Earthquake
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Earthquake earthquake, trembling or shaking movement of the earth\'s surface. Most
earthquakes are minor tremors. Larger earthquakes usually begin with slight tremors but
rapidly take the form of one or more violent shocks, and end in vibrations of gradually
diminishing force called aftershocks. The subterranean point of origin of an earthquake is
called its focus; the point on the surface directly above the focus is the epicenter. The
magnitude and intensity of an earthquake is determined by the use of scales, e.g., the
Richter scale and the Mercalli scale. Causes of Earthquakes Most earthquakes are causally
related to compressional or tensional stresses built up at the margins of the huge moving
lithospheric plates that make up the earth\'s surface (see lithosphere). The immediate cause
of most shallow earthquakes is the sudden release of stress along a fault, or fracture in the
earth\'s crust, resulting in movement of the opposing blocks of rock past one another. These
movements cause vibrations to pass through and around the earth in wave form, just as
ripples are generated when a pebble is dropped into water. Volcanic eruptions, rockfalls,
landslides, and explosions can also cause a quake, but most of these are of only local
extent. Shock waves from a powerful earthquake can trigger smaller earthquakes in a distant
location hundreds of miles away if the geologic conditions are favorable. See also plate
tectonics. Seismic Waves There are several types of earthquake waves including P, or
primary, waves, which are compressional and travel fastest; and S, or secondary, waves,
which are transverse, i.e., they cause the earth to vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of
their motion. Surface waves consist of several major types and are called L, or long, waves.
Since the velocities of the P and S waves are affected by changes in the density and rigidity
of the material through which they pass, the boundaries between the regions of the earth
known as the crust, mantle, and core have been discerned by seismologists, scientists who
deal with the analysis and interpretation of earthquake waves (see earth). Seismographs
(see seismology) are used to record P, S, and L waves. The disappearance of S waves
below depths of 1,800 mi (2,900 km) indicates that at least the outer part of the earth\'s core
is liquid. Damage Caused by Earthquakes The effects of an earthquake are strongest in a
broad zone surrounding the epicenter. Surface ground cracking associated with faults that
reach the surface often occurs, with horizontal and vertical displacements of several yards
common. Such movement does not have to occur during a major earthquake; slight periodic
movements called fault creep can be accompanied by microearthquakes too small to be felt.
The extent of earthquake vibration and subsequent damage to a region is partly dependent
on characteristics of the ground. For example, earthquake vibrations last longer and are of
greater wave amplitudes in unconsolidated surface material, such as poorly compacted fill or
river deposits; bedrock areas receive fewer effects. The worst damage occurs in densely
populated urban areas where structures are not built to withstand intense shaking. There, L
waves can produce destructive vibrations in buildings and break water and gas lines, starting
uncontrollable fires. Damage and loss of life sustained during an earthquake result from
falling structures and flying glass and objects. Flexible structures built on bedrock are
generally more resistant to earthquake damage than rigid structures built on loose soil. In
certain areas, an earthquake can trigger mudslides, which slip down mountain slopes and
can bury habitations below. A submarine earthquake can cause a tsunami, a series of
damaging waves that ripple outward from the earthquake epicenter and inundate coastal
cities. Major Earthquakes On average about 1,000 earthquakes with intensities of 5.0 or
greater are recorded each year. Great earthquakes (intensity 8.0 or higher) occur once a
year, major earthquakes (intensity 7.0-7.9) occur 18 times a year, strong earthquakes
(intensity 6.0-6.9) 10 times a month, and moderate earthquakes (intensity 5.0-5.9) more than
twice a day. Because most of these occur under the ocean or in underpopulated areas, they
pass unnoticed by all but seismologists. Notable earthquakes have occurred at Lisbon,
Portugal (1755); New Madrid, Mo. (1811 and 1812); Charleston, S.C. (1886); Assam, India
(1897 and 1950); San Francisco (1906); Messina, Italy (1908); Gansu, China (1920); Tokyo,
