Teacher
instructions
Activities to help pupils process
information.
Try these strategies!
1) An advance organiser
Information processing skills help pupils to
locate and collect relevant information, to sort,
classify, sequence, compare and contrast and
to analyse part/whole relationships. This can
also help pupils understand more about the
way scientists work.
In science, teachers should plan for pupils to:


2) Analogies
3) Classifying
4) Collective Memory
5) Living Graphs
Locate and collect relevant information – for
example, when they are researching the
nature of the solar system, or studying a
habitat and collecting biotic and abiotic
information using both dataloggers and other
records.
6) Mysteries
Sort, classify and sequence – for example,
when they order the stages in the evolution of
the atmosphere or when they identify
organisms and classify them and use them to
construct possible food webs.
9) Summarising

Compare and contrast – for example, when
they are comparing u values, or contrasting
different environmental effects on health.

Analyse part/whole relationships – for
example, when they are predicting how the
mass of a planet will affect the relative size of
the gravitational force on it, or identifying
producers and consumers and recognising
their role in the maintenance of the ecosystem
of a pond.
7) Reading Images
8) Relational Diagrams
10) DARTs activities
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The following activities could all be done in one
lesson or split into separate activities and spread
over more than one lesson.
Other types of advance organiser include the
following:

Target or learning outcome sheets, concept
maps or spider diagrams. Pupils use different
colours to show what they fully, partly or don’t
understand and/or annotate with links to other
topics.

Narrative on a contemporary issue or a
cartoon strip that is relevant to the topic.
Discuss: ‘What is the big question this raises?’
Collect in from different groups and review
throughout the topic.

Two pieces of work, eg conclusions from an
investigation – one simple and one detailed
(use of scientific concepts, language,
explanation, justification) – are compared and
contrasted. The differences form the advance
organiser for the topic.

Concept type cartoons where pupils ‘traffic
light’ their responses and annotate the cartoon
as they work through the topic.

The history related to a development of
science concept/theory eg gravity. Pupils act
out different parts and then annotate a
relevant worksheet or diagram to explain what
is happening using the different historical
theories, eg putting forces arrows on a
diagram of a ball being thrown in the air
according to the respective theories of
Aristotle, Buridan, Galileo and Newton.
1. Advanced organiser
Because science is usually taught in topics, pupils
frequently do not make links between the different
areas of knowledge. Advance organisers are
devices used to enable pupils to make links to a
topic through what they already know. They are
organisational frameworks that teachers present
to pupils before teaching a topic to prepare them
for what they are about to learn. It could be: a
handout outlining what will be covered in the topic;
concept map; spider diagram; flow chart; story or
anecdote; or study guide. The chosen advance
organiser should help pupils access what they
already know about a topic and focus them on the
new information.
One type of organiser that could be used is a
circus of experiments, eg separation techniques,
electric circuits, pressure (egg in a bottle,
collapsing can, ice cube with end-weighted copper
wire laid across it, fizzy antacid tablet in a film
canister, etc) that give an overview of the science
that will be covered in the topic. Pupils try each
one and fill in a KWL grid (see below). The first
column makes links to existing knowledge, the
middle one is for questions or statements raised
by doing the experiment and, at the end of the
lesson/topic, the answers to the questions are
written in the last box.
What I already
Know (K)
What I Want
to know (W)
What I have
Learned (L)
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2. Analogies
Analogies are used extensively in science to
support and enhance learning. They provide
powerful ways to make complex ideas more
accessible because they help pupils to build their
understanding of new concepts by identifying
similarities with their everyday experiences. Many
teachers of science are very skilful at using the
visual images that analogies evoke to make the
science ‘come alive’ for the pupils.
However, pupils can cling to a too literal
interpretation of the analogy, which may lead to
misconceptions or confusion if they try to make it
explain all aspects of the concept. eg the use
lorries delivering loads to illustrate an electric
circuit can reinforce the idea that ‘electricity is
used up’ Teachers need to help pupils to
recognise the strengths and weaknesses of a
model and the notion of a ‘good enough’ model ie
it isn’t perfect but it helps explain ‘this bit’.
Some common analogies used:
Biology
Chemistry
Physics
Squeezing a toothpaste tube
to show peristalsis.
Representing different sorts of
rock by different sorts of
biscuits.
Using money or blocks to
represent energy as it is
transferred.
Visking tubing to represent the
small intestine and how the
products of digestion are
diffused.
Using sweets to represent:
elements (toffees); mixtures
(toffees and mints);
compounds (mint toffees).
Coloured balls, with velcro
strips attached to those balls
of one particular colour, and a
felt screen of that colour to
demonstrate reflection and
absorption of coloured light.
Anatomical models of the
organs of the body.
Balls connected by springs
to represent atoms in solids.
Using limbs to illustrate
different types of lever.
Balloons in a bell jar to show
how the lungs inflate.
Frying eggs to represent
a chemical change.
Explaining how magnets
behave using the domain
theory.
Food webs to represent
feeding relationships.
Representing the kinetic
theory using ‘play pool’ balls
and a large bed sheet.
Wave machines and/or a
‘slinky’ to illustrate longitudinal
sound waves.
A badminton net and differentsized balls to show the action
of a semi-permeable
membrane.
Melted butter mixed with
popcorn to represent the
states of matter: cooled –
solid; heated gently – liquid;
heated until the popcorn starts
to pop – gas.
Cartoon pictures of runners to
represent the flow of charges
in an electric current with
obstacles to represent
resistance.
Comparing digestive enzymes
with scissors.
Inside of an atom is like the
solar system.
Contrasting the eye and the
camera.
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3. Classifying
Classification has particular meanings within
science, eg classifying living things into the major
taxonomic groups, classifying solids, liquids and
gases or elements, compounds and mixtures.
However, the strategy can and should be used
more widely to introduce cognitive conflict and to
develop and challenge pupils’ understanding of
science, for example, helping pupils to develop
their understanding of investigative skills and
techniques. The essential feature of the
‘Classifying’ strategy is that pupils should be given
the opportunity to devise their own categories,
rather than simply working with those provided by
their teacher or agreed by the science community.
This is very important for encouraging the
formation of concepts through language. Many
card-sort activities are forms of classification and it
is important that pupils justify their decisions and
explain their thinking.

