THE EFFECTS OF AUTONOMY, EXPERIENCE, AND PERSON-ORGANIZATION FIT ON JOB
SATISFACTION: THE CASE OF PUBLIC SECTOR
Myung H. Jin
Virginia Commonwealth University
Mi Young Lee
Walden University
Abstract
Although the past several decades of research on determinants of job satisfaction have
generated a plethora of theoretical considerations among private and public management
scholars across the globe, scholars has produced many conflicting findings. Research also
shows that most of the studies are limited to the work cultures in developed western
nations. Utilizing a subset of data from the International Social Survey Program on Work
Orientations III module conducted in 2005, I conduct ordinary least squares multiple
regression analyses to explore the relationships between job satisfaction and its key
determinants in the public sector across 18 countries. For all countries, findings clearly
show that organizational commitment explains the most variance in the respondents’ job
satisfaction, followed by work experience and autonomy. On the autonomy, while
autonomy regarding the control of hours was found to be negatively associated, the other
two dimensions--ease of taking time off during working and organization of daily work–
were found to be positively and significantly related to job satisfaction. In terms of work
experience, the usage of past work experience and skills for the current job and
helpfulness of the current work experience for future employment were both found to be
positively and significantly related to job satisfaction. Job training, however, was not a
significant predictor of job satisfaction.
Keywords: organizational learning, person-organization fit, job autonomy, job satisfaction
Introduction
Over the past four decades or so, job
satisfaction has generated considerable interest
among the research community across the globe.
Job satisfaction is referred to as a person’s general
attitude toward the job or toward specific
dimensions of the job (Knoop, 1995; Robbins, 2001).
Job satisfaction has been mostly used as a
performance indicator in terms of reducing
absenteeism and turnover and in terms of increasing
productivity in the workplace (Judge, Thoresen,
Bono, & Patton, 2001; Sousa-Pouza & Sousa-Pouza,
2000; Vroom, 1964). Scholars have also connected it
to improving the health and well-being of workers
(Karasek, 1979; Totterdell, Wood, & Wall, 2006;
Tsutsumi, 2005). As the literature suggests, job
[18]
satisfaction is undoubtedly one of the most
frequently studied variables in organizational
behavior, but the factors that lead to job satisfaction
are not yet fully clear (Wyk & Adonisi, 2008;
Westover & Taylor, 2010).
This paper investigates the comparative influences
of the following factors in the public sector: different
dimensions of autonomy, person-organization
exclusivity, past and current work experience, job
training, and organizational commitment. We use
the latest available data set from the 2005
International Social Survey Program (ISSP) on Work
Orientations. This is an interesting data set because
it covers numerous countries from four continents. It
also contains data for several Eastern European
countries that have received comparatively little
attention in this field of research. In fact, as pointed
out by Diener, Diener, & Diener (1995), crossnational research on job satisfaction has been
primarily based on a very small number of nations in
the past (for example, Easterlin, 1974; Veehoven,
1991) and heavily weighted toward Europe and the
United States (for example, Blanchflower & Oswald,
1999). This is particularly the case in the job
satisfaction literature (Spector, 1997).
We also acknowledge that despite the
advances in technology and the emergence of a
global economy that have brought together the
people, regardless of their age, gender, ethnicity,
national culture, and skillsets, studies that take into
account these multitudes of factors together are
significantly lacking, which hinders both scholars and
practitioners from understanding the full potential of
human capital as well as the practical significance of
recruiting and retaining the type of employees public
sector organizations need in order to be competitive
in the delivery of public services. In addition,
although the number of studies that emphasize the
value of workforce diversity in organizations has
increased, many of the existing studies are restricted
to samples that are rather homogeneous in nature.
Job Satisfaction in the Public Sector
Literature on job satisfaction between
public and private sector employee can be found in
the studies of organizational behavior and
management studies, as well as in the works of
organizational psychology research (Markovits et al.,
2010). These studies often display the differences
between the sectors’ organizational contexts which
influence the attitudes and work behaviors of
managers and employees alike (Boyne, 2002; Cho &
Lee, 2001; Goulet & Frank, 2002). Alternatively, they
examine methodological and research questions
deriving from the similarities and differences
observed between private and public sector
organizations (Rainey & Bozeman, 2000). Although
there is debate on whether there are clear
differences in the levels of job satisfaction between
public and private sector employees (Markovits et al.,
2010), research is beginning to show the different
effects of determinants of job satisfaction between
the two sectors. For example, Westover and Taylor’s
(2010) study shows that while public service
motivation (PSM) was a non-significant factor in
In this study we examine the impact of
various organizational factors on job satisfaction
using a variety of public sector jobs in 18 countries–
Australia, the United States, Ireland, Norway,
Sweden, Bulgaria, Russia, New Zealand, Canada,
Israel, Latvia, France, Portugal, Denmark, Switzerland,
Flanders, Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, and the
Dominican Republic. The countries chosen in this
study differ in many respects, from their national
culture, customs, and mode of governance, to their
stage of economic development (Westover & Taylor,
2010). These differences among countries can
impact differently on the study variables, including
job satisfaction. Although previous research has
made contributions to the literature in shedding new
light on job satisfaction by using sector variable as a
moderator, it is unclear how the determinants of job
satisfaction uniquely impact those specifically in the
public sector. Only a few studies have looked into
job satisfaction with respect to the form and type of
employment (Markovits, Davis, & van Dick, 2010).
[19]
either sector, PSM-fit was a positive and strong
indicator of job satisfaction in the public sector. Also,
their study showed that although extrinsic and
intrinsic motivations and working relationships
between both co-workers and management were all
significant in both public and private sectors, the
degree of significance was superior among those in
the public sector. Understandably, the literature is
mindful of the notion that during the times of
economic prosperity and opportunities for personal
and professional development, the private sector
may be at an advantage in terms of attracting
employment compared to the public sector
(Markovits et al., 2010) whereas private sector
employees are more extrinsically satisfied in their
work than civil servants (Goulet & Frank, 2002;
Young, Worchel, & Woehr, 1998; Caldwell, Chatman,
& O’Reilly, 1990). However, recession-like
economies, high unemployment rates, and low
levels of job security may produce the opposite
results in which civil servants become more
extrinsically satisfied and more committed than
private sector employees.
mutual and reciprocal between the public servants
and the citizens (Yang, 2009), which implies that
public servants’ job satisfaction is positively
correlated with their behavior and the quality of
their services. Adding that their employment term is
mostly permanent, their job satisfaction can be that
much more meaningful and at the same time can be
representative of the quality of the services that
they provide. The next section reviews the relevant
literature on a variety of job motivation factors
followed by hypotheses.
Literature Review and Hypotheses
Autonomy
According to Stamps and Piedmonte (1986),
autonomy is defined as the amount of job-related
independence, initiative, and freedom either
permitted or required in daily work activities.
