ENER02 CO2 intensity of electricity and heat generation
Key message
The CO2 intensity of public conventional thermal power production, combining all fuels, decreased by 6% in
the EU27 between 2005 and 2009. The main reason being fuel switching to non-fossil fuels and energy
efficiency improvements.
In 2009, 56% of all non-fossil fuel generated electricity was produced using nuclear energy whereas
renewable energy accounted for 45% of all non-fossil fuels. Combining fossil fuels, nuclear and
renewables led to a reduction of 46% in CO2 (electricity-only) emissions per KWh electricity produced in
2009, demonstrating that the decarbonisation of the fuel mix shows significant benefits to overall CO2
emission reduction from electricity generation.
The increased share of nuclear and renewables in the fuel mix for public electricity and heat generation led
to a reduction in CO2 intensity of 7% from 1990 to 2009.
The increase in the share of renewables (including biomass) used in electricity generation equated to
reduction of 130Mt of CO2 in 2009 compared 1990. A reduction of 265Mt of CO2 can be allocated to fossil
fuel switching and a reduction of 235Mt of CO2 was to due efficiency improvement compared to an all fossil
fuel scenario. The contribution of nuclear to the overall electricity mix however reduced by 8% between
2005 and 2009.
Between 2005 and 2009 CO2 emission (g) per kWh of electricity and heat output decreased by 5.4% within
the EU27 compared to the USA and China, where g CO2 emissions per kWh decreased by 11% and 6%
respectively. The global CO2 emissions per kWh however decrease very marginally by 0.01% over the
same period.
Rationale
The EU’s current energy system remains heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Nearly 80 % of total
greenhouse gas emissions in the EU-27 are caused by energy production (i.e. electricity and heat, refining),
energy use by the industry, services and households, and transport. Carbon dioxide emissions, while not
the most potent greenhouse gas, account for a significant share of the greenhouse gas effect. Reducing
carbon dioxide emissions of the electricity and heat generation remains an important objective for climate
change mitigation efforts.
This indicator is closely linked with ENER 30
1. Indicator assessment
Key policy question: how fast are we shifting towards a less carbon intensive electricity system
in Europe?
The CO2 intensity of public conventional thermal power production, combining all fuels, decreased by
26% in the EU27 between 1990 and 2009 with an average annual decrease of 1.6%.Between 1990 and
2005 the CO2 intensity decreased gradually, whereas the CO2 intensity fluctuated significantly between
2005 and 2009 with a 0.6% increase between 2005 and 2006 and a 4.1% decrease between 2007 and
2008, mainly due to significant changes in the economic growth across Europe.
However with the economic recovery the move to a less carbon intensive electricity system is likely to
continue. The European Commission’s 2020 strategy, published in 2010, sets clear targets of increasing
the amount of renewables used in energy production and an increase in energy efficient by 20%.
Specific policy question
What is the contribution of various non-fossil generation capacities to the decarbonisation of the
electricity system in Europe?
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
1
The increase in non-fossil in electricity and heat generation has significantly contributed to a reduction in
CO2 emissions. The contribution of various non-fossil generation capacities to the decarbonisation of the
electricity system in Europe are listed below.
- Renewable energy, primarily biomass, contributed 9% to the overall electricity and heat
generation. Electricity and heat generated from renewables increased by 53% between 2005 and
2009.
- Electricity and heat generation from hydro plants contributed 12% to the energy generation fuel
mix in 2009. Electricity and heat generation from hydro plants increased by 14% between 1990
and 2009.
- Electricity and heat generation from wind plants contributed 3% to the energy generation fuel mix
in 2009. Electricity and heat generation from wind plants increased by more than 1000% between
1990 and 2009 showing the single largest increase of any non fossil fuel over this time period.
Between 2005 and 2009 this increase slowed down to 91%.
