How do young children become bilingual?
Graduation Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the Department of
English Language and Literature
Notre Dame Seishin University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirement for the Degree
Bachelor of Arts
by
Takako Okazaki
2014
Contents
Abstract
4
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is bilingual?
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Definitions of bilingual
1.2.3 Categorization of bilingual
1.3 How children learn their languages?
1.3.1 How children learn their L1 (mother tongue)?
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8
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1.3.2 How do we learn a second language?
1.3.3 How do children learn their L2 after they acquire their L1?
1.3.4 How do children learn their L2 while they learn their L1?
1.4 Research Questions
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Questions
1.5 Conclusion
Chapter Two: The Experiment
2.1 Introduction
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2.2 The experiment
2.2.1 Introduction to the questionnaire
2.2.2 Method
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Are you planning to bring up your children bilingually?
2.4 Summary
Chapter Three: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
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29
30
3.2 Summary of the results
30
3.3 Discussion of the results
30
3.3.1 Which is the most important factor when bringing up children
bilingually?
30
3.3.2 What is more effective way to bring your children up bilingually? 31
3.4 Research questions
31
3.5 Implications
32
3.6 Limitations of the experiments
32
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3.7 Further research
33
3.8 Conclusion
33
References
Appendices
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35
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Abstract
Nowadays, speaking two languages is nothing amazing. We call those who speak two
languages without trouble, bilinguals. It is known that they have many advantages. There are
a lot of bilingual people all over the world. But, how did they grow up bilingually? This thesis
discusses the results of a questionnaire, to find out the good and effective ways to make
someone bilingual.
In Chapter One, we looked at four definitions of bilingual, and learnt how children
acquire their first language and second language. We found the different ways to learn L2 in
each case, one case of learning L2 is children acquire L2 after they acquire L1. Another case
is children acquiring L2 while they learn L1.
In Chapter Two, we looked at the results of questionnaire given to people who don’t
have bilingual children (Notre Dame Seishin University students) and those who actually
have bilingual children. They answered their ideas, gave important information and explained
effective ways to bring up children bilingually. Also, we looked at some plans of those who
have bilingual children and what did they did to make their children become bilingual.
In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the questionnaire and research questions
in detail. There were some similar ideas between students and those who have bilingual
children, on the other hand, there were some differences too. Although students thought that
those ways are effective to bring up children bilingually, those who have bilingual children
thought it ineffective. Each student had a various opinions and ideas, thus they didn’t have the
same ones. Also, there were some different ideas among those who have bilingual children.
4
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Introduction
Nowadays, the number of people who use English keeps on growing with globalization.
According to the British Council, a billion people use English, and this institution guesses that
there will be 3 billion people by 2015. It means 40% of the world population including
children will use English at least some of the time.
Bilingual people are not rare now, because over half the world’s population is bilingual.
Yet a little reflection shows that the predominance of bilingualism, at least at national level,
must necessarily be the case; there are 3,000-5,000 languages in the world but only about 200
countries to fit them all. A lot of parents want their children to become bilingual, because of
these merits, for example developing their ideas, increasing a source of information, spreading
their network, they can become international, they can have a broad outlook and increasing
the choices of job.
However, many parents have a lot of plans to make their children become bilingual, but
it is quite difficult. In the bad case, children get confused about many problems, for example,
parents take their children to the English conversation school in a new country, but the
children can’t express their opinions with second language in a new environment. There is
only a chance of input, but there is no chance of output. Finally, the growth of languages is
delayed.
1.2 What is a bilingual?
1.2.1 Introduction
Bilingual means people who can speak and use two languages without any trouble in
their daily life, but there are a lot of opinions about bilinguals.
More than forty years ago, bilinguals were considered retarded, underachieving,
5
emotionally disturbed children (Baker, 1996). There was a lot of denial of access to bilingual
education. However, in recent years, studies have shown that there are many advantages to
becoming bilingual when it involves being fully capable in two languages or more. (These
persons, usually have been said, are often labeled ‘additive bilinguals’.) For instance, there is
often a high sense of creativity and high academic achievement (Baker, translated by Oka,
1996).
The other advantage point is that bilinguals can gain creative thinking skills. Users with
two or more languages may also increase their fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration
in thinking. Bilinguals will have two or more words for a single object or idea. For instance,
in Welsh, the word ysgol not only means a school but also a ladder. Thus having the word
‘ysgol’ in Welsh and ‘school’ in English provides the bilingual with an added dimension - the
idea of the school as a ladder. In the same way, having two or more words for folk dancing or
square dancing in different languages may give a wider variety of associations than having a
single word in one language (Baker, 1993).
1.2.2 Definitions of bilingual
There are various definitions of bilingual, so it is difficult to define it perfectly as we
can see in next section.
1.2.3 Categorization of bilinguals
The child learns to see his language as one particular system among many, to views its
phenomena under more general categories and this leads to awareness of his linguistic
operations. Mother tongue is important for bilinguals because it is used (1) to develop as a
social person (2) to communicate their emotions and minds (3) to develop their intelligence.
Penfield (1966) said that acquiring the second language is related to flexibility of the
6
cerebral cortex and people should start making their children bilingual by 9 years old. There is
a critical period or perceptive term. The Critical term means that if children are over a certain
age, it is difficult for them to acquire the second language. Recent research shows this is about
age 4. Perceptive term means that when one time comes, children can have a sharp sense of
acquiring the second language. When children become about 9 years old, the cerebral cortex
becomes hard and finally they lose much flexibility in adolescence.
Bilinguals can be broadly categorized into four types. Below is categorized by
Nakashima (1998) and Cummins (1996).
