Chapters 9 and 10 Previews
Between the ages of 11 and 18, young people cross the great divide between childhood and
adulthood. This crossing encompasses all three domains of development—biosocial, cognitive, and
psychosocial. Chapter 9 focuses on the dramatic changes that occur in the biosocial domain, beginning
with puberty and the growth spurt. The biosocial metamorphosis of the adolescent is discussed in
detail, with emphasis on factors that affect the age of puberty, sexual maturation, and changes in body
rhythms. Although adolescence is, in many ways, a healthy time of life, the text also addresses two
health hazards that affect many adolescents: sex too early and sexually transmitted illnesses.
Chapter 9 also describes the cognitive advances and limitations of adolescence. With the attainment of
formal operational thought, the developing person becomes able to think in an adult way—that is, to
be logical, to think in terms of possibilities, and to reason scientifically and abstractly. Neurological
development is the basis of these new developments. Although brain areas dedicated to emotional
arousal mature before those dedicated to emotional regulation, ongoing myelination enables faster
and deeper thinking.
Even those who reach the stage of formal operational thought spend much of their time thinking at
less-advanced levels. The discussion of adolescent egocentrism supports this generalization in showing
that adolescents have difficulty thinking rationally about themselves and their immediate experiences.
Adolescent egocentrism makes them see themselves as psychologically unique and more socially
significant than they really are.
The final section of chapter 9 explores teaching and learning in middle school and high school. As
adolescents enter secondary school, their grades often suffer and their level of participation
decreases. The rigid behavioral demands and intensified competition of most secondary schools do
not, unfortunately, provide a supportive learning environment for adolescents.
Adolescence brings a heightened quest for self-understanding and identity. Friends, family,
community, and culture are powerful social forces that help or hinder the adolescent’s transition from
childhood to adulthood.
Chapter 10 discusses the adolescent’s efforts to achieve an identity, focusing on the impact of parents
and peer groups on psychosocial development. While the search for identity brings with it certain
difficulties, most adolescents reach adulthood safely and securely. Others have special problems,
including depression and self-destruction, that may lead to suicide and delinquent behavior.
The chapter also examines the influences of family, friends, and society on adolescent psychosocial
development, including the development of romantic and sexual relationships. The discussion relates
choices made by adolescents to their cognitive abilities and typical shortcomings and to the influence
of parents and peers, and it suggests ways in which adolescents
may be helped to make healthy choices.
The chapter concludes by addressing a major health hazard that too often affects adolescents: the use
of alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs. A final section looks at the toll sadness and anger can take on
adolescent lives, including depression, suicide, and delinquency. The chapter concludes by noting that
most adolescents and families survive the adolescent transition fairly well.
Chapter 9 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 9, students should be able to:
1. Outline the biological events of puberty.
2. Discuss the emotional impact of pubertal hormones.
3. Identify several factors that influence the onset of puberty, and discuss the effects of early and late
maturation on male and female adolescents.
4. Discuss the relationship between adolescents’ poor nutrition and their body image concerns.
5. Describe the three diagnosed eating disorders, and discuss possible explanations for these
disorders.
6. Describe the growth spurt in both the male and the female adolescent, focusing on changes in body
weight, height, and muscles.
7. Describe the changes in the body’s internal organs that accompany the growth spurt.
8. Discuss the development of the primary sex characteristics in males and females during puberty.
9. Discuss the development of the secondary sex characteristics in males and females during puberty,
and describe the role of hormones and the social context in the adolescent’s sexual behavior.
10. Discuss the potential problems associated with early sexual activity.
11. Discuss sexual abuse, focusing on its prevalence.
12. Discuss the relationship between the uneven neurological development of the limbic system and
the prefrontal cortex, and how this relates to adolescent cognition and behavior.
13. Discuss adolescent egocentrism, and give three examples of egocentric fantasies or fables.
14. Describe evidence of formal operational thinking during adolescence, and provide examples of
adolescents’ emerging ability to reason deductively and inductively.
15. Discuss possible reasons for the slump in academic performance and other problems that often
appear during the transition from elementary school to middle school.