- Electricity and heat generation from nuclear power contributed 21% to the energy generation fuel
mix in 2009 and increased by 13% over the time period 1990 to 2009. Recent event in Japan in
2011 will see this trend to slow down with countries such as Germany phasing out nuclear power
in the very near future.
For more information on the share of renewable electricity in gross electricity consumption see
ENER30.
Specific policy question: what are the main factors contributing to the observed trends of carbon
emissions of electricity/heat production?
The increase of non fossil fuels in electricity and heat generation and the increase in energy efficiency
have a significant impact on the carbon intensity of electricity generation. Biomass1 input to public
electricity and heat plants increased from about 800 thousand TJ in 2005 to 1.2 million in 20092. The
share of biomass in all fuels used in Public Electricity and Heat Production (CRF 1A1a) went up from
4.8% in 2005 to 7.5% in 2009. It has to be noted that under the IPCC3 GHG Inventory reporting
guidelines CO2 emissions from combustion of biomass fuels are not included in the energy sector if the
biomass is sustainably produced.
The relationship between electricity and heat generation and CO2 intensity in the EU27 during 20052009 (Figures 4) can be explained by the following factors:
1. Electricity and heat production decreased by 5% between 2005 and 2009 with an associated
decrease in CO2 intensity of 3%. Between 2005 and 2009 energy demand decreased by 7%
whereas overall energy has increase by 3% since 1990.
The intensity of CO2 emissions from public conventional thermal power plants in the EU-27
decreased by about 7% from 2005 to 2009 due to improvements in the majority of Member
States. This reduction has generally occurred as a result of the closure of old and inefficient coalfired plants and their replacement with either newer, more efficient coal-fired plants or new gasfired plants. Austria and Spain achieved greater than 20 % reductions in the intensity of CO2
emissions. Finland, Switzerland and Norway have the highest carbon intensity (see Figures 3).
2. Thermal efficiency: There was a 2% reduction in the fossil-fuel input per unit of electricity
produced from fossil fuels between 2005-2009 compared to a 15% reduction between 1990 and
2009. This equates to a 3% reduction in CO2 emission between 2005 and 2009.
3. Fuel switching: The combination of high coal and carbon prices accompanied by a drop in natural
gas prices in 2008 and 2009 induced heat and electricity producers to replace more polluting coal
by gas and as a result, reduce their GHG emissions. The use of biomass and other renewable
sources (wind and hydroelectric power) has also increased significantly in 2009, attributing
further to the reduction in GHG emissions. Changes in the fossil fuel mix used to produce
electricity (e.g. fuel switching from coal and lignite to natural gas) with much of this being linked to
1
Under the IPCC guidelines CO2 emissions from combustion of biomass fuels are not included in totals for the energy sector if the biomass is sustainably produced because it is assumed that
the CO2 would have been released anyway from natural processes. If biomass is harvested at an unsustainable rate (e.g. faster than annual re-growth) the emissions will have to be reported in
MS Inventories under Energy, creating an incentive for MS to firstly use biomass to reduce CO2 emissions and secondly use sustainably produced biomass.. Figure 3 clearly indicates that the
penetration of biomass into the fuel mix reduces overall CO 2 emissions from electricity production.
2
Based on the 2011 EU GHG inventory to UNFCCC (http://unfccc.int/national_reports/annex_i_ghg_inventories/national_inventories_submissions/items/5888.php)
3
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
2
the increased use of the economically attractive gas turbine combined cycle technology and the
closure of a number of coal-fired power plants.
How can the decarbonisation of the electricity system help the shift towards a more sustainable transport
sector?
The recently published White paper4 sets out over 60 measures to further develop a sustainable
transport sector in line with Europe’s move towards a low carbon economy as set out in the Energy and
Climate change package (20-20-20 ceilings). Road transport is currently heavily depending on fossil fuel.
Both the 2050 Road Map5 and the Renewable directive (2009/28/EC) are setting the way for an
increased use of renewable within the transport sector. This can be facilitated by increased use of
electricity in the transport sector, provided that the electricity comes from renewable sources. .