A. Additive bilinguals
These are defined by Landry (1987).
a) The person demonstrates a high level of proficiency in both communicative and
cognitive-academic aspects of L1 and L2.
b) The individual maintains a strong ethno-linguistic identity and positive beliefs towards
his/her own language and culture while also holding positive attitude towards the second
language and culture.
c) The person has the opportunity to use his/her first language in normal everyday
situations and there is no tendency to use it exclusively for less valued social roles or domains
of activity (diglossia), for example, among service personnel, nannies, or caretakers.
Other definitions,
・Controlling two languages like mother tongue user (Bloomfield, 1933)
・Using two languages by turns (Weinreich, 1953)
・Using their two languages for different purpose and functions (Colin Baker, 1993)
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B. L1 dominant bilinguals
Only one language (the native language at home) is used at a commensurate level with
age.
C. L2 dominant bilinguals
Fluency in a second language (local language from outside the home) is greater than
that of the native language and only fluency in the local language is commensurate with age.
D. Semilinguals or double limited bilinguals
Abilities in both languages have not developed commensurate with age level.
Semilinguals are considered to exhibit the following profile in both their languages ; displays
a small vocabulary and incorrect grammar, consciously thinks and language production, is
stilted and uncreative with each language, and finds it difficult to think and express emotions
in either language (Baker, 1993).
1.3 How children learn their languages?
1.3.1 How children learn their L1 (mother tongue)?
Children usually utter their first words at least 12 months after birth. It means that they
perceive languages before that time. Acquiring the L1 is characterized by (a) learning is very
early (b) it has a definite developmental stage or developmental order (c) not enough to learn
L1 with their input, because language abilities of some people have limits.
Children have to listen to the language around them to learn it, but according (a), (b)
and (c), they don’t remember the language by imitating it. There is an idea that people have
the innate Language Acquisition Device (Shirohata, 2006). It’s a grammar system of
correspondence to all languages, universal and abstract. UG is a language knowledge which
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prepares a common base of under some natural languages in the early stages. There is a
principle which is common to all of natural language and a parameter which enables to deal
with individual language. For instance, in the case of Japanese children who want to acquire
Japanese. First, they get the data of Japanese with input, and then UG is working. They set up
a Japanese parameter using UG. Finally, they become to produce Japanese grammar.
Input
Experience
Heart/Brain
language acquisition device
Output
individual grammar
According to this section, is UG related to learning the L2? There are three hypotheses.
(A) Full access to the UG model, (B) Partial access to the UG model and (C) No access to the
UG model. (A) means that people can work UG to learn the L2 regardless of age. Scholars
who insist (B) hypothesis says that learners can use UG, but they only use the parameter and
the principle which were used to learn L1. Therefore, if you need to use UG to learn new
principle of L2, you haven’t already used UG. (C) hypothesis usually calls Fundamental
Difference Hypothesis. Namely, many functions of people become weaker, as they grow older.
UG which is the ability to acquire grammar isn’t exception. Whether people can use UG or
cannot, it is related to what kind of second language you learn. (Suzuki, Shirohata, 2012)
1.3.2 How do we learn a second language?
Two authors have provided overviews which integrate second language acquisition
theory and research with second language educational practice (Ellis, 1985, Spolsky, 1989).
The framework of Spolsky starts with the notion that all second language learning takes place
in a social context. The home, the community, the school, the nuclear and extended family,
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peer groups and teachers provide second language values and venues, provision and practice.
Spolsky says that the social context of second language learning has two influences: firstly on
language attitudes (which in turn leads to motivation within the individual) and secondly on
learning opportunities second language learner motivation then interacts with a learner’s other
individual characteristics: previous knowledge age, aptitude, learning style and learning
strategies and personality variables such a anxiety.
Ellis suggests that there are five inter-related factors that govern the acquisition of a
second language: situational factors, input, learner differences, learner processes and
linguistic output. Situational factors refer to who is talking to whom, the environment of the
interaction, whether it is in a classroom, formal situation or in a naturalistic setting. Learner
differences are individual differences in age and learning style. Learner processes is clearly
insufficient to consider second language acquisition by external input and by second language
output. The input that second language learners receive is sifted, processed and organized.
Such processing cannot be easily observed. (Baker, 2003)
1.3.3 How do children learn their L2 after they acquire their L1?
Learning the L2 is different from learning the L1. People say the person is a
consecutive bilingual because of three points. First, learners have already learned a mother
tongue. Second, learners have a high condition of common recognized ability which means
the learners can guess from their social background and customs. Finally, when children
acquire the L1, they don’t need motivation, but if they try to acquire the L2 after they
acquired the L1, they need motivation. It means that if people have regular period and chance
to contact with the L1, they can acquire the L1 as a mother tongue. In case of acquiring the L2,
even if you have such a chance, you cannot acquire the L2 like mother tongue.
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1.3.4 How do children learn their L2 while they learn their L1?
People say the children who learn their L2 while they learn L1, early simultaneous
bilinguals. Researchers think that all human children have a high ability of languages
discrimination. Children are affected two points, the input of their parents and some social
factors. That is to say, even if they try hard to learn L2 individually, it is difficult for children
to learn their L2 while they learn their L1.
1.4 Research Questions
1.4.1 Introduction
We looked at what is bilingual and how children acquire L1 and L2. We have already
discovered that bilinguals have a lot of advantages and how hard it is to acquire L2. Now, we
will find what is good way to make children becoming bilingual and what are some different
points or opinions between people have bilingual children and people who don’t.
1.4.2 Research Questions
1. What do people know about child language acquisition now? What is the different between
a bilingual family and others?
2. What are the good ways to make children become bilingual?
1.5 Conclusion
In this chapter, we looked at the definition of bilingual, and how children acquire their
L1 and L2 in each case. One case of learning the L2 is children acquire the L2 after they
acquire L1. The other case is children acquire L2 while they learn L1. In Chapter Two, we
will look at the result of the questionnaire.
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Chapter Two: The Experiment
2.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, we looked at the definition of bilinguals and how children learn their
languages. Also, we looked the different ways to learn our mother tongue and second language.