Japan (1923); Chile (1960); Iran (1962); Managua, Nicaragua (1972); Guatemala (1976);
Hebei, China (1976); Mexico (1985); Armenia (1988); Luzon, Philippines (1990); N Japan
(1993); Kobe, Japan (1995); Izmit, Turkey (1999); central Taiwan (1999); Oaxaca state,
Mexico (1999); Bam, Iran (2003); and NW Sumatra, Indonesia (2004). The Lisbon, Chilean,
and Sumatran earthquakes were accompanied by tsunamis. On Good Friday 1964, one of
the most severe North American earthquakes ever recorded struck Alaska, measuring 8.4 to
8.6 in intensity. Besides elevating some 70,000 sq mi (181,300 sq km) of land and
devastating several cities, it generated a tsunami that caused damage as far south as
California. Ten of the fifteen largest earthquakes in the United States have occurred in
Alaska, and eight of the fifteen largest in the continental United States have occurred in
California. Recent earthquakes that affected the United States include the Feb., 1971,
movement of the San Fernando fault near Los Angeles. It rocked the area for 10 sec, thrust
parts of mountains 8 ft (2.4 m) upward, killed 64 persons, and caused damage amounting to
$500 million. In 1989, the Loma Prieta earthquake above Santa Cruz shook for 15 seconds
at an intensity of 7.1, killed 67 people, and toppled buildings and bridges. In Jan., 1994, an
earthquake measuring 6.6 with its epicenter in N Los Angeles caused major damage to the
city\'s infrastructure and left thousands homeless. Bibliography See C. H. Scholz, The
Mechanics of Earthquakes and Faulting (1991); C. Lomnitz, Fundamentals of Earthquake
Prediction (1994); D. S. Brumbaugh, Earthquakes: Science and Society (1998); B. A. Bolt,
Earthquakes (4th ed. 1999). See also bibliography under seismology. The Columbia
Electronic Encyclopedia Copyright © 2004, Columbia University Press. Licensed from
Columbia University Press Earthquake Crystal Reference Encyclopedia - Cite This Source A
series of shock waves generated at a point (focus) within the Earth, and caused by the
movement of rocks on a fault plane releasing stored strain energy. The point on the surface
of the Earth above the focus is the epicentre. Major earthquakes are associated with the
edges of plates that make up the Earth\'s crust, and along mid-oceanic ridges where new
crust is forming. The greatest concentration of earthquakes is in a belt around the Pacific
Ocean (the ‘ring of fire’), and along a zone from the Mediterranean E to the
Himalayas and China. The magnitude of an earthquake is measured on the Richter scale.
Major earthquakes, such as in San Francisco in 1906 and Japan in 1923, can cause much
damage to property and loss of life. Further dangers arise from associated effects, especially
tsunamis. See also plate tectonics Richter scale seismology Major Earthquakes All
magnitudes on the Richter Scalea Location Country Year Magnitude Deaths Ica Peru 2007
8·0 500+ Solomon Sea Solomon Is 2007 8·1 39+ Java Indonesia 2006
6·3 5000+ Muzaffarabad N Pakistan 2005 7·6 87 000+ Indian Ocean
Indonesia 2005 8·7 1000+ Zarand SE Iran 2005 6·4 400+ Indian Ocean
Indonesia 2004 9·3 300 000+ Niigata Japan 2004 6·8 40 Yunnan Province
SW China 2004 5.6 4 Niigata Japan 2004 6·8 40 Bam SE Iran 2003 6·3 26
000+ Xinjiang China 2003 6·8 268 Bam SE Iran 2003 6·3 30 000 Quazvin
NW Iran 2002 6·3 230 Gujarat India 2001 7·9 20 000/ El Salvador El
Salvador 2001 7·6 850 Taiwan Taiwan 1999 7·6 2000+ Izmit Turkey 1999
7·4 15 000+ Armenia Colombia 1999 6·0 2000+ Rostaq Afghanistan 1998
7·1 2000 NW Afghanistan Afghanistan 1998 6·1 4000+ Khorasan Iran 1997
7·1 4000 Lijiang, Yunan China 1996 7.0 250 Biak Is Indonesia 1996 7.5 100+
Neftegorsk Russia 1995 7.6 1989 Kobe Japan 1995 7.2 5477 Mascara Algeria 1994 5.6 171
Cauca Colombia 1994 6.8 269 Sumatra Indonesia 1994 7.0 215 Los Angeles USA 1994 6.8
57 Maharashtra India 1993 6.4 9748 Hokkaido Japan 1993 7.7 200 Cairo Egypt 1992 5.9
500 Erzincan Turkey 1992 6.2 2000 Uttar Pradesh India 1991 6.1 1000 Ossetia Georgia
1991 7.2 100 Hindu Kush Mts Afghanistan/Pakistan 1991 6.8 1300 Cabanatuan Philippines
1990 7.7 1653 Caspian Sea Iran 1990 7.7 40 000 Luzon Island Philippines 1990 7.7 1600
San Francisco USA 1989 6.9 100 N Armenia Armenia 1988 7.0 25 000 Mexico City Mexico
1985 8.1 7200 Naples Italy 1980 7.2 4500 El Asnam Algeria 1980 7.3 5000 Tabas Iran 1978
7.7 25 000 Tangshan China 1976 8.2 242 000 Guatemala City Guatemala 1976 7.5 22 778
Kashmir Pakistan 1974 6.3 5200 Managua Nicaragua 1972 6.2 5000 Tehran Iran 1972 6.9
5000 Chimbote Peru 1970 7.7 66 000 Anchorage USA 1964 8.5 131 Agadir Morocco 1960
5.8 12 000 Ashkhabad Turkmenistan 1948 7.3 19 800 Erzincan Turkey 1939 7.9 23 000