an organisational chart or ‘tree diagram’ for all
living things, or rock types

annotated diagrams of the rock cycle/carbon
cycle/nitrogen cycle

a simplified version of the periodic table
showing selected elements, atomic and mass
numbers, location of metals, noble gases,
halogens, etc

a food web

a diagram of the human digestive system

a flow chart of the stages of an investigation

identifying and then classifying variables in an
investigation
a ‘Heath Robinson’ type drawing showing
levers, pivots, gears, falling weights, etc

classifying ‘evidence’ eg strong, weak, reliable,
accurate
a table showing the properties of the planets
in the solar system

providing a range of statements about, for
example, smoking, nuclear power or global
warming, for pupils to classify eg fact vs
opinion.
a concept map of a topic to be covered,
used first to introduce the topic, then reused
when the topic is reviewed, with annotated
links added

an annotated velocity–time graph for a journey
to school

another way of using the strategy to good
effect is to illustrate associated science ideas
that pupils need to remember as below. Pupils
need to make sense of the colour and shape
coding, and so make the connections between
the different ways of describing each material.
grouping statements about the Big Bang
Theory or chemical reactions

developing a system of classifying words
relating to evolution

reviewing prior knowledge of the differences
between acids and alkalis or contact and noncontact forces

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Examples that could be used include:
an unfamiliar arrangement of science
apparatus -picture or the actual equipment


The ‘Collective memory’ strategy is particularly
effective in science because pupils are expected
to make extensive use of visual representations
such as diagrams, graphs, tables and flow charts.
Observation is an important scientific skill and this
strategy can help pupils to make that crucial
distinction between looking and seeing while
developing ways of making sense of visual
representations quickly.

Some examples could be:

the next representative from the group looks at the
map for 10 seconds. After each turn, groups
reflect and plan the next visit. After a few turns
each, pupils are asked to compare their versions
with the original.
ranking statements about the effects of human
activity on the environment
4. Collective memory
In this strategy pupils work in small teams to
recreate a picture, diagram, photograph or
arrangement of apparatus. Each team sends one
member at a time to look at the ‘image’ for 10
seconds. They return to their group and start to
reproduce the original. After a short period of time,
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5.
mixture
liquid
Density
=1
air
solid
compound
element
gas
iron
Density
= 0.0013
Density = 8
water
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5. Living graphs
Living graphs relate to graphical representation
and requires pupils to consider how one variable
relates to another, such as the heart rate of a
football player over the period of a match. A line
graph is presented, together with a set of related
statements. Pupils have to position the statements
on the graph and give reasons to justify their
decisions.
Pupils work in groups to read and sort the
statements, link information on different cards and
come up with a solution to the mystery question.
Later they are asked to explain their answer.
Mysteries can provide a stimulating way to
introduce some of the history of scientific
development to pupils in science. Careful
selection of both the subject and the content is
needed, together with follow-up probing questions
if pupils’ interest is to be focused on the science
involved, rather than the process of reordering the
information cards. Books about scientific
developments which are age-appropriate need to
be used to find areas of ambiguity or uncertainty.