We could find out that there are some types of bilingual.
In this chapter, we will look the results of questionnaire to find out ideas or opinions what
are some different points who have bilingual children and who don’t have. We also look the best
way to make children bilingual.
2.2 The experiment
2.2.1 Introduction to the questionnaire
The questionnaire asks what people who don’t have bilingual children think about some
good ways to make their children becoming bilingual and what people with bilingual children did
for their children to become bilingual. In this way, we can compare some ideas or opinions of
them who have bilingual children and people who don’t have them. Finally, we search the best
way to make children becoming bilingual.
2.2.2 Method
1) Subjects
The 69 subjects were students of Notre Dame Seishin University in the department of
English language and literature. These students are mainly studying English and have many
chances to speak English. All of the students use Japanese language as their mother tongue except
a student. A student’s mother tongue is English.
The 15 bi-lingual family subjects were person who married internationally and have
children. The 4 of the 15 are teachers of Notre Dame Seishin University. 13 people use English as
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their mother tongue. 2 people use Japanese and Icelandic.
2) Test design
The questionnaire asked students of Notre Dame Seishin University what are the most
important choices to make a teenager bilingual. There were 17 items which students choose 5 of
17 items about what they do for their children if they make their children becoming bilingual. The
next question had 18 items and the table was divided into five levels.
The questionnaire, which had to ask them who had married internationally and have
children, was conducted online and by paper. Full and part-time teachers in Notre Dame Seishin
University to teach students answered in paper. On pages 1 and 2 include the same question as
students. It used 17 items and a table too. Also the subjects had to ask what their children speak in
various cases, for example some emotions and situations, their first language and second language
levels of any members of their family, for example how good are their language skills (speaking,
understanding, reading and writing).
3) Procedure
The questionnaire for students was collected on paper. The questionnaire for native teachers
was collected on paper too and the questionnaire for people who married internationally and have
children was collected online. Finally, these questionnaires were analyzed with Excel. We can see
some different points between them who have bilingual children and people who don’t with pie
graph and tables.
2.3 Results
First we will look at the data which compared students and those who have bilingual
children. They chose 5 from the 17 items. After that they chose the best one to make children
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become bilingual and wrote the reason. Also we look some effective ways to make children
becoming bilingual and whether ages relate to make children becoming bilingual or not. After that
we can see some answers by people who have bilingual children, are you planning to bring up
your children bilingually and what do your children speak in various situations.
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Table 1 : Mean scores for the them who have bilingual children and who don’t. Which is the
most important thing to make children up to about age 10 bilingual?
(They chose 5 items of 17 items.)
Students
People with bilingual
children
1 parents
86%
100%
2 brothers/sisters
10%
53%
3 relatives
4%
47%
4 friends
7%
20%
5 teachers
12%
20%
6 education
41%
53%
7 social surroundings
81%
67%
8 age
57%
0%
9 ability
3%
0%
10 aptitude
4%
7%
11 personality
12 whether you have some chances to have
intercultural communication
13 mother tongue
6%
13%
46%
27%
16%
0%
14 culture
16%
27%
15 motivation
48%
33%
16 experiences of studying abroad
30%
20%
17 media
23%
20%
15
Figure 1 : Students chose the best one of 17 items.
As we learned from Table 1, 59 students chose parents and 56 students chose social
surroundings as the most important things. Next items are age, motivation and whether you
have some chances to have intercultural communication. From Figure 2, we can see 22
students think parents are the most important item and 15 students think social surroundings
is the most important item. Each of the 9 students think that age and motivation are the most
important items. We can see a few students think about that there are other important things,
teachers, education, mother tongue and experiences of studying abroad.
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Figure 2 : People with bilingual children chose the best one of 17 items.
Which is the most important thing?
(People with bilingual children)
experiences of
studying abroad
7%
others
13%
parents
53%
social
surroundings 20%
friends
7%
As we learned in Table 1, all of the subjects (15 people) chose parents. 10 people chose
social surroundings. Each subject chose brothers/sisters and education was chosen by 8
people. There were seven who said relatives. From Figure 2, there are 8 people that think that
parents is the most important item. Three people think that social surroundings is the most
important item. Also there are a few people who chose these items, friends, experiences of
studying abroad and others. Two people chose others. One person answered role models.
Another person answered that it’s not that simple, because he thinks that it's to do with what
languages children play and interact in and what languages do they need to communicate
genuinely and meaningfully with people who they want to communicate with. Those people
are usually parents when children are very young, but it depends on each family's
circumstance. Once children go to school, then friends play a huge role.
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Table 2 : If students make your children becoming bilingual, how would you help for them, how effective is it?
Not Very
Very
1
2
1 Listening to some songs
1%
1%
22% 41% 35%
2 Singing some songs together
0%
3%
29% 36% 32%
3 Watching some videos or DVDs (like Disney and animation)
0%
1%
10% 41% 48%
4 Reading some books to your children
0%
10% 22% 39% 29%
5 Making your children read some books aloud
0%
0%
6 Making your children repeat one sentence many times
4%
13% 31% 34% 18%
7 Speaking to your children in the second language
0%
4%
8 Correcting your child’s mistakes
4%
14% 28% 32% 22%
9 Taking your children to the preschool or kindergarten
1%
3%
10% 32% 54%
10 Taking your children to the international school (children need a definite level in second language)
1%
1%
16% 36% 45%
11 Taking your children to the English conversation school (like ECC and AEON)
7%
10% 26% 30% 26%
12 Playing some games
4%
16% 35% 33% 12%
13 Making your children remember a few words a day
3%
17% 28% 32% 20%
14 Sticking some words on daily materials
0%
7%
15 Teaching the culture of the second language
0%
13% 31% 32% 24%
16 Taking your children to some foreign countries
1%
13% 26% 29% 30%
17 Teaching how to write the alphabet or some words
1%
12% 30% 30% 26%
18 Taking part in some activities together (parents and children)
4%
6%
18
3
4
5
12% 36% 52%
10% 28% 57%
22% 36% 35%
42% 29% 19%
Table 3 : If People with bilingual children make your children becoming bilingual, how would you help for them, how effective is it?