16. Discuss the relationship between the technological advances in educational tools and teenage
cognition.
17. Evaluate the typical secondary school’s ability to meet the cognitive needs of the typical
adolescent.
18. Explore some options for improving adolescent engagement in secondary school.
Chapter 10 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 10, students should be able to:
1. Describe the development of identity during adolescence, and identify the four major identity
statuses.
2. Discuss the search for identity through the formation of religious, gender, political/ethnic, and
vocational identities, and problems encountered in each.
3. Describe parental influence on identity formation, including the effect of parent–adolescent conflict
and other aspects of parent–teen relationships.
4. Explain the constructive functions of peer relationships and close friendships during adolescence
and the unique challenges faced by immigrants.
5. Discuss the development of male–female relationships during adolescence, including the challenges
faced by gay and lesbian adolescents.
6. Discuss the various influences on teen sexual behavior, including peers, parents, and schools, and
describe current trends in teen sexual behavior.
7. Discuss the causes of depression in adolescents, and describe some contributing factors and
gender, ethnic, and national variations in adolescent suicides and suicide attempts.
8. Discuss delinquency among adolescents today, noting its incidence and prevalence, causes, and
best approaches for prevention or treatment.
9. Discuss drug use and abuse among adolescents today, including their prevalence and significance
for development.
Chapters 11 and 12 Previews
In terms of overall health, the years of emerging adulthood are the prime of life. Although the
efficiency of most body systems begins to decline in the 20s, most changes go unnoticed because of
organ and muscle reserve. However, with the attainment of full maturity, a new aspect of physical
development comes into play—that is, decline. Chapter 11 takes a look at how the decisions young
adults make regarding lifestyle affect the course of their overall development.
The chapter begins with a description of the growth, strength, and health of the individual during
emerging adulthood, including declines in the efficiency of the body’s systems. Sexual-reproductive
health, a matter of great concern to young adults, is also discussed. The section concludes with a
discussion of how social norms can reduce risk taking and improve health habits in this age group.
During the course of adulthood, there are many shifts in cognitive development. The second section
of the chapter describes how adult thinking differs from adolescent thinking. The experiences and
challenges of adulthood result in a new, more practical and flexible thinking—the dynamic, in-theworld cognitive style that adults typically use to solve the problems of daily life. This part of the
chapter also examines the effect of the college experience on cognitive growth; findings here
indicate that years of education correlate with virtually every measure of cognition as thinking
becomes progressively more flexible and tolerant.
The next section of the chapter is concerned with personality development. During emerging
adulthood, both positive and negative emotions are strong. The stresses of this period of life
combine with genetic vulnerability in some individuals to trigger substance abuse and the
development of mood disorders, anxiety disorders, or schizophrenia.
Next, the chapter discusses the two basic identity statuses of adulthood: ethnic identity and
vocational identity. Ethnic identity is difficult to achieve for children of immigrants trying to
reconcile their parents’ background with their new social context. College education is an important
stimulus for the development of vocational identity for many emerging adults.
The final section of Chapter 11addresses the need for intimacy in adulthood, focusing on the
development of friendship, love, and marriage. And now for Chapter 12.
Between the ages of 25 and 65, most people experience a variety of physical changes, such as
wrinkling, graying and thinning of the hair, and redistribution of fat deposits. In addition, sensory
acuity generally declines. Most of these physical changes have no significant health consequences,
however.
Most women find menopause, with its accompanying cessation of menstruation and decline in
estrogen, much less troubling than they expected it to be. Although men do not experience sudden
age-related drops in hormone levels or fertility, sexual response does slow down over time.
In general, middle-aged persons are healthier today than were earlier cohorts. Variations in health
are related to genetic, educational, and socioeconomic factors, among others.
The most important reason for individual variations in health is personal lifestyle. Risk factors
include cigarette smoking, alcohol consumption, poor nutrition, obesity, and lack of exercise.
The chapter also discusses the latest ways in which variations in health are measured to reflect
quality of living, in addition to traditional measures of illness and death rates. Gender,
socioeconomic status, and culture are powerful influences on all four measures of health in middle
age.
