ________________, from common ancestors.
Section 16.4 guided notes
_____________________ is the study of where organisms live now and where they and their
ancestors lived in the past. Two biogeographical patterns are significant to Darwin’s theory:
The first is a pattern in which closely related species differentiate in slightly different
______________. The Galápagos tortoises and finches follow this pattern.
The second is a pattern in which very distantly related species develop similarities in similar
_________________. The rheas, ostriches, and emus fall into this pattern.
Section 17.2
_______________________ takes place when individuals at one end of the bell curve
have higher fitness than those near the middle or at the other end of the curve. For
example, when large seeds are plentiful, large-beaked birds in a population may be
selected for.
_____________________ takes place when individuals near the middle of the curve have
higher fitness than individuals at either end.
______________________ takes place when individuals at the upper and lower ends of
the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle.
In small populations, alleles can become more or less common simply by chance. This kind of
change in allele frequency is called ___________________
The ____________________ is a change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction
in the size of a population.
The ____________________ is a change in allele frequency that may occur when a few
individuals from a population migrate to and colonize a new habitat.
If allele frequencies in a population do not change, the population is in ____________________.
Evolution is not taking place.
The __________________________ states that allele frequencies in a population should
remain constant unless one or more factors cause those frequencies to change. These factors
include: non-random mating, small population size, immigration or emigration, mutations,
and natural selection.
Populations are rarely in genetic equilibrium. Most of the time, evolution is occurring. For
example, many species exhibit non-random mating patterns. _____________________, or
the process in which an individual chooses its mate based on heritable traits (such as size or
strength), is a common practice for many organisms.
Radioactive dating techniques have confirmed that Earth is ancient—approximately
___________________________ years old.
Recent fossil finds document ___________________ stages in the evolution of many groups
including whales, birds, and mammals.
_____________________ are shared by related species and have been inherited from a common
ancestor. Similarities and differences among homologous structures help determine how recently
two groups shared a common ancestor.
 Body parts that share a common function, but neither structure nor common ancestry, are
called ___________________________.
 Homologous structures that are greatly reduced in size or have little to no function are called
________________________.
 Many homologous structures develop in the same order and in similar patterns during the
_________________, or pre-birth, stages of related groups. These similarities provide further
evidence that the animals share common ancestors.
At the molecular level, the __________________________ and homologous molecules such as DNA
and proteins provide evidence of common descent.
Scientists have designed experiments to test natural selection. Observations of Galápagos finches
confirm that ____________________________ and __________________________ drive natural
selection.
Assigning Scientific Names To study Earth’s great diversity of organisms, biologists
must give each organism a name. Biologists also must organize living things into groups in a
logical way. Therefore, biologists need a classification system. The science of naming and
grouping organisms is called _____________.
In the 1730s, Carolus Linnaeus developed a naming system, called ____________________
______________________.
In binomial nomenclature, each species is assigned a two-part scientific name:
The first part of the name refers to the ____________, or a group of similar species.
The second part of the name is unique to each _______________.
Linnaean Classification System Linnaeus’s system of classification has seven different
levels. From smallest to largest, the levels are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and
kingdom. Each of the ranking levels is called a __________.
Just as a genus is a group of similar species, a _____________ is a group of similar genera.
An __________ is a group of similar families.
A __________ is a group of similar orders.
A __________is a group of similar classes.
A _________ is a group of similar phyla.