Not very
Very
1
2
3
1 Listening to some songs
0%
13%
7%
2 Singing some songs together
7%
0%
27% 13% 53%
3 Watching some videos or DVDs (like Disney and animation)
0%
0%
7%
33% 60%
4 Reading some books to your children
0%
0%
0%
7%
5 Making your children read some books aloud
0%
7%
0%
50% 43%
6 Making your children repeat one sentence many times
53% 20% 20%
0%
7%
7 Speaking to your children in the second language
0%
0%
93%
8 Correcting your child’s mistakes
13% 27% 20% 20% 20%
9 Taking your children to the preschool or kindergarten
14%
7%
50%
10 Taking your children to the international school (children need a definite level in second language)
0%
7%
13% 33% 47%
11 Taking your children to the English conversation school (like ECC and AEON)
7%
33% 60%
12 Playing some games
0%
7%
13 Making your children remember a few words a day
27% 20% 33%
7%
13%
14 Sticking some words on daily materials
20% 20% 40%
7%
13%
15 Teaching the culture of the second language
0%
7%
27% 27% 40%
16 Taking your children to some foreign countries
0%
0%
13% 13% 73%
17 Teaching how to write the alphabet or some words
0%
0%
20% 20% 60%
18 Taking part in some activities together (parents and children)
0%
0%
7%
19
0%
7%
4
5
33% 47%
7%
0%
93%
21%
0%
13% 33% 47%
13% 80%
From Table 2, we can see that half of the student subjects think that these ways are very
effective to make children becoming bilingual
・Speaking to your children in the second language
・Taking your children to the preschool or kindergarten
・Making your children read some books aloud
From Table 3, we can see that almost all of them think that these ways are very
effective.
・Reading some books to your children
・Speaking to your children in the second language
・Taking part in some activities together (parents and children)
Half of the subjects think that these ways are very effective.
・Taking your children to some foreign countries
・Teaching how to write the alphabet or some words
・Watching some videos or DVDs (like Disney and animation)
・Singing some songs together
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Figure 3 : Do you feel that the age a child starts to learn a second language will affect how
quickly and how well they learn? (Students)
NO
6%
UNSURE
14%
YES
80%
55 of the 69 students answered yes, 4 students answered no and 10 students answered
unsure. 19 of the 55 students answered children start learning a second language from birth.
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Figure 4 : What is a good up to age to acquire a second language? (Students)
13%
4%
1
9%
2
5%
3
7%
15%
4
5
6
29%
18%
7
8
From Figure 4, we can see 9% of the students answered children should learn a second
language by 3 years old. 5% of the students answered by 5 years old. 15% of the students
answered by 8 years old. 18% of the students answered by 10 years old. 29% of the students
answered by 12 years old. 7% of the students answered 15 years old. 4% of the students
answered by 18 years old. 13% of the students answered over 18 years old. The oldest age is
30 years old.
22
Figure 5 : Do you feel that the age a child starts to learn a second language will affect how
quickly and how well they learn? (People with bilingual children)
NO
0%
UNSURE
20%
YES
80%
12 of 15 people answered yes, nobody answered no and 3 people answered unsure. 7 of
12 people answered children should start learning a second language from birth. 3 of 12
people answered children should learn a second language by spending times with their parents.
2 of 12 people answered all ages are good to learn a second language.
The person who answered unsure said his child hadn’t learn a second language, so his
child learned two languages simultaneously. Another person who answered unsure said that
it's often said that pronunciation and listening to particular sounds is easier for kids to pick
this up before the 'critical period' (around puberty), but this is only generally true and not
always the case.
2.3.1 Are you planning to bring up your children bilingually?
All of them (15 people) answered agree to bring up children bilingually, and wrote
many reasons, how did they bring up their children bilingually, what did they do for them,
what is a good way.
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a. In Japan, they speak only English, in Canada, they speak only Japanese
at home. Now, they sent their child to a good international (English)
preschool and now to a good elementary school (with an international
course, English curriculum 35% / Japanese 65%).
b. Reading a lot of books is good. He introduced his children to some
interesting books.
c. They talked together every day with a second language.
d. They always mix two languages. If they are in Japan, their children don't
need to learn and use English, then they will limit use of Japanese at
home. If they are in Canada, they do the opposite. But for them, raising
their children as bilinguals means they are bicultural too. They make
sure that their children are comfortable using both languages and living
in both cultures.
e. Their children are 5 and 8 years old. One attends a nursery school where
no English is taught, but goes to an evening class for English learning.
The 8 year old attends a state-school which teaches two subjects in
English and therefore calls itself an immersion program. The 8 year old
also attends the same evening class as the 5 year old. Parents speak to
them in English consistently and ask them to speak in English.
f. They plan to continue to expose their children to a rich language media
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and social situations.
g. They spoke with their children only in English and they read a lot with
them as their children grew up. They sent the older one to international
school (for educational, not linguistic reasons) from 4th grade in
elementary school. Their younger son went all the way through in
Japanese school and is not fully bilingual.
h. Mostly by speaking to them in English.