Chillan Chile 1939 7.8 30 000 Quetta India 1935 7.5 60 000 Gansu China 1932 7.6 70 000
Nan-Shan China 1927 8.3 200 000 Kanto Japan 1923 8.3 143 000 Gansu China 1920 8.6
180 000 Avezzano Italy 1915 7.5 30 000 Messina Italy 1908 7.5 120 000 Valparaiso Chile
1906 8.6 20 000 San Francisco USA 1906 8.3 500 Calabria Italy 1783 50 000 Lisbon
Portugal 1755 70 000 Calcutta India 1737 300 000 Hokkaido Japan 1730 137 000 Catania
Italy 1693 60 000 Shemaka Caucasia 1667 80 000 Shensi China 1556 830 000 Chihli China
1290 100 000 Cilicia Turkey 1268 60 000 Corinth Greece 856 45 000 Antioch Turkey 526
250 000 aThe Richter scale is a logarithmic scale, devised in 1935 by geophysicist Charles
Richter, for representing the energy released by earthquakes. A figure of 2 or less is barely
perceptible, while an earthquake measuring over 5 may be destructive. Crystal Reference
Encyclopedia, © Crystal Reference Systems Limited 2006 2 More from Crystal
Reference Encyclopedia » Earthquake Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - Cite This
Source An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth\'s crust that
creates seismic waves. Earthquakes are recorded with a seismometer, also known as a
seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the
related and mostly obsolete Richter magnitude, with magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes being
mostly imperceptible and magnitude 7 causing serious damage over large areas. Intensity of
shaking is measured on the modified Mercalli scale. At the Earth\'s surface, earthquakes
manifest themselves by a shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. When a large
earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient
displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides and
occasionally volcanic activity. In its most generic sense, the word earthquake is used to
describe any seismic event—whether a natural phenomenon or an event caused by
humans—that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear
experiments. An earthquake\'s point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The
term epicenter means the point at ground level directly above this. Naturally occurring
earthquakes Most naturally occurring earthquakes are related to the tectonic nature of the
Earth. Such earthquakes are called tectonic earthquakes. The Earth\'s lithosphere is a
patchwork of plates in slow but constant motion caused by the release to space of the heat in
the Earth\'s mantle and core. The heat causes the rock in the Earth to become flow on
geological timescales, so that the plates move slowly but surely. Plate boundaries lock as the
plates move past each other, creating frictional stress. When the frictional stress exceeds a
critical value, called local strength, a sudden failure occurs. The boundary of tectonic plates
along which failure occurs is called the fault plane. When the failure at the fault plane results
in a violent displacement of the Earth\'s crust, energy is released as a combination of
radiated elastic strain seismic waves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of
the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build-up of strain and stress
punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the Elastic-rebound
theory. It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an earthquake\'s total energy is radiated
as seismic energy. Most of the earthquake\'s energy is used to power the earthquake
fracture growth or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lower
the Earth\'s available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these
changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convection flow of heat out from the
Earth\'s deep interior. The majority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not exceeding
tens of kilometers. In subduction zones, where older and colder oceanic crust descends
beneath another tectonic plate, Deep focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths
(up to seven hundred kilometers). These seismically active areas of subduction are known as
Wadati-Benioff zones. These are earthquakes that occur at a depth at which the subducted
lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. A possible
mechanism for the generation of deep focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine
undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure. Earthquakes also often occur in
volcanic regions and are caused there both by tectonic faults and by the movement of
magma in volcanoes. Such earthquakes can serve as an early warning of volcanic eruptions.