The next two sections focus on cognitive changes during adulthood, including the slowing of brain
functioning. The way psychologists conceptualize intelligence has changed considerably in recent
years. The contemporary view of intelligence emphasizes its multidimensional nature. Most experts
now believe that there are several distinct intelligences rather than a single general entity.
The last section of the chapter focuses on the tendency of adults to select certain aspects of their
lives to focus on as they age. In doing so, they optimize development in those areas and
compensate for declines in others. Each person’s cognitive development occurs in a unique context
influenced by variations in genes, life experiences, and cohort effects. The section then discusses
the cognitive expertise that often comes with experience, pointing out the ways in which expert
thinking differs from that of the novice. Expert thinking is more specialized, flexible, and intuitive
and is guided by more and better problem-solving strategies.
Chapter 11 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 11, students should be able to:
1. Describe the changes in growth, strength, and overall health that occur during emerging
adulthood.
2. Discuss changes in the efficiency of various body functions, focusing on the significance of these
changes for the individual.
3. Identify age-related trends in sexual responsiveness and differing attitudes about the purpose of
sex.
4. Discuss the benefits and costs of risk taking among emerging adults, noting the attraction of
“living on the edge.”
5. Discuss the causes and consequences of drug abuse during emerging adulthood.
6. Discuss the social norms approach to reducing risk taking and improving health habits among
emerging adults.
7. Identify the main characteristics of thinking during emerging adulthood, and tell how it differs
from formal operational thought.
8. Describe the contexts and effects of stereotype threat, and discuss the findings of research
studies aimed at reducing stereotype threat.
9. Define dialectical thought, and give examples of its usefulness.
10. Discuss the effects of culture on cognition.
11. Discuss the relationship between cognitive growth and higher education.
12. Compare college students and institutions today with their counterparts of a decade or two ago,
and evaluate the changing college context.
13. Discuss how the individual’s well-being is affected by the independence of emerging adulthood,
and explain the diathesis-stress model.
14. Discuss the origins of depression, anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia.
15. Explain how the viewpoint of most developmentalists regarding identity formation has shifted.
16. Review the developmental course of friendship during adulthood, noting factors that promote
friendship and gender differences in friendship patterns.
17. Identify Sternberg’s three components of love, and discuss the pattern by which they develop in
relationships.
18. Discuss the impact of cohabitation on relationships, and identify factors that influence marital
success.
Chapter 12 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 12, students should be able to:
1. Identify the typical physical signs of aging seen in middle adulthood and discuss their impact.
2. Identify the typical changes that occur in the sexual-reproductive system during middle
adulthood.
3. Describe the relationship between health and certain lifestyle factors—tobacco and alcohol use,
lack of exercise, and overeating—and identify measures for increasing health during middle
adulthood.
4. Differentiate four measures of health, including how these measures help facilitate an
understanding of adult health problems.
5. Explain how variations in health are related to gender, socioeconomic status, and culture.
6. Describe how the brain’s anatomy and functioning change during adulthood.
7. Briefly trace the history of the controversy regarding adult intelligence, including the findings of
cross-sectional and longitudinal research and how cross-sequential research compensates for the
shortcomings of the other methods.
8. Distinguish between fluid and crystallized intelligence, and explain how each is affected by age.
9. Differentiate the three fundamental forms of intelligence described by Robert Sternberg.
10. Outline Howard Gardner's theory of intelligence.
11. Discuss the roles of age and cultural and historical context in determining which type of
intelligence is most valued.
12. Explain the concept of selective optimization with compensation.
13. Describe how the cognitive processes of experts differ from those of novices.
14. Describe the six stages of faith outlined by James Fowler.
Chapters 13 and 14 Previews
Psychosocial development during adulthood is tied less to age than to context and circumstances, as
you’ll learn more about while reading Chapter 13.
However, Erikson’s stage theory is important for pointing out that development continues throughout
adulthood. Psychologists believe that personality serves as a source of continuity in middle age. The Big
Five personality traits—neuroticism, agreeableness, extroversion, conscientiousness, and openness—
tend to remain stable throughout the life span. During adulthood, two changes in personality are
notable. Undesirable traits tend to become less prominent, and both men and women typically become
more like the other sex.