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Table 4 : What language do your children speak in these cases? (Emotion)
First
Second
both
unsure
language
language
1. angry
43%
0%
50%
7%
2. disappointed
43%
0%
43%
14%
3. happy
29%
0%
57%
14%
4. sad
36%
0%
57%
7%
5. surprised
43%
0%
50%
7%
6. frightened
36%
0%
57%
7%
7. ashamed
29%
0%
57%
14%
8. satisfied
29%
0%
57%
14%
9. relaxed
29%
0%
57%
14%
10. confused
36%
0%
50%
14%
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Table 5 : What language is your children speak in these cases? (Situation)
First
Second
both
unsure
language language
1. around the house
27%
0%
73%
0%
33%
0%
60%
7%
3. shopping
27%
0%
73%
0%
4. in the car
21%
0%
79%
0%
5. playing with their friends
50%
0%
43%
7%
6. playing with their brothers or sisters
29%
0%
64%
7%
7. talking with their parents
20%
0%
80%
0%
8. playing alone
40%
0%
40%
20%
9. watching TV
27%
0%
73%
0%
10. reading some books
29%
7%
57%
7%
11. drawing some pictures
15%
0%
62%
23%
2. doing things together such as cooking or
cleaning
According to Table 4 and Table 5, almost all the children hardly use only the second
language in their daily life, but half or more than half of children use both languages. It means
that they mix their language or they use their languages depending on which person or case by
case. In case of emotions, children often use their first language more than for the situation
questions.
27
Table 6 : If you want to help your teenage child to acquire a second language, what is important for them?
1st
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
a. going to the language school (e.g. English conversation school)
0%
25%
8%
0%
8%
17%
0%
17% 27%
b. going abroad
75%
8%
8%
0%
0%
8%
0%
0%
0%
33% 25%
8%
17%
8%
0%
8%
0%
0%
d. learning from materials (e.g. TV, movies, books, games and music)
17% 17%
8%
42% 17%
0%
0%
0%
0%
e. forcing children to use only the second language everyday
0%
0%
0%
0%
8%
0%
8%
25% 58%
f. learning from teaching materials (e.g. textbooks)
0%
17%
8%
8%
25% 17% 25%
0%
0%
g. teaching by parents
25%
0%
0%
17%
0%
25%
8%
25%
0%
h. having high motivation
25% 17% 33%
0%
17%
0%
8%
0%
0%
i. setting goals
17% 17%
0%
8%
8%
17%
8%
17%
c. interacting with friends who had already learned the language that your
children is trying to learn as a second language
28
8%
9th
According to Table 6, 9 of 11 people who have bilingual children think going abroad is
the most important to help teenage children to acquire a second language. From 2nd to 8th,
people chose various items, but in 9th, 7 of 12 people thought that forcing children to use only
the second language everyday is not so important.
2.4 Summary
In this chapter, we looked some ideas and opinions of respondents, Also we looked at
the different ideas between people who have bilingual children and those who don’t. In
Chapter Three, we are going to discuss, analyze and explain what the results mean. Finally,
we will think about the best way to make children become bilingual.
29
Chapter Three: Discussion
3.1 Introduction
In Chapter One, first, we learned what bilinguals are and we found out that there are four types
of bilingual. Next, we saw how young children learn L1 and L2 and found out that there are two
questions about the learning of a second language. For example, how do children learn their L2 after
they acquire their L1 and how do children learn their L2 while they learn their L1?
In Chapter Two, we looked at some results of the questionnaires. We compared some results of
students and People with bilingual children.
In this chapter, we will discuss the results of the questionnaire in more detail and find a good
way to make children become bilingual.
3.2 Summary of the results
In Chapter Two, we looked at the results of the study. There were some different opinions about
the way to make children bring up bilingual between students and them who have bilingual children.
Also, we saw the good ways which people with bilingual children used to bring up their children
bilingually. And we saw how their bilingual children use their languages in their daily life.
3.3 Discussion of the results
We looked at the results of the questionnaire in Chapter Two. In this section, we will look at
each question in great detail.
3.3.1 Which is the most important factor when bringing up children bilingually?
Most subjects chose parents. The students thought that parents can spend a lot of time with their
children and so the children will naturally learn languages from their parents at first, children think that
the language which their parents speak is their language and parents are deeply involved in bringing up
their children. When we compare parents bringing up children and children growing, if children bring
30
themselves up, they need strong motivation to acquire languages and real chances to practice language.
People who have bilingual children think that parents have the most exposure to children, they can talk
to children most, and they can create the bilingual environment and maintain it as well as providing a
lot of early linguistic input.
The next most common item was social surroundings. Students think that getting the chances for
children to use the second language is important, if people around the children have a high motivation
for the second language, children will become more interested in it and even if children learn the
second language, they cannot acquire it without having chances. People with bilingual children think
that strong social pressure let children learn and use the language, if the social surroundings where
parents and children live together the children need to use the second language, parents and children
try harder, become more motivated and become exposed to more than language and if other people
don’t use the language, children don’t feel need the language.
3.3.2 What is more effective way to bring your children up bilingually?
Both students and subjects with have bilingual children think “Speaking to your children in the
second language” is effective. Students also think that “Making your children read some books aloud”
is effective. Those who have bilingual children think that “Reading some books to your children” is
effective. Students think “Taking your children to the preschool or kindergarten” is effective, but more
than a half of them don’t think that this item is strongly effective.
People with bilingual children chose “Taking your children to some foreign countries” is effective, and
according to the Table 6 almost all of them think that it is the best for teenager children to go abroad to
acquire the second language.
3.4 Research questions
In this section, we will look at some answers of research questions.
31
Research question 1 : What do people know about child language acquisition now? What is
different between a bilingual family and others?
From the results of the questionnaire, more than half of the students chose taking children to
preschools, kindergartens, international schools and English conversation schools as effective to bring
up children bilingually. On the other hand, people with bilingual children think that taking children to
international schools is effective, but the other ideas are not so effective.
Half of the students think that making children read some books aloud is effective, on the other
hand almost all of those who have bilingual children think that reading some books to children is
effective showing a little difference between students and those with bilingual children.
More than a half of them think that making children repeat one sentence many times is not very
effective, but students don’t think so. Students think this item is not very effective but it’s very
ineffective. We can see that it is important for parents to do a various things with their children.