Some earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, where earthquake strike a fault in
clusters, each triggered by the previous shifts on the fault lines, similar to aftershocks, but
occurring on adjacent segments of fault, sometimes years later, and with some of the later
earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was observed in the sequence
of about a dozen earthquakes that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the 20th
century, the half dozen large earthquakes in New Madrid in 1811-1812, and has been
inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East and in the
Mojave Desert. Size and frequency of occurrence Small earthquakes occur nearly constantly
around the world in places like California and Alaska in the U.S., as well as in Chile, Peru,
Indonesia, Iran, the Azores in Portugal, New Zealand, Greece and Japan. Large earthquakes
occur less frequently, the relationship being exponential; for example, roughly ten times as
many earthquakes larger than magnitude 4 occur in a particular time period than
earthquakes larger than magnitude 5. In the (low seismicity) United Kingdom, for example, it
has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of 3.7 or larger every
year an earthquake of 4.7 or larger every 10 years an earthquake of 5.6 or larger every 100
years. The number of seismic stations has increased from about 350 in 1931 to many
thousands today. As a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past because
of the vast improvement in instrumentation (not because the number of earthquakes has
increased). The USGS estimates that, since 1900, there have been an average of 18 major
earthquakes (magnitude 7.0-7.9) and one great earthquake (magnitude 8.0 or greater) per
year, and that this average has been relatively stable. In fact, in recent years, the number of
major earthquakes per year has actually decreased, although this is likely a statistical
fluctuation. More detailed statistics on the size and frequency of earthquakes is available
from the USGS. Most of the world\'s earthquakes (90%, and 81% of the largest) take place in
the 40,000-km-long, horseshoe-shaped zone called the circum-Pacific seismic belt, also
known as the Pacific Ring of Fire, which for the most part bounds the Pacific Plate. Massive
earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the Himalayan
Mountains. Effects/impacts of earthquakes There are many effects of earthquakes including,
but not limited to the following: Shaking and ground rupture Shaking and ground rupture are
the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage
to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the complex
combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicenter, and the local
geological and geomorphological conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propagation.
The ground-shaking is measured by ground acceleration. Specific local geological,
geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the
ground surface even from low-intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local
amplification. It is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to
soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focalization owing to typical geometrical
setting of the deposits. Ground rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the earth\'s
surface along the trace of the fault, which may be of the order of few metres in the case of
major earthquakes. Ground rupture is a major risk for large engineering structures such as
dams, bridges and nuclear power stations and requires careful mapping of existing faults to
identify any likely to break the ground surface within the life of the structure. Landslides and
avalanches Earthquakes can cause landslides and avalanches, which may cause damage in
hilly and mountainous areas. Fires Following an earthquake, fires can be generated by break
of the electrical power or gas lines. In the event of water mains rupturing and a loss of
pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started. Soil
liquefaction Soil liquefaction occurs when, because of the shaking, water-saturated granular
material temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction
may cause rigid structures, as buildings or bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits.