Use examples from ‘real’ investigations, with
pupils annotating to explain the shape of the
graph eg the shape of the line after
dataloggers were used to measure the noise
levels in a bird’s nest during a 24-hour period.

Stages in human and animal development, eg
frog spawn to adult frogs by plotting time
against population size and placing statements
such as ‘moving out of the water’, ‘increase in
the number of water fleas’ or ‘sewage leakage
into the water’.


Plotting the number of teeth against age for a
human with statements like ‘awake crying all
night’, ‘can eat rump steak’ or ‘£1 richer today’.

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A velocity–time graph may be used for a car,
train, walking or other journey if the scales of
the axes are changed. Pupils could be asked
to develop imaginative explanations of the
shape of the curve which then need to be
justified in the light of the evidence. Allow for
different interpretations.

Mapping the population of an endangered
species and its main predators over time, or
the population of the UK over the last 1000
years, and explaining what could be
happening at each part of the graph.
An alternative to the use of cards containing
information is to present the information as
images either using ICT or practical evidence,
for example, ‘Why did The Earl of
Abergavenny sink?’, or ‘Why some pineapple
jelly does not set’ (see Earl of Abergavenny)
provides an alternative approach to a mystery.
For this to be most effective, careful timing is
needed to ensure that pupils are able to
understand the developing story and consider
how the evidence is used to either support or
discredit some possible explanations.

Statements about possible reasons for the
dinosaurs dying out (see dinosaur extinction
mystery).

A mixture of facts and opinions about smoking
(or taking drugs) from which pupils have to
select those which are most likely to have the
desired impact in a health promotion campaign
aiming to deter teenagers from smoking (or
taking drugs).

Some facts about inherited genetic disorders,
hereditary characteristics and infertility
statistics from which pupils construct different
sides of a debate based on the question:
‘Should parents be allowed to produce
“Designer Babies”?’

Considering information about climate change

Graphs showing progress of scientific
discoveries based on advances in technology,
eg in space exploration.
6. Mysteries
In a In a mystery pupils are presented with
between 15 and 20 items of data on slips of paper
about a situation where there is a single open
question or problem for them to resolve. The
statements can be general or background
information, specific details and sometimes ‘red
herrings’ or irrelevant information, but always
there is an element of uncertainty or ambiguity.
Some mystery ideas that might be considered
are:
– Who invented the periodic table?
–
Was it Watson, or Crick, or Franklin?
–
Where was Pangaea?
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presented on cards headed: Widely accepted
facts, What is likely to happen? and
Uncertainties. Using these cards, groups of
pupils consider the question: ‘Is the human
race responsible for climate change?
observations.

Show two pictures and asking pupils for the
connection(s) between them, for example, a
flooded town and a poster that says ‘Turn off
the lights and save energy’, or smog in cities of
the 1950s and dying trees in Scandinavia, or
the aurora borealis and a magnet.

Present the results of an experiment, for
example, electrolysis and get pupils to have a
look at the clues in the apparatus to discuss
what could have happened and why.

A set of photographs that pupils use to make
either a case for something or opposing cases
for the same issue, for example, images
relating to life on Mars (different images of
Mars and what they represent).

Pictures of famous scientists which contain
clues that might help pupils to match them to
brief descriptions of what the scientist did and
enable them to justify their answers.
7. Reading images
This very basic but powerful technique involves
providing pupils with a photograph or other visual
image (reproduced with a white border) as a
source of information and asking them to annotate
or label it. They are asked to make links to what
they already know, whether from previous work or
general knowledge, and should suggest a title or
overall heading for the image. There are variations
around this basic approach but it is important for
pupils to be able to explain their thinking to others.
The ‘Reading images’ strategy is effective in
science because observation, looking for patterns,
making inferences and connections, and creative
thinking are important scientific skills that pupils
need to develop. Science uses a wide range of
images such as apparatus, photographs,
photomicrographs and diagrams; this strategy can
help pupils to process this visual information more
actively.

Pupils could be given a set of photographs, for
example, showing different habitats which they
annotate with, for example, links to anything
they have learned in the topic, questions that
the image might raise, or labels.

Pupils could be given a set of images about
different chemical processes or people with a
range of diseases. Group 1 devises some
questions raised by the photographs, group 2
answers the questions, group 3 checks the
answers and group 4 adds solutions or further
things to try.

Use a ‘Concept cartoon’ as an image which a
pair of pupils annotate, pass to the next pair
for further annotations, and so on.

Microscope images – either from the Internet,
via a video microscope or using large close-up
photographs – which pupils discuss and
decide a title for.