Fig.1: CO2 Emissions per kWh of Electricity and Heat Output (g CO2 per kWh)
900
CO2 per kWh (g CO2 per kWh)
800
700
World
600
500
China (including
Hong Kong)
400
Russian
Federation
300
200
United States
European
Union - 27
100
0
Source: IEA
4
5
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/strategies/doc/2001_white_paper/lb_com_2001_0370_en.pdf
http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/roadmap/index_en.htm
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
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Fig.2: CO2 (g) per KWh in 2009 (electricity only)
400
350
CO2 electricity (gr) per Kwh
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Fig 3: Emissions intensity of carbon dioxide from public conventional thermal power production
2005
2.0%
2009
% increase
Least % reduction
Greatest % reduction
1.8%
CO2 intensity (tonnes per toe)
1.6%
1.4%
1.2%
1.0%
0.8%
0.6%
0.4%
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
Spain
Austria
Belgium
Turkey
Sweden
Ireland
Lithuania
Italy
France
United …
Bulgaria
EEA32
EU27
Greece
Poland
Luxembourg
Estonia
Slovenia
Hungary
Cyprus
Germany
Malta
Netherlands
Latvia
Portugal
Romania
Denmark
Finland
Slovakia
Norway
Switzerland
0.0%
Czech …
0.2%
4
Fig 4: Estimated impact of different factors on the reduction in emissions of CO 2 from public
electricity and heat production between 1990 and 2009, EU27
2250
Change due to efficiency
improvement
2000
Emissions of carbon dioxide (Mtonnes)
1750
Change due to fossil fuel
switching
1500
Change due to share of
nuclear
1250
1000
Change due to share of
renewables (including
biomass)
750
500
Actual CO2 emissions
250
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
-250
1990
0
Hypothetical emissions if
no changes had occurred
Metadata
 Justification for indicator selection
The EU’s current energy system remains heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Nearly 80 % of total
greenhouse gas emissions in the EU-27 are caused by energy production (i.e. electricity and heat,
refining), energy use by the industry, services and households, and transport. Heat and electricity
generation leads to significant emissions of greenhouse gas. Reduction of CO 2 emissions, including
from the power sector, are needed in many countries to achieve the greenhouse gas emission
reduction targets as agreed under the Kyoto Protocol. Understanding what is driving the CO 2
intensity of heat and electricity generation can help identify successful policies for reducing the
environmental impacts of this sector.

Scientific references:
* No rationale references available
 Indicator definition
Annual emissions of CO2 in UNFCCC reporting format (In Mt = million tonnes).
For CO2 only, the (national) totals do not include emissions from biomass burning or emissions or
removals from land-use change and forestry (LULUCF – CFR 5). The energy sector (CFR 1) is
responsible for energy-related emissions, such as those arising from fuel combustion activities and
fugitive emissions from fuels. Fuel combustion activities include: energy industries, manufacturing
industries and construction, transport, other sectors and other stationary or mobile emissions from
fuel combustion. Fugitive emissions from fuels include: solid fuels and oil and natural gas..
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
5

Units
Emission of pollutants: Mtonnes, carbon intensity in g/kWh

Policy context and targets
Context description
Emissions of CO2 from fossil combustion in electricity and heat production contribute significantly to
total greenhouse gas emissions in the EU. The indicator estimates to what extent changes in
efficiency, fuel mix and pollution abatement have influenced the CO2 intensity of electricity and heat
production.