Tsunamis Undersea earthquakes and earthquake-triggered landslides into the sea, can
cause Tsunamis. See, for example, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Human impacts
Earthquakes may result in disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance
premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse of buildings or
destabilization of the base of buildings which may lead to collapse in future earthquakes.
Preparation for earthquakes Earthquake preparedness Household seismic safety HurriQuake
nail (for resisting hurricanes and earthquakes) Seismic retrofit Seismic hazard Mitigation of
seismic motion Earthquake prediction Specific fault articles Alpine Fault Calaveras Fault
Cascadia subduction zone Geology of the Death Valley area Great Glen Fault Great
Sumatran fault Hayward Fault Zone Highland Boundary Fault Hope Fault LiquiñeOfqui Fault North Anatolian Fault Zone New Madrid Fault Zone San Andreas Fault Major
earthquakes Pre-20th century Pompeii (62). Aleppo Earthquake (1138). Basel earthquake
(1356). Major earthquake that struck Central Europe in 1356. Carniola earthquake (1511). A
major earthquake that shook a large portion of South-Central Europe. Its epicenter was
around the town of Idrija, in today\'s Slovenia. It caused great damage to structures all over
Carniola, including Ljubljana, and minor damage in Venice, among other cities. Shaanxi
Earthquake (1556). Deadliest known earthquake in history, estimated to have killed 830,000
in China. Dover Straits earthquake of 1580 (1580). Dubrovnik earthquake (1667). Disastrous
earthquake in Dubrovnik, Croatia killed about 3/5 of the population. The great Sicilian
earthquake (1693). As many as 100,000 may have died. Cascadia Earthquake (1700).
Kamchatka earthquakes (1737 and 1952). Lisbon earthquake (1755), one of the most
destructive and deadly earthquakes in history, killing between 60,000 and 100,000 people
and causing a major tsunami that affected parts of Europe, North Africa and the Caribbean.
Calabria earthquake (1783). Series of 6 earthquakes in Calabria, Italy killed 50,000. New
Madrid Earthquake (1811), and another tremor (1812) that also struck the small Missouri
town, was reportedly the strongest ever in North America and made the Mississippi River
temporarily change its direction and permanently altered its course in the region. Fort Tejon
Earthquake (1857). Estimated Richter Scale above 8, said the strongest earthquake in
Southern California history. 1872 Lone Pine earthquake (1872). Might been strongest ever
measured in California with an estimated Richter Scale of 8.1 said seismologists. Charleston
earthquake (1886). Largest earthquake in the southeastern United States, killed 100.
Ljubljana earthquake (14. IV. 1895), a series of powerful quakes that ultimately had a vital
impact on the city of Ljubljana, being a catalyst of its urban renewal. Assam earthquake of
1897 (1897). Large earthquake that destroyed all masonry structures, measuring more than
8 on the Richter scale. 20th century San Francisco Earthquake (1906). Between 7.7 and 8.3
magnitudes; killed approximately 3,000 people and caused around $400 million in damage;
most devastating earthquake in California and U.S. history. Messina Earthquake (1908).
Killed about 60,000 people. Gansu earthquake (1920). Killed 200,000 in Gansu province,
China. Great Kant? earthquake (1923). On the Japanese island of Honsh?, killing over
140,000 in Tokyo and environs. 1931 Hawke\'s Bay earthquake. Occurred in the Hawkes
Bay in the North Island of New Zealand leaving 256 dead. 1933 Long Beach earthquake
1935 Balochistan earthquake at Quetta, Pakistan measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale.
Anywhere from 30,000 to 60,000 people died 1939 Erzincan earthquake at Erzincan, Turkey
measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale. Ashgabat earthquake (1948). Earthquake in Ashgabat,
Soviet Union measuring 7.3 on the Richter scale killed over 110,000 (2/3 the population of
the city). Assam earthquake of 1950 (1950). Earthquake in Assam, India measures 8.6M.