Research question 2 : What are the good ways to make your children become bilingual?
From the results of the questionnaire answered by those who have bilingual children, some of
them make many chances to give exposure to the second language. For example, when parents ask
some questions in the second language, children have to answer it in the same language, or they have
some rules about which languages to speak. All most all of them make some chances for their children
to use their second language. Thus the role of parents is quite important to bring up children
bilingually.
3.5 Implications
This study tried to understand the actual situation of bilingual education, because there are some
fixed ideas of bilingual education between person who have bilingual children and who don’t.
3.6 Limitations of the experiments
There were 69 students, on the other hand there are only 15 people who have bilingual children.
32
It would have been better to ask more people to get useful results comparing the data between students
and them. If we had asked more people, we could have had more variety of opinions.
If we use the questionnaire again, we will ask same number of students and them who have
bilingual children, about 30 people.
3.7 Further research
We asked how effective it is to make children become bilingual in each question of this
questionnaire, so we suggest that we can think about bilingual education methods suitable to the
characteristic of each child. The other research question will know more useful bilingual educations, so
we will find out the bilingual education in more detail.
3.8 Conclusion
We found a lot of opinions from the questionnaire. Making children become bilingual includes a
wide variety of different conditions, circumstance and situations. Bilingual education is not so simple.
The conclusions were wide and complex. Thus, there is no simple right or wrong, good or bad.
We suggest that the effectiveness of bilingual education needs to consider the children, their
community, their schools and teaching materials. Particularly, considering the children is the most
important. Each child has their own character, so parents need to create the best bilingual education
which correspond with their children.
33
References
Articles
Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. England: Multilingual Matters.
Harding, E. and Riley, P. (1986). The Bilingual Family A handbook for parents. Cambridge University
Press.
山本雅代 (1996).『バイリンガルはどのようにして言語を習得するのか』 明石書店.
中島和子 (1998).『バイリンガル教育の方法
地球時代の日本人育成を目指して』 株式会社
アルク.
桶谷仁美 (2007).『家庭でバイリンガルを育てる―0 歳からのバイリンガル教育』 明石書店.
鈴木孝明、白畑知彦 (2012).『ことばの習得
母語獲得と第二言語習得』 くろしお出版.
Websites
Istvan, K. and Tunde, P. Foreign Language Learning Affecting Mother tongue. Accessed in April 2013.
From
http://webs.uvigo.es/ssl/actas1997/03/Kecskes.pdf#search='Vygotsky+1962%3A110'
34
Appendices
(A) Questionnaire for students
卒業論文アンケート
名前＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿
アンケートにご協力いただきありがとうございます。私はノートルダム清心女子大学文学部
英語英文学科 4 年の岡崎貴子です。卒業論文のテーマとして「How do young children
become bilingual?(子供をどのようにしてバイリンガルに育てるか)」について研究していま
す。そのため、皆さんの考えるバイリンガルの教育方法、バイリンガルの子供を育てるにあ
たって自分ならこのような育て方をしてみる、というものがあれば教えていただきたいと思
います。このアンケートは卒業論文の作成に関すること以外では、決して利用いたしません。
A. あなたの母語は何ですか。(
)
B. 以下の項目の中で 10 代の子供をバイリンガルに育てるために最も大切だと思うものを 5
つ選び、数字に○をして下さい。
1. 両親
2 兄弟、姉妹
3 親戚
4 友人
5 先生
6 教育(教材)
7 社会(環境)
8 学び始める年齢
9 能力(成績)
10 適正
11 性格
12 異文化との交流があるかどうか
13 母語
14 文化
15 積極性
16 留学
17 メディア(映画、TV、本)
C. B で選んだ中で最も大切だと思うものを教えて下さい。またその理由も答えて下さい。
最も大切なもの(
)
その理由(
)
D. 第二言語を学習する子供の年齢はより良い第二言語取得に影響すると考えますか？
・はい
・いいえ
・わからない
「はい」と答えた方へ質問です。何歳から何歳までが第二言語学習期に適していると考えま
すか。
(
歳から
歳まで)
E. B の他に子供が第 2 言語を獲得するために必要だと思うことがあれば答えて下さい。
35
F. もし子供をバイリンガルに育てるなら、どのような手助けをしますか？
どのくらい効果的か?
どのくらいの頻度か?
Very
Very often
Not very
Never
1 音楽、歌を聞かせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
2 一緒に歌を歌う
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
3 ビデオや DVD を見せる(ディズニーやアニメ)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
4 本を読み聞かせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5 子供に本を声に出して読ませる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
6 子供にひとつの文を何回も繰り返させる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
7 親が子供に第二言語を使って話しかける
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
8 子供の間違いを正してやる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
9 第二言語を話す保育園や幼稚園に通わせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
10 インターナショナルスクールに通わせる(一定の学力レベルが必要な学校)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
11 ECC や AEON などの教室に通わせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
12 ゲームをして遊ぶ
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
13 1 日 2~3 個の単語を覚えさせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
14 日常品に単語を貼って覚えさせる
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
15 第二言語の文化について教える
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
16 海外旅行に連れていく
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
17 アルファベットの書き方や単語のつづりを教える
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
18 親子で何かしらのプログラムに参加する
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
G. 上記のもの以外に、親が子供をバイリンガルに育てる手助けとしてできることがあれば、記入してください。
ご協力ありがとうございました。
岡崎貴子
36
(B) Questionnaire of those who have bilingual children
Name________________________
Thank you for answering these questions. My name is Takako Okazaki. I’m a student of Notre Dame Seishin University. I study “How
do young children become bilingual?” as a graduation thesis. I want to know what you think about bilingual education and if you want
your children to become bilingual, how you bring up your children. If you have bilingual children, how did you bring them up?