Autonomy has been consistently linked to employee
satisfaction as a positive factor (Parker & Wall, 1998;
Hackman & Oldham, 1980; Neuman, Edwards, &
Raju, 1989). Many other research results also
pointed out that autonomy is an essential
component for professional development (Hart &
Rotem, 1995; Manley, 1995; Gray & Pratt, 1989) and
is a positive factor for job satisfaction (Blegen, 1993;
Weissman, Alexander, & Chase, 1980; Finn, 2001).
Given the unstructured nature of complex jobs,
which require workers to exercise judgment,
decision-making, creativity, and other discretionary
behaviors (Chung-Yan, 2010), Frese and Zapf (1994)
argued that those with discretion and control can
more effectively resolve problems because they
have the freedom to choose strategies to deal with
the situation.
Researchers have recognized, in
general, two types of job autonomy that can
positively influence job satisfaction: control of task
and control of time. Control of task can be further
divided into the method of task being used and
organizing the contents of work on a daily basis.
Although autonomy regarding work method, which
refers to the degree of freedom that workers have in
going about their work, such as the kind of
Previous research shows several notable
differences between the private and the public
sector that signal why job satisfaction in the public
sector is especially important (Markovits et al., 2010).
First, in terms of employment status, while those in
the private sector are contract-based (mainly fixed
term), those in the public sector in general earn lifetime and secured employment. Second, while the
main motivation behind job satisfaction is to
maximize his or her monetary compensation for
market transaction, those in the public sector cannot
expect to benefit from such luxury in their
transaction. In other words, intrinsic motivation that
derives from helping others often becomes the bulk
of his or her satisfaction depository. Research on
citizen trust (Yang, 2009; Kim, 2010) also suggests
that government’s performance is ultimately
decided by the citizens who give high remarks on
their trust in government based on their personal
interaction with administrators. The trust level is
[20]
spreadsheet software an employee prefers to use,
has been examined as a positive factor (Hackman &
Oldham, 1976; Sims, Szilagyi, & Keller, 1976), time
management has received significantly less attention
and has received mixed findings at best. Autonomy
regarding work scheduling refers to the level of
control employees have in scheduling, sequencing,
or timing their work activities, such as a choice of
working from home versus workplace attendance.
According to the EWCO report (2006) on the
European Foundation for the Improvement of Living
and Working Conditions, in the case of the
Netherlands, taking time off during work hours,
deciding the order of work activities, and
interrupting work at any moment to take a break,
and deciding the way the work is done all showed
positive and statistically significant associations with
job satisfaction at p < .01 level.
job satisfaction (Dokko, Wilk, & Rothbard, 2009). For
example, if the employee is able to utilize his or her
skill set acquired from the previous job, confidence
and perceived performance level may increase,
which, in turn, increases job satisfaction.
Drafke and Kossen (2002) postulated that
many people experience satisfaction when they
believe that their future job prospects are good. This
suggests that employee attitudes toward current
jobs in conjunction with future employment affect
their job satisfaction. Likewise, Igbaria, Parasuraman,
and Badawy (1994) posited that work experience
when coupled with career expectation was related
to job satisfaction. In this regard, job satisfaction
likely increases for two reasons: (1) employees
recognize that the time they spent in previous
organizations was worth the time and energy they
had invested in that organization, and (2) employees
feel competent and confident about their work as an
expert, which increases their job satisfaction.
Employees often start jobs with expectations based
on their past work experiences, career aspirations,
and personal characteristics (Woods, 1993).
Maanen’s research (1984) referred to this concept as
the “socialization chain,” a term describing the
process whereby lessons or skills learned in one
period or setting are tested and utilized in later
periods or settings. Previous work experience in a
similar setting may facilitate the development of a
sense of task competence and, consequently,
increase satisfaction in performing the work (Adkins,
1995). The literature on organizational behavior
(Gioia & Manz, 1985; Gioia & Poole, 1984) also
suggests that individuals with previous experience in
similar tasks may learn new tasks more quickly.
Feeling confidence about one’s knowledge of an
organization’s rules and procedures (i.e., developing
a sense of task competence) is necessary for job
satisfaction (Adkins, 1995). Organizations seek
employees whose prior work experience is similar to
the current needs of the organization because they
expect that these employees will bring knowledge
that enables them to be immediately productive
This paper analyzes how the different
aspects of autonomy–working hours, taking time off,
and work contents–are associated with job
satisfaction among the public sector employees. The
following hypotheses are tested in the study:
H1a:
Autonomy on working hours is positively
and significantly related to job satisfaction.
H1b:
Autonomy on taking time off is positively
and significantly related to job satisfaction.
H1c:
Autonomy on work contents is positively
and significantly related to job satisfaction
Work Experience
There are mainly two dimensions of work
experience: utility of the past work experience for
the current job and the perceived benefits of the
current work for future employment. Although a
majority of past research on work experience mostly
focused on the work experience dichotomy (e.g.,
whether one had a similar work experience or not)
(see Shah, Al-Enezi, Chowdhury, & Al Otabi, 2004),
recent research findings have shown that being able
to relate to past work experience in the current job
is a confidence booster and, therefore, adds to one’s
[21]
(Rynes, Orlitzky, & Bretz, 1997). In addition,
researchers have increasingly begun to notice the
importance of work experience acquired in prior
firms (Goldsmith & Venum, 2002; Quinones, Ford, &
Teachout, 1995; Dokko et al., 2009). Schmidt, Hunter,
and Outerbridge (1986) posited that prior related
experience confers valuable knowledge and skills
that can be applied to the current work context;
however, empirical findings have been mixed
(McDaniel, Schmidt, & Hunter, 1988). For example,
even when occupation remains constant, behavioral
outcomes can improve or worsen with a change in
employers (Allison & Long, 1990). One reason for
this lack of consistency in results may be greater
complexity in the relationship between prior work
experience and behavioral outcome than has been
previously examined (Dokko et al., 2009). Their
research showed that when prior related work
experience was directly applied to behavioral work
outcomes, the association was negative. However,
when task-relevant knowledge and skills from the
prior work were applied, the relationship was
positive.
H2b:
The degree of helpfulness of present work
experience and skills for future employment is
positively and
significantly related to job satisfaction.
Job Training
The role of job training has grown
significantly over what time period. For example,
$7.7 billion was spent on the wages and salaries of
in-house company trainers and $2.8 billion was
spent on tuition reimbursement just in 1995 (Franzis,
Gittleman, Horrigan, & Joyce, 1998). The American
Society for Training and Development found that in
2004, the average annual training expenditure per
employee was $955, which is an increase of $135 per
employee from the previous year. These figures all
indicate the growing importance of job training that
facilitates an organization’s future success.