The trends evident in this factsheet, together with projections in other factsheets (e.g. see EN01),
indicate that additional policy measures will need to be implemented in order to meet the EU’s
longer-term emissions reduction targets, particularly for CO2. In addition to the EU’s commitments to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions (of which CO2 is the main gas) under the Kyoto Protocol, In March
2007, the Council of the European Union decided that EU would make a firm independent
commitment to achieving at least a 20 % reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2020 compared
to 1990. It also endorsed an EU objective of a 30 % reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2020
compared to 1990 provided that other developed countries commit themselves to comparable
emission reductions. This was further strengthen in the The EU climate and energy package (E&E),
setting a 20 % reduction in GHG, 20% reduction in energy consumption and 20% reduction in
primary energy use (knows as the "20-20-20" targets) be reached by 2020. The E&E primarily
focuses on energy efficiency and includes the Effort Sharing decision targets as well as more
stringent renewable targets. With the ‘Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050’ the
European commission is looking beyond the 2020 targets with the aim of keeping global warming
below the 2 degree threshold limit. Transport will play an important role in the move to a low carbon
economy. The recently published White paper sets out over 60 measure to move towards a
sustainable transport across Europe.
The total emissions of CO2 from electricity and heat production depend on both the amount of
electricity and heat produced as well as the CO2 intensity per unit produced (which are also fuel
specific). Therefore the policies and measures to reduce emissions need to address both demand
(e.g. through improvements in the energy efficiency of buildings and appliances) to stem the rapid
increase in electricity and heat production, as well as CO2 intensity per unit of electricity and heat
produced (e.g. by fuel switching, generation efficiency).
A number of EU policies have contributed to efforts to curb total electricity and heat produced and
CO2 intensity per unit produced. For example, the Directives establishing rules for the common
market for electricity (2003/54/EC) and gas (2003/55/EC) have encouraged switching to cheaper and
more efficient technologies, in particular to gas. The market liberalisation and competition resulting
from these Directives also contributed to cheaper energy prices in the 1990s which may have
encouraged energy consumption. However the steep increases in energy prices since 2000 and
particularly after 2004, may help to constrain energy demand.
Another important policy is the EU ETS which sets a cap on overall emissions of GHG from the
industrial sector (factories, power plants and other installations in the system). The Effort sharing
decision is now being added to regulated sectors outside the EU ETS to ensure all sources are
captured and controlled through emission targets.
The integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) Directive (96/61/EC) requires plants of less
than 20MW to meet a set of basic energy efficiency provisions. For larger plants energy efficiency is
covered by the plants’ participation within the EU greenhouse gas emissions trading scheme
established by Directive 2003/87/EC. Under the Directive, each Member State was required to draw
up a National Allocation Plan that included caps on CO2 emissions from all thermal electricity
generating plant greater than 20 MW. A shift to less carbon intensive fuels for electricity generation,
such as gas, and improvements in efficiency are important options to help generators meet their
requirements under the directive.
The EC’s Green Paper on Energy Efficiency (COM(2005)265 final) highlighted opportunities to
improve the efficiency of electricity and heat production by ensuring that: the most efficient CCGT
technology is used; research is expanded to improve the efficiency of coal generation; the use of
distributed generation is expanded particularly to make greater use of waste heat, and that in
combination with this a greater use of combined heat and power (cogeneration) technology is
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
6
realised. The Green Paper identified that 20% of EU energy use could be saved. The EC’s Action
Plan for Energy Efficiency (COM(2006) 545 final) moved towards realising these savings and
includes initiatives to make energy appliances, buildings, transport and energy generation more
efficient, and introduces stringent new energy efficiency standards and financing mechanisms to
support more energy efficient products. The EC also created a Covenant of Mayors of the 20 to 30
most pioneering cities in Europe and an international agreement on energy efficiency.
 Targets
No targets have been specified
Related policy documents
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Council Directive 96/61/EC (IPPC)
Council Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning Integrated Pollution
Prevention and Control (IPPC). Official Journal L 257.