A. Which is the most important thing to make children up to about age 10 bilingual? Please circle five of the following.
1 parents
2 brothers/sisters
6 education (e.g. teaching materials)
10 aptitude
11 personality
13 mother tongue
14 culture
17 media(e.g. movies, TVs and books)
3 relatives
4. friends
5 teachers
7 social surroundings
8 age
9 ability (e.g. school records)
12 whether you have some chances to have intercultural communication
15 motivation
16. experiences of studying abroad
B. Which is the most important thing of above-mentioned, and why do you think so?
the most important thing (
reason (
)
)
C. If you have some ideas to make your children become bilingual, please answer (except above-mentioned).
・
・
・
D. Do you feel that the age a child starts to learn a second language will affect how quickly and how well they learn?
YES
NO
UNSURE
If you choose YES, what age is a good period to acquire the second language?
(from
to
years old)
37
E. If you want your children to become bilingual, how would you help them?
How effective is it?
How often do you do it?
Very
Very often
Not very
Never
1 Listening to some songs
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
2 Singing some songs together
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
3 Watching some videos or DVDs (like Disney and animation)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
4 Reading some books to your children
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
5 Making your children read some books aloud
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
6 Making your children repeat one sentence many times
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
7 Speaking to your children in the second language
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
8 Correcting your child’s mistakes
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
9 Taking your children to the preschool or kindergarten
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
10 Taking your children to the international school (children need a definite level in second language)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
11 Taking your children to the English conversation school (like ECC and AEON)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
12 Playing some games
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
13 Making your children remember a few words a day
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
14 Sticking some words on daily materials
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
15 Teaching the culture of the second language
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
16 Taking your children to some foreign countries
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
17 Teaching how to write the alphabet or some words
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
18 Taking part in some activities together (parents and children)
5
4
3
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
F. If there are any others, please write them here.
38
G. What languages do your children speak in these cases? Please check items on the list.
Emotion
1. angry
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
2. disappointed
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
3. happy
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
4. sad
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
5. surprised
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
6. frightened
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
7. ashamed
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
8. satisfied
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
9. relaxed
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
10. confused
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
Situation
1. around the house
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
2. doing things together such as
cooking or cleaning
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
3. shopping
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
4. in the car
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
5. playing with their friends
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
6. playing with their brothers or □first language
sisters
□second language
□both
□unsure
7. talking with their parents
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
8. playing alone
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
9. watching TV
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
10. reading some books
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
11. drawing some pictures
□first language
□second language
□both
□unsure
39
H. Please complete this table.
What is your
second
language?
Speaking
Understanding
Reading
Writing
High
High
High
High
Med
Med
Med
Med
Low
Low
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Speaking
Understanding
Reading
High
High
High
Med
Med
Med
Low
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Writing
High
Med
Low
Beginner
Speaking
First language Understanding
High
High
Med
Med
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
(Japanese)
Reading
Writing
High
High
Med
Med
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Speaking
Understanding
Reading
Writing
High
High
High
High
Med
Med
Med
Med
Low
Low
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Speaking
First language Understanding
(Japanese)
Reading
Writing
High
High
High
High
Med
Med
Med
Med
Low
Low
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Speaking
Understanding
Reading
Writing
High
High
High
High
Med
Med
Med
Med
Low
Low
Low
Low
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Beginner
Husband
Wife
Child 1
Second
language
(
Child 2
How well do you / they know it?
Second
language
(
)
)
I. Are you planning to bring up your children bilingually?
(1) If you answer YES, what are your plans?
(2) If you answer NO, why not?
40
YES
/
NO
J. If you want to help your 3-year-old child to acquire a second language, what is important for
them? Please rank these from 1 to 9.
a. going to the language school (e.g. English conversation school)
b. going abroad
c. interacting with friends who had already learned the language that your children is
trying to learn as a second language
d. learning from materials (e.g. TV, movies, books, games and music)
e. forcing children to use only the second language everyday
f. learning from teaching materials (e.g. textbooks)
g. teaching by parents
h. having high motivation
i. setting goals
1st _____ 2nd ____ 3rd _____ 4th ______ 5th _____ 6th _____ 7th ____ 8th ______ 9th ____
Please write any others that are important here.
K. If you want to help your teenage child acquire a second language, what is important for
them? Please rank there from 1 to 9.
a. going to the language school (e.g. English conversation school)
b. going abroad
c. interacting with friends who had already learned the language that your children is
trying to learn as a second language
d. learning from materials (e.g. TV, movies, books, games and music)
e. forcing children to use only the second language everyday
f. learning from teaching materials (e.g. textbooks)
g. teaching by parents
h. having high motivation
i. setting goals
1st _____ 2nd ____
3rd _____ 4th ______ 5th _____ 6th _____ 7th ____ 8th ______ 9th ____
Please write any others that are important here.
Thank you for your help.
41
(C) Online questionnaire
Bilingual Questionnaire
Thank you for answering these questions. My name is Takako Okazaki. I’m a student of Notre Dame
Seishin University. I study “How do young children become bilingual?” as a graduation thesis. I want to
know what you think about bilingual education and if you want your children to become bilingual, how you
bring up your children. If you have bilingual children, how did you bring them up?
If you have a question please email me on takakook11@gmail.com
Please write your name here. *
What is your first language (mother tongue)? *
A. Which is the most important thing to make children up to about age 10 bilingual? Please choose five. *
1 parents
2 brothers/sisters
3 relatives
4 friends
5 teachers
6 education (e.g. teaching materials)
7 social surroundings
8 age
9 ability (e.g. school records)
10 aptitude
11 personality
42
12 whether you have some chances to have intercultural communication
13 mother tongue
14 culture
15 motivation
16 experiences of studying abroad
17 media(e.g. movies, TVs and books)
B(a). Which is the most important thing of the above-mentioned items? *
B(b). Why do you think so? *
C. If you have some ideas to make your children become bilingual, please answer (except the
above-mentioned).