An advert that uses ‘science’ to sell it and use
of the 5Ws (Who, What, Where, Why, When)
method to structure more in-depth
8. Relational diagrams
Relational diagrams provide a clear and accurate
medium through which pupils can communicate
their thinking. They illustrate the meaning that
pupils give to terms that stand for classes of
objects or concepts. Pupils are able to use
overlapping, separate or subsumed shapes to
show whether all, some or none of the terms of a
particular class belong to another class. The visual
simplicity of relational diagrams makes the
explanation of the relationships easy to
understand and more likely to be remembered.
The ‘Relational diagrams’ strategy can be a good
way for pupils to communicate and explore their
understanding of many related science terms.
Scientific terminology can often be challenging for
pupils so this visual approach can clarify the
similarities and differences between the terms and
allow misunderstandings to be addressed.
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This approach is best modelled first using
common and familiar terms, such as rabbits, pets
and mammals, with the teacher talking through the
construction of the relational diagram.
Mammals
Rabbits
Pets
involves making inferences to fill in things that are
not stated and synthesising information to give the
main gist.
‘Summarising’ is a strategy that is important in
science because it helps pupils to condense and
convey meaning by selecting relevant information
and identifying relationships between ideas. Note
taking and drawing conclusions from first-hand or
secondary data are areas of science that many
pupils find difficult and which could be developed
through the use of this strategy.





1. Delete unwanted detail and still keep
overall sense
Give pupils a different set of three related
terms, for example elements, compounds and
mixtures and be asked to express their
relationship using shapes.
As an extension, pupils could be asked to
place examples in the different shapes and
explain what the boundary signifies or what
distinguishes one area from another.
Another variation would be to use the
diagrams to compare two different scientific
theories about the same thing, for example,
the origins of decay by spontaneous
generation or the action of micro-organisms, or
different theories about the extinction of the
dinosaurs.
Some other collective nouns that could be
used to draw relational diagrams include:
–
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic
rocks
–
variables which are measured, controlled,
and could have been controlled
–
conduction, convection, radiation
–
protons, neutrons,electrons.
9. Summarising
Effective summarising means selecting salient
points and presenting them in a concise and
ordered manner. Pupils who tend to give narrative
accounts when they summarise need to make the
step to sifting out themes and main messages.
The basic idea is for pupils to find the main
threads in the information and make connections
between these threads. Summarising usually
Use the 5 step approach
2. Delete repeated information
3. Replace detail with more general terms/
description
4. Select or create a topic sentence
5. Check there is sufficient detail to make
sense.

Use different types of summary frames which
consist of a series of questions designed to
help pupils to elicit the most important pieces
of information.
Problem Frame. What is the problem? What
could a possible solution be? Is there another
possible solution? Which solution has the best
possible chance of succeeding? Can you
summarise this in 2–4 sentences?
Argument Frame. What information allows
the claim to be made? What is being asserted
as true? What information supports the claim?
What information does not support the claim?
Can you summarise this in 2–4 sentences?
Topic–Restriction–Illustration. What is a
general statement about the topic? How is the
information then limited to a specific aspect?
What examples are used to support the
specific aspect? Can you summarise this in 2–
4 sentences?
Definition Frame. What is being defined?
What category or group does it belong to?
What characteristics set it apart from other
things in the category? Are there different
sorts of the item being defined? Can you
summarise this in 2–4 sentences?
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Instructional Frame. What are you trying to
do? What do you need? What is the first thing
you do? What do you do next? And what do
you do after that?
The work is shared and supportive and so aids
the less able.

The tasks enable pupils to go beyond the
literal level of understanding.

Use information to make a concept map or
construct a flow chart.


Excellent way to introduce a new topic, revise
or consolidate previous learning.
Provide pupils with examples of different
conclusions or explanations and ask them to
identify the strengths and weaknesses of each
one.

Cut text into chunks and ask pupils to
reconstruct it.

Directed activities related to text (DARTS) are an
active reading strategy to engage pupils actively
with the written material.
Underline different aspects of the text e.g. blue
for evidence that supports argument, red for
evidence against, green for opinion, black for
facts.

Ask pupils to change information into a
different format eg put into a table, flow chart,
diagram.

They have a problem-solving feel.


Often kinaesthetic, as pupils manipulate text,
often physically.
Remove some or all labels from a diagram and
ask pupils to add these.

Change some words in a scientific passage to
ones that are less appropriate and ask pupils
to suggest better alternatives.

Pupils predict deleted words or phrases.

Cut process into steps and ask pupils to put
into a logical sequence.
10. Darts activities

Pupils collaborate and cooperate to solve
problems.

Help to internalise learning.

Pupils are encouraged to be analytical.

Pupils interact with text and not practising poor
reading skills, if they are weak readers.
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