Landy (1985) defined job training as “a set
of planned activities on the part of an organization
to increase the job knowledge and skills or to modify
the attitudes and social behavior of its members in
ways consistent with the goals of the organization
and the requirements of the job” (p. 306). The
importance of employees’ attitudes toward
workplace learning opportunities cannot be ignored
(Schmidt, 2007). Rowden and Conine (2003) found
that a large part of the worker’s sense of job
satisfaction can be attributed to workplace learning
opportunities (p. 463). Also, Lowry, Simon, and
Kimberley (2002) concluded that employees who
received training scored significantly higher on job
satisfaction surveys than those who had not. Overall,
an organization’s training efforts have wide-reaching
effects on employees and on the organization
(Schmidt, 2007).
In this study I recognize that utility of past
task-relevant knowledge and skill will increase one’s
self-confidence and anticipation of what will happen
in the next job and, thus, will increase job
satisfaction. My study, then, takes one step forward
noting that being allowed to use past work skills can
significantly boost one’s confidence in his or her
work. I analyze the extent to which past work skills
are used in the current job and how that is related to
job satisfaction. Additionally, I analyze how
perceived helpfulness of present work experience
and skills for future employment is associated with
job satisfaction. The following hypotheses are tested
in the study:
Although job training has been an
important element in many competitive industries,
there is a significant debate among professionals and
scholars as to the effect that training has on both
employee and organizational goals (Author, 2007).
One school of thought argues that training leads to
H2a:
The usage of past work experience and skills
in current job is positively and significantly related to
job
satisfaction.
[22]
an increase in turnover, while the other states that
training is a tool that can lead to higher levels of
employee retention (Colarelli & Montei, 1996;
Becker, 1993). Although both sides of the argument
are competitive, most professionals agree that
employee training is a complex human resource
practice that can significantly impact a company’s
success. In addition, previous research showed (or
demonstrated) that human resource investments
can yield positive performance-related outcomes for
organizations (Subramony, Krause, Norton, & Burns,
2008; Becker & Huselid, 2006; Bowen & Ostroff,
2004; Heskett, Sasser, & Schlesinger, 2003; Likert &
Bowers, 1969). Tsui, Pearce, Porter, & Tripoli (1997)
research also showed that these investments are
repaid in the form of favorable employee attitudes.
(1983) first noted that investing in the development
of employees from two multinational organizations
positively influenced global job satisfaction through
the symbolic action of the employer providing
policies supportive of employees’ competence
development. In Naumann’s (1993) study of
expatriate employees, he found a significant,
positive relationship between expatriates’ training
and job satisfaction. Another study on employment
relations in Norway (Kalleberg & Rognes, 2000)
found that investment in employees in the form of
training is positively associated with an increase in
job satisfaction. PIED may increase job satisfaction
due to positive feelings associated with working for
an organization that visibly cares about the
employability of its employees (Lee & Bruvold, 2003).
Their findings suggested that, whether it is in
Singapore or in the U.S., PIED is associated with
higher levels of job satisfaction. A key point raised by
the results of their study is that the perceptions and
actual investment activities all have an impact on job
satisfaction. This suggests that employees who are
given the opportunity to build their skills and
competence are more likely to develop a greater
sense of confidence and job satisfaction that comes
from having more control over their employability
(Lee & Bruvold, 2003).
Previous research also focused on the
effects of perceived investment in employee
development (PIED) on job satisfaction (Lee &
Bruvold, 2003). Using samples of 405 nurses from
the U.S. and Singapore, their results investigated the
generalizability of the effect of PIED on work attitude
and behavior in both Eastern and Western work
settings. According to Cotton and Tuttle (1986), job
satisfaction was or represented also an individual’s
affective response to specific aspects of the job.
They argued that PIED may result in increased job
satisfaction for several reasons. First, individuals may
perceive the organization offering the employee
development programs as representing the
organization’s concern for their long-term growth.
Second, PIED gives employees a greater sense of
control over their career due to the opportunities to
update old skills and gain new ones and that being
able to increase their employability through the
training is likely to raise levels of job satisfaction.
Third, the availability of employee development
programs in the organization improves employees’
perceptions of their employer and increases
employees’ overall positive feeling toward their
employer, which in turn may have an impact on job
satisfaction. Among the international studies that
used the concept of PIED, Scarpello and Campbell
More recent research investigating the
relationship between human resources management
(HRM) practice and job satisfaction has supported
this trend (Mudor & Tooksoon, 2011; Absar, Azim,
Balasundaram, & Akhter, 2010). For example, in a
study of job satisfaction among nurses involving the
professional practice model (PPM), a multitude of
different types and characteristics of PPM were
significantly correlated with increased job
satisfaction (Pierce, Hazel, & Mion, 1996). In Mudor
and Tooksoon’s (2011) research, job training was
used as one of the three variables in HRM practices
believed to influence job satisfaction. In general,
training is referred to as a planned effort facilitating
the learning of job-related knowledge, skill, and
behavior by employees (Noe, 2006). Bradley,
[23]
Petrescu, and Simmons (2004) demonstrated that
creating on-going learning as well as training in the
workplace has a highly significant effect on job
satisfaction. In addition, they posited that training
increases the probability of work being either
completely or very satisfying.
information technology (IT) professionals found that
IT employees felt educational and training
opportunities were critical to their job (Violino, 2001;
Melymuka, 2000).
Employees may view iob training as a
pleasant gesture by the organization when they
generally feel that the organization cares about the
professional efficacy of their employees for personal
growth. For example, Barrett and O’Connel (2001)
viewed it as a “gift” as being a type of self-fulfilling
prophecy. In other words, organizations that invest
in and provide general training make the participants
feel like insiders. The sense of being an insider is
displayed in the employee’s exertion of more effort,
improved work ethic, and increased satisfaction. Our
study tests the following hypothesis:
The
impact
of
human
resource
management (HRM) practices popularly known as
HR practices on organizational performance and
employee attitudes has been a leading area of
research in the developed world for years (Delaney
& Huselid, 1996; Huselid, 1995; Katou & Budhwar,
2007; Petrescu & Simmons, 2008). For example,
Absar et al. (2010) show that among the types of
human resource management practices–e.g., human
resource planning, recruitment and selection,
training and development, performance-appraisal,
compensation, and industrial relations–training was
the most powerful indicator of job satisfaction. Also,
in his research involving a sample of customer
contact representatives in nine organizations in the
United States and Canada, Schmidt (2007) found the
relationship between satisfaction with employerprovided workplace training and overall job
satisfaction and found the relationship to be
significant. Job training is often followed by the
expectation for personal growth and is a major part
of intrinsic motivation to stay in one’s job or
organization. Violino (2001) posited or contended
that satisfaction with training and development is a
major factor in career decisions, particularly in the
job-hunting process (Schmidt, 2007). For example,
Ranstad’s 2001 North America Employment Review
survey of 2,600 American and Canadian employees
found that 80% of respondents said receiving
training to increase their skills and abilities was a key
component of what they looked for in jobs (“What
Drives,” 2001). Likewise, results of a survey of 271
network professionals conducted by Lucecntcare
(2000) showed that the most important factor in job
satisfaction was the opportunity to learn new skills
(Blum & Kaplan, 2000). Another study involving a
2001 Network Computing survey of 1,400
H3: Job training is positively and significantly related
to job satisfaction.