D(a). Do you feel that the age a child starts to learn a second language will affect how quickly and how well
they learn? *
YES
NO
UNSURE
43
D(b). If you choose YES, what age is a good period to acquire the second language? e.g.) from 3 to 12 years
old
E(a). If you want your children to become bilingual, how would you help them? How effective is it? If you
think it's effective, please answer 5. If you think uneffective, please answer 1.
5
4
3
1 Listening to
some songs
2 Singing some
songs together
3 Watching some
videos or DVDs
(like Disney and
animation)
4 Reading some
books
to
your
children
5 Making your
children
read
some
books
aloud
6 Making your
children
one
repeat
sentence
many times
7
Speaking
to
your children in
the
second
language
8
Correcting
44
2
1
5
your
4
3
child’s
mistakes
9 Taking your
children to the
preschool
or
kindergarten
10 Taking your
children to the
international
school (children
need a definite
level in second
language)
11 Taking your
children to the
English
conversation
school (like ECC
and AEON)
12 Playing some
games
13 Making your
children
remember a few
words a day
14 Sticking some
words on daily
materials
15 Teaching the
culture
of
the
second language
16 Taking your
children to some
45
2
1
5
4
3
2
1
foreign countries
17 Teaching how
to
write
the
alphabet
or
some words
18 Taking part
in
some
activities
together
(parents
and
children)
E(b). If you want your children to become bilingual, how would you help them? How often do you do it? If you
think you want to do it often it, please answer 5. If you think you want to never do it, please answer 1.
5
4
3
1 Listening to
some songs
2 Singing some
songs together
3 Watching some
videos or DVDs
(like Disney and
animation)
4 Reading some
books
to
your
children
5 Making your
children
some
read
books
aloud
6 Making your
children
repeat
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2
1
5
one
4
3
sentence
many times
7
Speaking
to
your children in
the
second
language
8
Correcting
your
child’s
mistakes
9 Taking your
children to the
preschool
or
kindergarten
10 Taking your
children to the
international
school (children
need a definite
level in second
language)
11 Taking your
children to the
English
conversation
school (like ECC
and AEON)
12 Playing some
games
13 Making your
children
remember a few
words a day
14 Sticking some
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2
1
5
4
3
2
1
words on daily
materials
15 Teaching the
culture
of
the
second language
16 Taking your
children to some
foreign countries
17 Teaching how
to
write
the
alphabet
or
some words
18 Taking part
in
some
activities
together
(parents
and
children)
F. If there are any others, please write them here.
G(a). What languages do your children speak in these cases? Please check items on the list. Emotion
first language
second language both
1. angry
2. disappointed
3. happy
4. sad
5. surprised
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unsure
first language
second language both
unsure
6. frightened
7. ashamed
8. satisfied
9. relaxed
10. confused
G(b). What languages do your children speak in these cases? Please check items on the list. Situation
first language
second language
1. around the house
2.
doing
together
things
such
as
cooking or cleaning
3. shopping
4. in the car
5. playing with their
friends
6. playing with their
brothers or sisters
7. talking with their
parents
8. playing alone
9. watching TV
10.
reading
some
books
11. drawing some
pictures
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both
unsure
H(a). What is the second language of the husband?
H(b). How well does he know it?
High
Med
Low
Beginner
Low
Beginner
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
4. Writing
I(a). What is the second language of the wife?
I(b). How well does she know it?
High
Med
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
4. Writing
J(a). Are you planning to bring up your children bilingually?
YES
NO
J(b). If you answer YES, what are your plans?
50
J(c). If you answer NO, why not?
K(a). How well does your child1 know Japanese?
High
Med
Low
Beginner
Low
Beginner
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
4. Writing
K(b). How old is Child 1?
K(c). What is the second language of child1?
K(d). How well does Child1 know it?
High
Med
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
4. Writing
L(a). How well your Child2 speak Japanese, and how know it?
High
Med
Low
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
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Beginner
High
Med
Low
Beginner
Low
Beginner
4. Writing
L(b). How old is Child 2?
L(c). What is the second language of your Child2?
L(d). How well does Child 2 know it?
High
Med
1. Speaking
2. Understanding
3. Reading
4. Writing
M. If you want to help your 3-year-old child to acquire a second language, what is important for them?
Please rank these from 1 to 9.
1st
2nd
3ed
4th
5th
a. going to
the
language
school
(e.g.
English
conversation
school)
b.
going
abroad
c.
interacting
with friends
who
had
already
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6th
7th
8th
9th
1st
2nd
3ed
4th
5th
learned the
language
that
your
children
is
trying
to
learn as a
second
language
d.
learning
from
materials
(e.g.
TV,
movies,
books,
games
and
music)
e.
forcing
children
to
use only the
second
language
everyday
f.
learning
from
teaching
materials
(e.g.
textbooks)
g.
teaching
by parents
h.
having
high
motivation
i.
setting
53
6th
7th
8th
9th
1st
2nd
3ed
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
goals
N. If you want to help your teenage child to acquire a second language, what is important for them? Please
rank these from 1 to 9.
1st
2nd
3ed
4th
5th
a. going to
the
language
school
(e.g.
English
conversation
school)
b.
going
abroad
c.
interacting
with friends
who
had
already
learned the
language
that
your
children
is
trying
to
learn as a
second
language
d.
learning
from
materials
(e.g.
TV,
movies,
books,
games
and
music)
54
6th
7th
8th
9th
1st
e.
2nd
3ed
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
forcing
children
to
use only the
second
language
everyday
f.
learning
from
teaching
materials
(e.g.
textbooks)
g.
teaching
by parents
h.
having
high
motivation
i.
setting
goals
https://docs.google.com/forms/d/1ZmDOSga2HNNmpUzauKUlrE1qqsrUyj8KykMrL7CrE7M/viewform
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