Kamchatka earthquakes (1952 and 1737), measuring >9.0. Great Kern County
earthquake (1952). This was second strongest tremor in Southern California history,
epicentered 60 miles North of Los Angeles. Major damage in Bakersfield, California and Kern
County, California, while it shook the Los Angeles area. Quake Lake (1959) Formed a lake in
southern Montana, USA Great Chilean Earthquake (1960). Biggest earthquake ever
recorded, 9.5 on Moment magnitude scale, and generated tsunamis throughout the Pacific
ocean. 1960 Agadir earthquake, Morocco with around 15,000 casualties. 1963 Skopje
earthquake, measuring 6.1 on the Richter scale kills 1,800 people, leaves another 120,000
homeless, and destroys 80% of the city. Good Friday Earthquake (1964) In Alaska, it was the
second biggest earthquake recorded, measuring 9.2M. and generated tsunamis throughout
the Pacific ocean. Ancash earthquake (1970). Caused a landslide that buried the town of
Yungay, Peru; killed over 40,000 people. Sylmar earthquake (1971). Caused great and
unexpected destruction of freeway bridges and flyways in the San Fernando Valley, leading
to the first major seismic retrofits of these types of structures, but not at a sufficient pace to
avoid the next California freeway collapse in 1989. Managua earthquake (1972), which killed
more than 10,000 people and destroyed 90% of the city. The earthquake took place on
December 23, 1972 at midnight. Friuli earthquake (1976), Which killed more than 2.000
people in Northeastern Italy on the 6th of May Tangshan earthquake (1976). The most
destructive earthquake of modern times. The official death toll was 255,000, but many
experts believe that two or three times that number died. Guatemala 1976 earthquake
(1976). Causing 23,000 deaths, 77,000 injuries and the destruction of more than 250,000
homes. Coalinga, California earthquake (1983). 6.5 on the Richter scale on a section of the
San Andreas Fault. Six people killed, downtown Coalinga, California devastated and oil field
blazes. Great Mexican Earthquake (1985). Killed over 6,500 people (though it is believed as
many as 30,000 may have died, due to missing people never reappearing.) Great San
Salvador Earthquake (October 10, 1986). Killed over 1,500 people. Whittier Narrows
earthquake (1987). Newcastle, NSW Australia earthquake 1989 {FLEMO} Armenian
earthquake (1988). Killed over 25,000. Loma Prieta earthquake (1989). Severely affecting
Santa Cruz, San Francisco, San Jose and Oakland in California. This is also called the World
Series Earthquake. It struck as Game 3 of the 1989 World Series was just getting underway
at Candlestick Park in San Francisco. Revealed necessity of accelerated seismic retrofit of
road and bridge structures. Iran Earthquake (1990). 7.7 on the Richter scale. Killed over
35,000 in Gilan Province, southwest of Caspian sea. Luzon Earthquake (1990). On 16 July
1990, an earthquake measuring 7.7 on the Richter scale struck the island of Luzon,
Philippines. Landers, California earthquake (1992). Serious damage in the small town of
Yucca Valley, California and was felt across 10 states in Western U.S. Another tremor
measured 6.4 struck 3 hours later and felt across Southern California. August 1993 Guam
Earthquake, measuring 8.2 on the Richter scale and lasting 60 seconds. Northridge,
California earthquake (1994). Damage showed seismic resistance deficiencies in modern
low-rise apartment construction. Sakhalin earthquake (1995). Measuring 7.6 on the Richter
scale, killing over 2,000 people in Sakhalin, Russia. Great Hanshin earthquake (1995). Killed
over 6,400 people in and around Kobe, Japan. Afghanistan earthquake (1998). 6.9 on the
Richter scale. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed. Athens earthquake
(1999). 5.9 on the Richter scale, it hit Athens on September 7. Epicentered 10 miles north of
the Greek capital, it claimed 143 lives. Chi-Chi earthquake (1999) Also called the 921
earthquake. Struck Taiwan on September 21, 1999. Over 2,000 people killed, destroyed or
damaged over ten thousand buildings. Caused world computer prices to rise sharply.