Person-Organization (PO) Exclusivity
Borrowing largely from the personorganization (PO) fit literature, person-organization
exclusivity (PO-exclusivity) is conceptualized as the
compatibility between the needs and motives of
individuals and the needs of the work environment.
Although there has been surprisingly little analysis
on the needs-based relationship between employees
and organizations, a review of the extant literature
suggests that the relationship between the
employee and the organization is highly associated
with job satisfaction (Verquer, Beehr, & Wagner,
2003). Other studies have consistently linked PO-fit
to employees’ work-related attitudes and actions
(Hoffman & Woehr, 2006; Kristof-Brown,
Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). The literature also
recognizes several other forms of PO-fit. For
example, compatibility may take the form of
supplementary fit, achieved when an individual’s
personal characteristics are congruent with the
characteristics of the organization and its members,
or complementary fit, achieved when an individual’s
characteristics fill gaps that are not addressed by
[24]
others (i.e., demands-abilities [DA-fit]) or an
individual’s psychological needs are fulfilled by
characteristics of the work environment (i.e., needssupplies [NS-fit]) (Cable & Edwards, 2004; Kristof,
1996; Muchinsky & Monahan, 1987).
must match and benefit each other in the long run.
Munchinksy and Monahan (1987) distinguished
between needs-supplies fit and demands-abilities fit.
Needs-supplies fit may be defined as the extent to
which the organization fulfills the needs of an
individual, whereas demands-abilities fit occurs
when an individual’s characteristics fill the needs of
the organization. Therefore, for the fit to sustain
itself, it needs to be grounded not only on the
needs-demand compatibility, but also on the
uniqueness of each individual and institutional
attributes. The study tests the following hypotheses:
Expanding on the demands-abilities (DA-fit),
employees are more likely to feel satisfied with their
job if the value of their talent is deemed rate and
exclusive, and thus is highly un-replaceable. On a
similar note, a sense of pride and respect for the
organizations that comes from knowing that there
may not be another organization as successful as his
or her workplace is likely to raise the level of job
satisfaction. Kristof (1996) defined PO-fit as the
“compatibility
between
people
and
the
organizations in which they work,” (p. 1), which
suggests that when the feelings and the value
assessments that employees and the organizations
have for each other are positively mutual, both
parties are likely to benefit from each other’s
support. Essentially, PO-fit theory posits that there
are characteristics of organizations that have the
potential to be congruent with characteristics of
individuals, and those individuals’ attitudes and
behaviors will be influenced by the degree of
congruence or fit between individuals and
organizations (Argyris, 1957; Pervin, 1989).
H4a:
Perceived degree of difficulty for finding a
job at least as good as the current one is
positively and significantly related to job
satisfaction.
H4b:
Perceived degree of difficulty for the
organization to replace the respondent is positively
and significantly
related to job satisfaction.
Organizational Commitment
Organizational commitment can be defined
as an employee’s strong belief in and acceptance of
an organization’s goals and values, effort on behalf
of the organization to reach these goals and
objectives and strong desire to maintain
membership in the organization (Hunt & Morgan,
1994). In other words, organizational commitment
points to the attitudes of employees concerning
commitment towards the organizations they work
for (Moorhead & Griffin, 1995; Northcraft & Neale,
1990). Despite the closely related constructs, such as
public service motivation (in the public sector) and
psychological contract (in the private sector),
organizational commitment in general is rarely
viewed as an antecedent of job satisfaction in the
public sector. Rather, it is often used as a dependent
variable and as a mediator at best.
Literature on PO-fit and work-related
outcomes, especially involving job satisfaction, is
emerging (Verquer et al., 2003). For the relationship
to benefit for both the employees and the
organizations, recognizing the exclusive features
from each side facilitates the well-being of both
parties. For example, Kristof (1996) posited that
value congruence, the most frequently assessed
dimension of PO-fit, involves the similarity between
organizational values and those of the organization’s
employees. Schneider, Goldstein, and Smith’s (1995)
attraction-selection-attrition (ASA) framework also
posited goal congruence as an important dimension
of PO-fit. This suggests that the goals by the
employees as well as those by their organizations
Although a variety of outcomes have been
identified in the past 30 years (Angle & Perry, 1981;
Mowday, Streers, & Porter, 1979; Hall, 1977), studies
[25]
that looked at the potential determinants of job
satisfaction in both public and private sector
comparison and in the international context have
emerged only in the last several years (Westover &
Taylor, 2010; Liu & Ramsey,
2008). Previous
research that used job satisfaction as an antecedent
of organizational commitment in the public sector is
a concern that needs to be addressed because while
job satisfaction is often temporal by nature,
organizational commitment often requires time for
relationship to mature. Therefore, any organizations
that are looking at the long term solution to keeping
the level of job satisfaction high will have a better
chance at that by examining their commitment to
the organization. On the contrary, although previous
research posited that job satisfaction is a positive
antecedent of organizational commitment, job
satisfaction can change even by the day as
employees can have a good day or a bad day and
organizational commitment built on job satisfaction
is not a reliable indicator for organizations in the
long run.
posited that affective commitment can enhance job
satisfaction because employees agree with the
organization’s objectives and principles and because
employees feel they are treated fairly in terms of
equity, and receive organizational care, concern and
support.
Borrowing largely from the literature on
psychology, scholars posited that work place
commitment is thought of as a very important topic
to consider and is also vital for understanding the
psychology of human behavior (Cooper-Hakim &
Viswesvaran, 2005, p. 241). Their research also
suggests that work commitment has an impact on
job satisfaction (Markovits et al., 2007). Scholars
have been also increasingly theorizing that the
meaning of organizational commitment differs
depending on the organizational context and
environment in which it is assessed (Markovits et al.,
2007). For example, public sector employees have,
on average, organizational and job attitudes that are
different from those of private sector employees
(Karl & Sutton, 1998; Naff & Crum, 1999; Kelman,
2007). Thus, organizational commitment is expected
to be different in its nature and meaning in different
organizational settings as well as in different cultural
environments (Clugston, 2000; Kirkman & Shapiro,
2001; Smith, Fischer, & Sale, 2001).
There is, however, compelling evidence on
the impact of organizational commitment on job
satisfaction (Namasivayama & Zhaob, 2007).