Although midlife is commonly believed to be a time of crisis and transition, when self-doubt,
reevaluation of career goals, and shifts in family responsibilities lead to turmoil and change, few
developmentalists today believe that such changes commonly produce a midlife crisis. How people react
to the challenges of middle adulthood has more to do with a person’s developmental history than with
his or her stage of life.
The second section examines friendships and family dynamics during adulthood. Middle-aged adults
typically remain close to their grown children and even find that their relationships with their own
parents improve during this stage of life. The next section of the chapter examines Erikson’s concept of
generativity and how adults attempt to achieve it through caregiving and employment. As many women
and men begin to balance their work lives with parenthood and other concerns, many engage in a
scaling back of their effort in the workplace.
The final section of the chapter discusses coping with stress. Adults experience many stressors and use a
number of different coping strategies as they seek to meet their intimacy and generativity needs. These
stressors may reduce their health.
Chapter 14 covers biosocial and cognitive development during late adulthood, discussing the myths and
reality of this final stage of the life span. In a society such as ours, which glorifies youth, there is a
tendency to exaggerate the physical decline brought on by aging.
In fact, the changes that occur during the later years are largely a continuation of those that began
earlier in adulthood, and the vast majority of the elderly consider themselves to be in good health.
Nonetheless, the aging process is characterized by an increased incidence of impaired vision and
hearing, and by declines in the major body systems. These are all changes to which the individual must
adjust. In addition, the incidence of life-threatening diseases becomes more common with every
decade.
Next, the chapter discusses the changes in information procesing experienced by older adults. As
measured by standardized laboratory tests (which are often biased against the older adult), some
cognitive processes become slower and less efficient during late adulthood. In part, this is because older
adults use fewer and less efficient strategies to help them remember and solve problems.
Age-related declines in cognitive functioning may also result from the neurophysiological changes tied to
aging. The chapter describes these changes, which include the progressive loss of brain cells and, more
important, the slowing of brain processes due to reduced production of key neurotransmitters.
Most older adults are not hampered in their daily life by cognitive difficulties. Through their use of
compensating memory techniques, such as practice and priming, older adults are able to function
acceptably.
Chapter 14 also explores the loss of cognitive function suffered by victims of dementia. The most
common forms of dementia are Alzheimer disease and multi-infarct dementia. Several diseases can
cause subcortical dementia—among them Parkinson’s disease, Hunting ton’s disease, and multiple
sclerosis. Many other problems, such as inadequate nutrition, alcohol abuse, and psychological illness,
are misdiagnosed as dementia
As emphasized by such theorists as Maslow and Erikson, many older adults show new cognitive
development during later life, developing a heightened aesthetic sense, gaining in wisdom, and
becoming more philosophical.
Chapter 13 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 13, students should be able to:
1. Describe the psychosocial tensions and goals of adulthood, as described by Erikson and Maslow.
2. Explain how the social clock influences the timing of important events during adulthood, and discuss
problems with the concept of the midlife crisis.
3. Describe the Big Five cluster of personality traits, and explain the concept of an ecological niche,
noting how it interacts with personality.
4. Discuss the importance of the social convoy in protecting adults against the effects of stress.
5. Describe how and why marital relationships tend to change during adulthood, including the empty
nest syndrome.
6. Discuss the impact of divorce and remarriage during adulthood.
7. Explain how caregiving helps meet the mature adult's need for generativity.
8. Discuss middle-aged adults as the “sandwich generation,” focusing on their caring for their elderly
parents.
9. Describe how the balance among work, family, and self often shifts during adulthood.
10. Describe the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic rewards associated with working, and how
job change and job loss influences older workers.
11. Discuss the types of stressors experienced by adults, the difference between problem-focused and
emotion-focused coping, and gender differences.
Chapter 14 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 14, students should be able to:
1. Define ageism, and explain the contributions of gerontology to changing views about old age.
2. Describe ongoing changes in the age distribution of the American population, noting the current
shape of the “population pyramid.”