Armenia, Colombia (1999) 6.2 on the Richter scale, Killed over 2,000 in the Colombian
Coffee Grown Zone. 1999 ?zmit earthquake measuring 7.4 on the Richter scale and killed
over 17,000 in northwestern Turkey. Hector Mine earthquake (1999). 7.1 on the Richter
scale, epicentered 30 miles east of Barstow, California, widely felt in California and Nevada.
1999 Düzce earthquake at Düzce, Turkey measuring 7.2 on the Richter scale.
Baku earthquake (2000). 21st century Nisqually Earthquake (2001). El Salvador earthquakes
(2001). 7.9 (13 January) and 6.6 (13 February) magnitudes, killed more than 1,100 people.
Gujarat Earthquake (26 January 2001). Hindu Kush earthquakes (2002). Over 1.100 killed.
Molise earthquake (2002) 26 killed. Bam Earthquake (2003). Over 40,000 people are
reported dead. Parkfield, California earthquake (2004). Not large (6.0), but the most
anticipated and intensely instrumented earthquake ever recorded and likely to offer insights
into predicting future earthquakes elsewhere on similar slip-strike fault structures. Ch?etsu
earthquake (2004). Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake (26 December 2004). By some
estimates, the second largest earthquake in recorded history (estimates of magnitude vary
between 9.1 and 9.3). Epicentered off the coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra, this
massive earthquake triggered a series of gigantic tsunamis that smashed onto the shores of
a number of nations, causing more than 285,000 fatalities. Sumatran (Nias) Earthquake
(2005). Fukuoka earthquake (2005). Northern Chile Earthquake (2005). 7.9 (13 June). Killed
only 15 people, but left many poor families homeless. Kashmir earthquake (2005) (also
known as the Great Pakistan earthquake). Killed over 79,000 people; and many more
injured. Lake Tanganyika earthquake (2005). May 2006 Java earthquake (2006). July 2006
7.7 magnitude Java earthquake which triggered tsunamis (2006). September 2006 6.0
magnitude Gulf of Mexico earthquake (2006). October 2006 6.6 magnitude Kona, Hawaii
earthquake (2006). November 2006 8.1 magnitude north of Japan (2006). December 26,
2006, 7.2 magnitude, southwest of Taiwan (2006). February 12, 2007, 6.0 magnitude,
southwest of Cape St. Vincent, Portugal (2007). Sumatra Earthquakes March 06, 2007, 6.4
and 6.3 magnitude, Sumatra, Indonesia (2007). March 25, 2007, 6.9 magnitude, off the west
coast of Honsh?, Japan (2007). April 1, 2007, 8.1 magnitude, Solomon Islands (2007). 2007
Guatemala Earthquake 6.7 magnitude (2007) July 16, 2007, 6.6 magnitude, Niigata
prefecture, Japan (2007) 2007 Peru earthquake 8.0 magnitude, August 15 (2007) September
2007 Sumatra earthquakes 8.0 magnitude September 12 (2007) September 30, 2007, 6.8
magnitude, south of Mariana Islands (2007). September 30, 2007, 7.3 magnitude, northwest
of Auckland Island, New Zealand (2007). Earthquakes in mythology and religion In Norse
mythology, earthquakes were explained as the violent struggling of the god Loki. When Loki,
god of mischief and strife, murdered Baldr, god of beauty and light, he was punished by
being bound in a cave with a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom.