Moreover, Bateman and Strasser (1984) stated that
the reasons for studying organizational commitment
are related to job satisfaction. Increasing numbers of
literature on organizational commitment in recent
years have tested the relative effects of components
of organizational commitment on job satisfaction
(Meyer & Allen, 1990). According to Mowday et al.
(1979),
organizational
commitment
is
a
multidimensional structure and it is the relative
strength of an individual’s identification with an
involvement in a particular organization (Savery &
Syme, 1996). Of the diverse components of
organizational commitment, affective commitment
has been strongly related to job satisfaction
(Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Affective commitment
basically refers to one’s feelings of loyalty to a
company or organization because he or she believes
in the organization. In addition, Hawkins (1998)
While job satisfaction or burnout reflects
the well-being, or lack thereof, of an individual,
organizational commitment brings the advantage of
group cohesiveness. For example, Carrière and
Bourque (2009) view organizational commitment as
a “psychological stabilizing or helpful force that
binds individuals to courses of action relevant,” to
the organization. Individuals with higher levels of
organizational commitment have a sense of
belonging and identification with the organization
that increases their desire to pursue the
organization’s goals and activities, and their
willingness to remain a part of the organization
(Meyer & Allen, 1991). The explanatory power of
organizational commitment is noteworthy even in an
[26]
international context. For instance, in a study of
employees in pharmaceutical industry in Pakistan,
one unit change in organizational commitment
accounted for over 70% change in job satisfaction,
which shows that great commitment of employee
with the organization has strong impact on
satisfaction (Anis, Kashif-ur-Rehman, Ijaz-Ur-Rehman,
Khan, & Humayoun, 2011). Richard Steers (1977)
also showed in his research that the more
committed an employee is, the more positive
attitude he or she has about employment, which
leads to job satisfaction. Likewise, increasing
organizational commitment within employees
through affective and normative commitment was
shown to have a significant effect on job satisfaction
(Park & Rainey, 2007, p. 219). Moreover, someone
who is committed to the organization has a clearer
set of goals and vision that helps elevate his or her
satisfaction because job satisfaction is likely to be
low for those without clear vision and goals for the
organizations (Moon, 2000). The following
hypothesis is tested in the study:
(Australia), 182 (United States), 124 (Ireland), 254
(Norway), 217 (Sweden), 123 (Bulgaria), 122 (Russia),
122 (New Zealand), 118 (Canada), 96 (Israel), 115
(Latvia), 231 (France), 182 (Portugal), 308 (Denmark),
164 (Switzerland), 144 (Flanders), 74 (Mexico), 116
(Taiwan), 99 (South Africa), and 124 (Dominican
Republic).
Measures
The dependent variable of job satisfaction
was measured by the following question: “How
satisfied are you in your (main) job?” The response
scale ranged from 1 (completely dissatisfied) to 7
(completely satisfied). The independent variables in
this study are autonomy, entrepreneurial intentions,
work experience, human resource development, and
fit exclusivity. First, regarding autonomy, the
respondents were asked the following three
questions: “Which of the following statements best
describes how your working hours are decided (By
working hours we mean here the time you start and
finish work, and not the total hours you work per
week or month.)?” Response scale used included 1
(Starting and finishing times are decided by my
employer and I cannot change them on my own), 2 (I
can decide the time I start and finish work, within
certain limits), and 3 (I am entirely free to decide
when I start and finish work). Although constructs
formulated from multiple items are generally
preferred, particularly in meeting validity and
reliability standards, the purpose here was to shed
light on distinguishing autonomy on personnel issues
from autonomy on work issues. The fact that single
items are used to develop this construct, however,
should be noted as a limitation of this study.
H5: Organizational commitment is positively and
significantly related to job satisfaction.
Method
Sample
This study utilizes the International Social
Survey Program (ISSP) Work Orientations data for
2005. Because this study focuses on job satisfaction
in the public sector, only the respondents who
participated in the labor market working for the
government were taken into account. They
consisted of individuals who were engaged in fulltime employment, part-time employment, casual
employment, and those who were helping out a
family member with their work. The final sample size
was 3,973 individuals. This is further divided into 18
countries: United States of America, Australia,
Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Bulgaria, Russia, Canada,
Israel, Latvia, France, Portugal, Denmark, Switzerland,
Mexico, Taiwan, South Africa, and Dominican
Republic. The numbers of respondents were 191
Work experience was measured by the
following two items: “How much of your past work
experience and/or job skills can you make use of in
your present job (response scale ranged from 1
(almost none) to 4 (almost all)?” and “If you were to
look for a new job, how helpful would your present
work experience and/or job skills be (response scale
ranged from 1 (not helpful at all) to 4 (very helpful))?”
[27]
1982; Reiner & Zhao, 1999) affect job satisfaction
(Blegen, 1993).
Regarding human resource development,
the respondents were asked the following question:
“Over the past 12 months, have you had any training
to improve your job skills, either at the workplace or
somewhere else (1 for “Yes” and 0 for “No”)?”
Research Design
The primary method of analyses is ordinary
least squares (OLS) regression. Several researchers
have argued that the OLS regression is acceptable if
the satisfaction variable uses a Likert scale, as was
the case in this study, because most respondents
would be able to know that the difference between
responses of 1 and 2 is similar to the difference
between responses of 2 and 3, and so forth
(Westover & Taylor, 2010). Using the OLS regression
results also enable the R2 value of a model to be
reported and compared across models. Therefore,
all regression results reported herein are OLS
regression results.
Regarding PO-exclusivity, the respondents
were asked the following two questions: “How
difficult or easy do you think it would be for you to
find a job at least as good as your current one
(response scale ranged from 1 (very easy) to 5 (very
difficult))?” “How difficult or easy do you think it
would be for your firm or organization to replace
you if you left (response scale ranged from 1 (very
easy) to 5 (very difficult))?” Regarding organizational
commitment, the respondents were asked to what
extent they agree or disagree with each of the
following statements: (1) “I am willing work harder
than I have to in order to help the firm or
organization I work for succeed”, (2) “I am proud to
be working for my firm or organization”, and (3) “I
would turn down another job that offered quite a bit
more pay in order to stay with this organization.”
The response scale ranged from 1 (strongly disagree)
to 5 (strongly agree).
Results
Table 1 shows the characteristics of the
employees in the public sector from the 18 countries.
Overall, more than 76% of the respondents were in
the 26-55 age bracket with the exception of
Denmark and Switzerland where more than 20% of
the respondents were in the 56-65 age range. A
majority of the workers were female (61%). Mexico
and Taiwan were the only two countries where the
majority of the public sector workers were male at
52%and 53%, respectively. On the educational level,
roughly 48%of the respondents had four-year
university degree completed, while 33% were above
higher secondary level. There were, however, large
variations among the countries. For example, in
Latvia, 100% of the respondents had no formal
education, while less than 20% of the respondents in
Denmark, Switzerland, and Flanders were with fouryear college degree. Majority of the employees were
full-time workers (77%) led by Taiwan (98%),
Portugal (95.3%), Russia (94.7%), Bulgaria (91.1%),
South Africa (88.6%), and United States (86.9%).