DIRECTIVE 2001/77/EC Renewable electricity
Directive 2001/77/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 September
2001 on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable energy sources in the
internal electricity market
DIRECTIVE 2006/32/EC
The directive is relatefd to energy end-use efficiency and energy services and repeals
Council Directive 93/76/EEC
DIRECTIVE 2005/32/EC
The Directive establises a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements for
energy-using products and amends Council Directive 92/42/EEC and Directives 96/57/EC
and 2000/55/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
COM(2006) 545
Action Plan for Energy Efficiency
COM(2005) 265 final. Green paper on energy efficiency or doing more with less.
European Commission.
2003/55/EC
Directives concerning common rules for the internal market in gas
2003/54/EC
Directives concerning common rules for the internal market in electricity
Consolidated version of Directive 2003/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the
Council of 13 October 2003 establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission
allowance trading within the Community
Directive 2009/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009
amending Directive 2003/87/EC so as to improve and extend the greenhouse gas
emission allowance trading scheme of the Community
Directive 2009/28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on
the promotion of the use of energy from renewable sources
The EU climate and energy package
- Effort Sharing Decision
- Binding national targets for renewable energy which collectively will lift the average
renewable share across the EU to 20% by 2020
- A legal framework to promote the development and safe use of carbon capture and
storage (CCS).
Roadmap for moving to a low-carbon economy in 2050
WHITE PAPER, European transport policy for 2010
 Methodology for indicator calculation
CO2 emissions data are annual official data submissions to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and EU Monitoring mechanism. Combination of emission
estimates based on volume of activities and emission factors. Recommended methodologies for
7
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
emission data collection are compiled in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).
Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC, 2006). supplemented by the Good
Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories (IPCC,
2000) and UNFCCC Guidelines (UNFCCC, 2000).
Energy data collected annually by Eurostat.
Eurostat definitions for energy statistics
http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/ramon/nomenclatures/index.cfm?TargetUrl=ACT_
DELIMITER&StrNom=CODED2&StrFormat=CSV&StrLanguageCode=EN
Eurostat metadata for energy statistics
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statistics/metadata

Methodology references
No methodology references available.

Data specifications
EEA data references
National emissions reported to the UNFCCC and to the EU Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Mechanism
Energy statistics (Eurostat)
Data sources in latest figures
o
o
o
o

IEA: used in figure CO2 Emissions per kWh of Electricity and Heat Output (g CO2 per
kWh)
EUROSTAT. Energy data - Output from conventional/public/autoproducer thermal power
stations, Output from district heating plants, Origin Biomass, Transformation output from
Eurostat http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/energy/data/database
EEA. National emissions reported to the UNFCCC and to the EU Greenhouse Gas
Monitoring
Mechanism.
Available
at:
http://dataservice.eea.europa.eu/PivotApp/pivot.aspx?pivotid=475
Uncertainties
Methodology uncertainty
Energy data have been traditionally compiled by Eurostat through the annual Joint Questionnaires,
shared by Eurostat and the International Energy Agency, following a well-established and
harmonised methodology. However a certain level of uncertainty added due to the fact that for EU-27
countries sometimes reported differently than in joint questionnaires (e.g. CHP, municipal waste, etc)
to comply with the new energy regulation.
Methodological information on the annual Joint Questionnaires and data compilation can be found in
Eurostat's
web
page
for
metadata
on
energy
statistics.
http://europa.eu.int/estatref/info/sdds/en/sirene/energy_sm1.htm.
Emissions: Officially reported data following agreed procedures. E.g. CO2 data are based upon
annual submissions under the UNFCCC.
Data sets uncertainty
For energy related greenhouse gas emissions the results suggest uncertainties between ± 1 %
(stationary combustion) and ± 11 % (fugitive emissions). For public electricity and heat production
specifically, which is the focus of the indicator, the uncertainty is estimated to be ± 3 %. For the new
Member States and some other EEA countries, uncertainties are assumed to be higher than for the
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
8
EU-15 Member States because of data gaps.
Rationale uncertainty
No uncertainty has been specified
ENER02 CO2 intensity of energy heat and electricity generation
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