Loki\'s wife Sigyn stood by him with a bowl to catch the poison, but whenever she had to
empty the bowl the poison would drip on Loki\'s face, forcing him to jerk his head away and
thrash against his bonds, causing the earth to tremble. In Greek mythology, Poseidon was
the god of earthquakes. In Christian mythology, certain saints were invoked as patrons
against earthquakes, including Saint Gregory Thaumaturgus, Saint Agatha, Saint Francis
Borgia, and Saint Emygdius. See also Catastrophe modeling Cryoseism Earthquake
insurance Earthquake lights Earthquake weather Earthquake (1974 disaster film) Elasticrebound theory Geophysics Hypothetical future disasters Interplate earthquake Intraplate
earthquake List of earthquakes List of all deadly earthquakes since 1973 List of earthquakes
by death toll List of tectonic plates Megathrust earthquake Meizoseismal area Mercalli
intensity scale Moonquake Plate tectonics Richter magnitude scale Seismic scale Seismic
wave Seismogenic layer Seismograph Seismology Shock (mechanics) Submarine
earthquake Tsunami The VAN method References External links Educational How to survive
an earthquake - Guide for children and youth Guide to earthquakes and plate tectonics
Earthquakes — an educational booklet by Kaye M. Shedlock & Louis C. Pakiser
The Severity of an Earthquake USGS Earthquake FAQs Latest Earthquakes in the World Past 7 days - View in near-real time all of the recent earthquake events on the planet.
Earthquake Information from the Deep Ocean Exploration Institute, Woods Hole
Oceanographic Institution Geo.Mtu.Edu — How to locate an earthquake\'s epicenter
Photos/images of historic earthquakes earthquakecountry.info Answers to FAQs about
Earthquakes and Earthquake Preparedness Interactive guide: Earthquakes - an educational
presentation by Guardian Unlimited Geowall — an educational 3D presentation
system for looking at and understanding earthquake data Virtual Earthquake - educational
site explaining how epicenters are located and magnitude is determined HowStuffWorks
— How Earthquakes Work CBC Digital Archives — Canada\'s Earthquakes and
Tsunamis Earthquakes Educational Resources - dmoz Seismological data centers Europe
European-Mediterranean Seismological Centre (EMSC) Global Seismic Monitor at GFZ
Potsdam Global Earthquake Report – chart Earthquakes in Iceland during the last 48
hours Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV), Italy Database of Individual
Seismogenic Sources (DISS), Central Mediterranean Portuguese Meteorological Institute
(Seismic activity during the last month) United States EQNET: Earthquake Information
Network The U.S. National Earthquake Information Center Southern California Earthquake
Data Center The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) Putting Down Roots in
Earthquake Country An Earthquake Science and Preparedness Handbook produced by
SCEC Recent earthquakes in California and Nevada Seismograms for recent earthquakes
via REV, the Rapid Earthquake Viewer Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology
(IRIS), earthquake database and software IRIS Seismic Monitor - world map of recent
earthquakes SeismoArchives - seismogram archives of significant earthquakes of the world
Seismic scales The European Macroseismic Scale Scientific information Earthquake
Magnitudes and the Gutenberg-Richter Law. SimScience. Retrieved on 2006-08-14.. Hiroo
Kanamori, Emily E. Brodsky (2001). "The Physics of Earthquakes". Physics
Today 54 (6): 34. Miscellaneous Kashmir Relief & Development Foundation (KRDF)
PBS NewsHour - Predicting Earthquakes USGS – Largest earthquakes in the world
since 1900 The Destruction of Earthquakes - a list of the worst earthquakes ever recorded
Los Angeles Earthquakes plotted on a Google map the EM-DAT International Disaster
Database Earthquake Newspaper Articles Archive Earth-quake.org PetQuake.org- official
PETSAAF system which relies on strange or atypical animal behavior to predict earthquakes.
A series of earthquakes in southern Italy - November 23 1980, Gesualdo Recent Quakes
WorldWide Real-time, worldwide earthquake list for the past 7 days Real-time earthquakes
on Google Map, Australia and rest of the world Earthquake Information - Electricquakes.com
Exploring possible links between solar activity and earthquakes with earthquake and solar
data streaming sources shown side by side for visual correlation. Earthquake Information detailed statistics and integrated with Google Maps and Google Earth Kharita - INGV portal
for Digital Cartography - Last earthquakes recorded by INGV Italian Network (with Google
Maps) Kharita - INGV portal for Digital Cartography - Italian Seismicity by region 1981-2006
(with Google Maps) Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia © 2001-2006 Wikipedia
contributors (Disclaimer) This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation
License. Last updated on Saturday October 20, 2007 at 19:50:42 PDT (GMT -0700) View
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