Using the International Standard Classification of
Occupations (ISCO), we grouped the classifications
by major group. Overall, professionals (34%) and
technicians and associates (21%) were the most
Several other independent variables based
on the literature (Westover & Taylor, 2010) were
also taken into account. They are PSM, workplace
rewards (extrinsic rewards and intrinsic rewards),
work relations (with co-workers and management).
The workplace rewards variable consists of six items,
with three for extrinsic rewards, and another three
items for intrinsic rewards. The PSM variable is made
up of two items.
Several employee characteristics were
controlled for in this study. They are age, gender,
education, hours worked, and supervisory role.
Literature shows that gender (Vaydonoff, 1980;
Hulin & Smith, 1967), age (Lee & Wilbur, 1985; Ting,
1997), and education (King, Michael, & Atkinson,
[28]
dominant categories of the survey respondents,
followed by service workers, shop, and market sales
workers (16%) and clerks (9%). Why list % for only
the last two?
Table 1
The characteristics of the public sector employees in 18 countries
Characteristics
Total (%)
Age
25 and younger
.075
26-35
.225
36-45
.261
46-55
.284
56-65
.146
66 and older
1
Gender
Male
.365
Female
.635
Educational Level
No formal qualification
.054
Lowest formal qualification
.061
Above lowest qualification
.118
Higher secondary completed
.174
Above higher secondary level
.246
University degree completed
.346
Employment Status
Full-Time
.791
Part-Time
.209
Job Classification (ISCO 88)
Armed Forces
.014
Legislators, Senior Officials and Managers
.059
Professionals
.034
Technicians and Associate Professionals
.209
Clerks
.090
[29]
Service Workers and Shop and Market
Sales Workers
.160
Skilled Agricultural and Fishery Workers
.006
Craft and Related Trades Workers
.033
Plant and Machine Operators and
Assemblers
Elementary Occupations
.029
.059
n
3,106
Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations of
the study variables by country. As observed in Table
2, the mean values of the study variables are
significantly different across the 18 countries.
Among the countries, the respondents’ job
satisfaction was above average in the United States,
Ireland, Bulgaria, Israel, Latvia, Portugal, Denmark,
Switzerland, Mexico, and Dominican Republic. Job
satisfaction was the highest in Mexico (x 6.09) while
Latvia showed the lowest job satisfaction (mean
score: 4.85). Regarding autonomy on working hours,
Denmark (mean score: 1.66) and Switzerland (mean
score: 1.63) showed the highest mark, while South
Africa (mean score: 1.15) and Bulgaria (mean score:
1.17) were the lowest in the category. In terms of
the autonomy on organizing daily work schedule,
countries which showed equal to or above average
(mean score: 1.91) included Australia, United States,
Ireland, Sweden, New Zealand, Canada, France,
Denmark, Switzerland, and Taiwan. On the degree of
usage from the past work experience (average mean
score: 2.92) and helpfulness of current work
experience for future job (average mean score: 3.22),
Sweden and Norway showed the highest average,
respectively. In terms of whether the respondents
had received training to improve job skills over the
past 12 months, New Zealand showed the highest
average. In terms of PO-fit (exclusivity of the job),
Bulgaria showed the highest average (mean score:
4.09). On the other hand, PO-fit (exclusivity of the
employee) was the highest in Russia. Among the
countries in the study, the respondents’
organizational commitment was above average
(mean score: 3.32) in Australia, United States,
Ireland, Bulgaria, New Zealand, Canada, Israel,
Portugal, Switzerland, Flanders, Mexico, Taiwan,
South Africa, and Dominican Republic.
[30]
Table 2
ANOVA results by country
Variables
F-value
All (%)
M
SD
Job satisfaction
7.887*
5.32
1.156
Autonomy (working hours)
20.362*
1.45
0.569
Autonomy (time-off)
9.822*
2.63
1.051
Autonomy (organization of work)
12.788*
1.91
0.66
Work experience (past)
14.878*
2.922
1.001
Work experience (current)
12.957*
3.224
0.822
Job training
Person-organization
exclusivity
(job)
Person-organization
exclusivity
(employee)
Organizational commitment
21.611*
0.594
0.491
11.650*
3.473
1.128
7.994*
2.524
1.146
28.571*
3.318
0.826
Note. * p < 0.001.
Multiple Regression Analyses
The results of multiple regression analyses in Table 3 show that, overall, autonomy (time-off) (p < .01) and
autonomy (organization of work) (p < .01) were positively associated with job satisfaction, while autonomy on
working hours (p < .01) was found to be negatively associated. Country differences were also observed for the
comparative influence of the study variables on job satisfaction. First, regarding autonomy on working hours, only
Mexico, Taiwan, and South Africa were statistically significant (p < .01). On being able to take time off during
working hours, Norway (p < .1), Sweden (p < .1), Russia (p < .05), Denmark (p < .05), Switzerland (p < .05), and
South Africa (p < .1) showed positive and statistically significant relationship with job satisfaction. On autonomy
regarding organization of work, only United States (p < .05), Bulgaria (p < .05), France (p < .01), Denmark (p < .05),
Switzerland (p < .05), and Taiwan (p < .01) showed positive and statistically significant relationship with job
satisfaction. Dominican Republic, however, was found to be the only country with a negative relationship with job
satisfaction (p < .05).
[31]
Table 3
Regression results by country
All (%)
Variables
β
SE
Autonomy (working hours)
-0.122
.033***
Autonomy (time off)
0.081
.018***
Autonomy (organization of work)
0.122
.029***
Work experience (past)
0.105
.019***
Work experience (current)
0.222
.024***
Job training
0.052
0.037
PO-exclusivity (job)
0.056
.016***
PO-exclusivity (employee)
-0.012
0.015
Organizational commitment
0.619
.022***
Age
0.003
.002**
Gender (female = 1)
0.111
.037**
Education
0.01
0.012
Employment status (full-time = 1)
-0.08
.044**
Supervisory status
-0.044
0.039
2
R
0.315
F
101.325
n
3,106
Note. *p < 0.10, **p < 0.05, ***p < 0.01.
Both past and current work experiences (p < .01)
were positively related to job satisfaction in general.
Bulgaria and Flanders were the only two countries
where past and current work experience,
respectively, were negatively associated, although
not statistically significant. Unlike the respondents
from other countries, the respondents in Australia (p
< .01), Sweden (p < .01), Canada (p < .05), Latvia (p
< .1), France (p < .01), Switzerland (p < .1), Taiwan (p
< .01), and Dominican Republic (p < .05) regarded
past work experience as a significant predictor of job
satisfaction, while the respondents in United States
(p < .01), Norway (p < .05), Bulgaria (p < .01), Russia
(p < .01), Israel (p < .05), Denmark (p < .05),
Switzerland (p < .01), and South Africa (p < .01)
regarded current work experience as positive and
significant variables affecting their job satisfaction.
HRD was not a statistically significant
predictor of job satisfaction in general. Comparative
influence of the study variable, however, was
different among the countries. For example, the
[32]
respondents in Israel (p < .05), Latvia (p < .1), and
South Africa (p < .1) regarded HRD as a positive and
significant variable affecting job satisfaction. Of the
six countries that regarded HRD as a negative
influence on job satisfaction, only the United States
was found to be a statistically significant influence (p
< .1).
level and supervisory status were not significant
indicators of job satisfaction.
A comparative analysis of the different
groups of antecedents found that some antecedents
play a more salient influence than others. For
example, in general, organizational commitment was
found to explain the most variance in the
respondents’ job satisfaction, followed by current
work experience, past work experience, autonomy
(time-off during working hours), and autonomy
(organization of daily work). The salience of
organizational commitment was consistent across
the 18 countries.
Person-organization exclusivity in general
has shown mixed results. For example, while the
exclusivity of the organization to the employee was
positively related to job satisfaction (p < .01), the
exclusivity of the employee to the organization was
neither statistically significant nor positive. Of those
countries that showed positive relationship between
exclusivity of the organization and job satisfaction,
the respondents in Ireland (p < .1), Sweden (p < .05),
Denmark (p < .01), and Mexico (p < .05) regarded the
exclusivity of the organization as positive indicator of
job satisfaction. The respondents in South Africa (p
< .05), however, regarded the exclusivity of
organization as a negative predictor of job
satisfaction. In terms of person-organization
exclusivity on the employees, the respondents in
Australia (p < .1), Ireland (p < .1), Israel (p < .05)
regarded exclusivity of the employee as a negative
predictor of job satisfaction, while those in Denmark
(p < .1) and Switzerland (p < .1) regarded it as a
positive influence.
In summary, the results of the regression analyses of
the models in general support several hypotheses
regarding the positive associations of autonomy
(H1b, H1c), work experience (H2a, H2b), personorganization exclusivity (H5a), and organizational
commitment (H6) with job satisfaction among the
public sector employees.
Discussion
This study revealed similarities and
differences in the factors affecting job satisfaction
among the public sector employees in the 18
countries. Regarding autonomy, as evidenced in
Table 3, there were several variations in how
different dimensions of autonomy are associated
with job satisfaction both within and among the
countries. For example, in general, autonomy was a
significant antecedent of job satisfaction, but the
more autonomy the respondents had on deciding
the times one would start and finish work was
negatively associated with job satisfaction. This
result is not surprising as, in certain cultures, it is the
organizational norm to be constantly exposed and
interacting with supervisors and management staff
with the belief that important projects can be
rightfully bestowed upon them only if they are
around. In certain Asian countries, it takes the guts
and risk to leave for the day when their supervisors
are still working. In the same fashion, employees
whose working hours are not monitored by the
Organizational commitment was generally a
positive and a significant indicator of job satisfaction
(p < .01). The respondents in every country regarded
it as a positive and statistically significant indicator of
job satisfaction. Among the control variables, age (p
< .05) and gender (p < .05) were positively related to
job satisfaction, while employment status (p < .05)
was found to be a negative influence. This indicated
that while the older and/or female respondents
were more likely to express high level of job
satisfaction, those working in full-time basis were
less likely to express high level of job satisfaction
compared to those in part-time basis. Educational
[33]
management may develop a sense of being
unwanted by their organizations and feel “left out”
of important responsibilities. For example, in the
case of higher education, Bozeman and Gaughan
(2011), their research showed that faculty members
who have a larger number of research collaborators
tended to have higher job satisfaction. From the
perspective of leader-member exchange (LMX)
theory, degree and frequency of interaction
between the leader and the member can elevate the
employee’s perceived compatibility or comfort with
an organization (Mitchell, Holtom, & Lee, 2001).
Results from Table 3, however, show that the
negative effects of autonomy on working hours were
relatively more salient in France, Mexico, Taiwan,
and South Africa, which may suggest that other
factors beyond cultural factors must also be taken
into account in future research.
experience, the significance was shown in reverse as
the respondents in the remaining countries such as
United States, Norway, Bulgaria, Russia, Israel,
Denmark, and South Africa regarded current work
experience as more important.
As evidenced in this study, job training was
not, overall, a significant indicator of job satisfaction.
This lack of support for the hypothesis overall
despite the strong indication given by the literature
on its positive impact on individual and
organizational performance management, is a
testament to how complex the nature personnel
management practices in general and in the public
sector more specifically. For example, public sector
employees are traditionally required to complete a
multitude of basic service training that is neither
deemed necessary by the employees nor specifically
designed to enhance one’s job skills. In addition, it is
possible that while current work experience is
regarded as a significant antecedent of job
satisfaction, the type of job training that public
sector employees has may not equip them to be
competitive when the future employment
opportunity comes. Another potential explanation
may be that public sector employees are getting too
many job training. If job training schedule is in
conflict with the employees’ main tasks, for example,
in meeting the deadlines and therefore interferes
with their main performance criteria, their level of
dissatisfaction may be elevated. Of those countries
that showed negative association between job
training and job satisfaction, the relationship was
statistically significant only in the United States. The
respondents who regarded job training as favorable
condition for job satisfaction included were from
Israel, Latvia, and South Africa. Moreover, the
negative relationship between job training and job
satisfaction may stem from the notion that too many
job trainings can limit the number of interactions
between the employees and the supervisors, which
can result in reduced workload not to mention not
being invited to join on important tasks. This is
similar to the respondents whose autonomy on
This research also introduces new findings
in how work experience affects one’s job satisfaction.
The study shows that the more the usage of their
past work skills in their current job, the higher the
level of job satisfaction. This is a new contribution to
the literature that focused exclusively on whether
one had a similar work experience and the number
of years in the previous job. In fact, work experience
was the second most powerful antecedent, after
organizational commitment, of job satisfaction in
this study. Another interesting finding in this study is
that majority of the respondents regarded current
work experience as a more significant indicator of
job satisfaction than past work experience. This
suggests that although how past work experience
relates to current jobs was important from the
perspective of both the employees and the
employers, potential for future prospects from their
current job was even more important. The study also
revealed that countries were almost equally divided
between past and current work experience. For
example, while the respondents in Australia, Sweden,
Canada, Latvia, France, Taiwan, and Dominican
Republican regarded past work experience as
statistically significant rather than current work
[34]
working hours was inversely associated with job
satisfaction. By examining the exclusivity of the job
training combined with the type of training, future
research may help us understand the conditions
under which job training can be instrumental in
raising employee job satisfaction.
significant or reversed in relationship with job
satisfaction. Also worth mentioning is that no factors,
other than the organizational commitment, seem to
be associated with job satisfaction in New Zealand,
Portugal, and Flanders. Rather, it was age that
played a more important role than others in New
Zealand and Flanders. These results also reflect that
cultural factors may play a more important part and
affect the attitudes of the individuals and the
characteristics of the organizations.
As Kristof (1996) noted, the exact nature of
this compatibility is not easy to describe. The current
study has shown that while the difficulty of finding a
job at least as good as the current one can affect his
or her pride in being affiliated with the organization
and therefore increase their job satisfaction, being
irreplaceable was not a significant factor of job
satisfaction. This partially contradicts previous
research (Bozeman & Gaughan, 2011), for example,
where tenured faculty members enjoyed a
significantly higher level of job satisfaction than
those not tenured but on tenure track.
Conclusion
We recognize limitations relative to our
data. First, the measures used here are perceptual
rather than objective due to the use of pre-existing
dataset. The measurement of the study variables,
particularly job satisfaction, human resource
development, and organizational commitment, is
constrained by the limited items used in the survey.
Single-item measurement scales, such as job
satisfaction, work experience, autonomy, human
resource development, and person-organization
exclusivity could be problematic and could be more
rigorous as a single item can often hinder the
evaluation of internal consistency. Therefore, the
variance due to the specific wording of the item
cannot be averaged out (Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza,
2000). Second, this study is based on limited survey
data collected in 2005 and, therefore, conclusions
about causation cannot be made. A more complete
analysis would require additional data on those
working in the public sector. However, the study was
founded upon a large body of suggestive empirical
findings, which give more confidence that the causal
linkages are correctly specified. Nevertheless,
experimental and longitudinal research is necessary
to establish causation. Also, more objective measure
that distinguishes extrinsic from intrinsic job
satisfaction (McCormick & Illgen, 1985) could be
used. Third, despite the diversity of the sample,
which is composed of people of different
occupations within the public sector from various
educational and training backgrounds around the
world, the data were, nevertheless, collected
Overall, the cross-country analysis displayed
several prominent features in terms of how the job
satisfaction of the respondents varied depending on
the specific antecedent that was accounted for, with
the exception of organizational commitment, which
has consistently explained the most variance in job
satisfaction in all countries. For example, autonomy
regarding the organization of work was a positive
and significant only six countries, including the
United States, Bulgaria, France, Denmark,
Switzerland, and Taiwan, while the relationship was
completely reversed in Dominican Republic, with the
remaining 11 countries not showing significant
association. Also, contrary to the popular belief that
flexibility of controlling working hours by the
employees, majority of the respondents regarded it
as a factor that would lower job satisfaction,
including those in the United States. In addition, the
different dimensions of autonomy almost played a
different role depending on the country. For
example, while autonomy on the organization of
work was a positive and significant factor in United
States, Bulgaria, France, and Taiwan, autonomy
regarding the control of hours was either non-
[35]
through self-report measures, raising the possibility
that common method variance (Podsakoff,
MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003) may have
affected the results. However, Spector (2006) argues
that problems associated with common method
variance are largely overstated. As noted previously,
the reliability of some of the new and established
measures used here fell slightly below commonly
accepted levels for well-established instruments
(Nunnally, 1978). However, overall patterns of
results
were
consistent
across
survey
administrations, suggesting that the reliabilities were
not highly problematic (Adkins, 1995).
job training in their human resource development
practices. Future studies can further explore the
scope and nature of the job training and its influence
on job satisfaction using a cross-national perspective.
In conclusion, we recognize that advances
in technology and the advent of a global economy
are bringing the people of the world closer together
than ever before. Given this fact, businesses,
educational systems and other entities are
investigating ways to better serve their constituents.
This includes being able to attract and retain the
best and most qualified workers. Organizations that
can develop and employ the necessary policies and
procedures to do this will maintain a competitive
advantage among their counterparts and increase
their effectiveness. This is a common practice in the
private sector. Although such a private sector
competitive model may not squarely fit the public
sector, given the lack of profit motive, the public
sector organizations must compete at the same time
to recruit and retain the best talent if they hope to
achieve their bottom line and their statutory
missions. For any government, especially in the
United States, to continue to be effective and
motivate citizens to contribute to building these
institutions, the leaders must recognize and
capitalize upon the diversity of the nation. For the
public sector employers to have a sustainability plan
for the growth of their human capital in the long run,
understanding the preferences, background, and
motivation of the employees is crucial for their
success. Although organizational commitment has
been a consistent predictor of job satisfaction
among the 18 countries studied in this study, results
showed inconsistent and mixed results from a
comparative perspective. For example, while the
respondents in Israel, Latvia, and South Africa
regarded human resource development as a
significant antecedent of job satisfaction, the
response was completely reversed in the United
States. Although we recognize the limitations that
come from using a single-item for the HRD construct,
we recognize the importance of understanding how
Despite these limitations, this research
supports the descriptive literature and empirical
studies that look at job satisfaction, workplace
autonomy,
work
experience,
organizational
commitment, human resource development, and
person-organization exclusivity. In particular, this
study affirms the prior efforts of prior workplace
autonomy research on distinguishing three types of
job autonomy: control of working hours, difficulty of
taking time off during work hours, and
organization/scheduling of work (Griffin, Patterson,
& West, 2001; Janz, Colquitt, & Noe, 1997). Another
contribution comes from the relationship between
work experience and job satisfaction. Moving
beyond the traditional literature on work experience
where previous research focused on the potential
linkage between the number of years in previous
jobs and performance in the current job, the current
study was able to shed a new light in which the
usage of work skills and knowledge acquired through
the previous job is positively related to job
satisfaction in the current job. In addition, as shown
in Table 3, by understanding the respondents’
attitude toward their current work experience and
its potential for future job hunting, it sends a
practical message to the practitioners that
progressiveness of the work contents is an important
aspect of personnel management practice that
should not be taken lightly. As evidenced in this
study, employers need to be careful in the design of
[36]
job training can be both effective and ineffective
between the countries. Although the previous
research in human resource management in general
suggests that learning new skills as part of the job
training benefits both the employees and the
organization, how that translates into keeping the
employees satisfied and be productive in the
workplace in the public sector where the primary
focus is on dealing with and managing people is still
not clear and warrants further research. As also
evidenced in this study, the usage of past work skills
in the current job as well as the potential utility of
current work experience for future jobs were
significant indicators of job satisfaction. These
findings may also suggest that rather than the
management determining the nature and type of job
training, autonomy in terms of what job training the
employees desire may play an important part in
maximizing the potential effectiveness of human
resource development practices.
understand how the social as well as human capital
factors around the world affect public service
workers differently.
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