3. Explain the current state of the dependency ratio, and distinguish among three categories of the
aged.
4. Discuss primary and secondary aging in relation to diseases in old age, and describe the adjustments
older adults may have to make in various areas of life in order to maintain optimal functioning.
5. Discuss the importance of good health habits for successful aging.
6. Describe age-related problems in vision and hearing.
7. Explain the concept of compression of morbidity.
8. Summarize research findings regarding changes in both sensory and working memory during late
adulthood.
9. Summarize research findings regarding changes in the older adult’s ability to access the knowledge
base and to use control processes efficiently.
10. Characterize and explain discrepancies between how the elderly perform on memory and problemsolving tasks in the laboratory, on the one hand, and in daily life, on the other.
11. Discuss the problem with identifying the cause of dementia in an older adult.
12. Identify and describe the two most common organic causes of dementia.
13. Describe the causes of subcortical dementias, and explain how symptoms of dementia can
sometimes be reversed or slowed through proper treatment.
14. Discuss the claims of developmentalists regarding the possibility of positive cognitive development
during late adulthood, and cite several areas of life in which such development may occur.
Chapter 15 and Epilogue Previews
Chapter 15 begins with an examination of the major theories of psychosocial development during late
adulthood. Self theories emphasize the active part each person plays in his or her own psychosocial
development. Stratification theories maintain that social forces limit individual choice and direct life at
every stage, particularly in late adulthood. Dynamic theories emphasize that the life of each person is an
active, self-propelled process, occurring within specific social contexts, which are constantly changing.
In the following two sections, discussion focuses on how older adults meet their needs for generativity
and affiliation, respectively. Special attention is paid to some of the issues facing the elderly, including
retirement, new pursuits, widowhood, friendships, siblings, and grandchildren.
The final section addresses some of the problems facing the frail elderly and their famlies, including
caregiving and living arrangements. Elder abuse, which in many ways parallels child and spouse abuse,
may result when caring for a frail elder creates feelings of resentment.
Depending on the age, experience, beliefs, and historical and cultural context of an individual, death can
have many meanings. Death marks the close of the life span, an ending individuals must come to terms
with both for themselves and their loved ones. An understanding and acceptance of death is crucial if
life is to be lived to the fullest.
The first section of the Epilogue focuses on how dying is viewed throughout the life span, in different
cultures and religions, and at different points in history.
The next section explores various issues regarding the wants and needs of the dying person. Although
the concept of an unvarying sequence of stages among the dying is not universally accepted, the
pioneering work of Elisabeth Kubler-Ross was instrumental in revealing the emotional gamut of
terminally ill patients, and the importance of honest communication. The section also discusses hospice
and other forms of palliative care designed to help the terminally ill patient to die a good death
The final section deals with changing expressions of bereavement and how people can be aided in the
process of recovery.
Chapter 15 Learning Objectives
After completing their study of Chapter 15, students should be able to:
1. Explain the central premises of the self theories of psychosocial development during late adulthood,
and discuss the Erikson stage of integrity versus despair.
2. Discuss the perspective of continuity theory, focusing on how older adults use selective optimization
to cope with aging and how positivity effect contributes to their coping ability.
3. Discuss the view of stratification theories that social forces and cultural influences limit choices and
direct life at every stage of development.
4. Discuss how work is viewed during late adulthood, and describe some activities chosen by retired
people.
5. Discuss volunteerism, religious involvement, continuing education, and political activism among older
adults.
6. Describe the components of the social convoy, and explain the increasing importance of this convoy
during late adulthood.
7. Describe gender differences in the experience of losing a spouse.
8. Describe relationships between older adults and their adult children, and differentiate three patterns
of grandparent-grandchild relationships.
9. Identify and discuss ADLs and IADLs as they relate to the elderly.
10. Describe the risks and predictors of elder abuse.
11. Discuss alternative care arrangements for the frail elderly, identifying some of the potential
advantages and disadvantages of each.
The Epilogue Learning Objectives
After completing their study of The Epilogue, students should be able to:
1. Discuss the various meanings of death over the life span.
2. Describe some religious and cultural variations in how death is viewed and treated.
3. Identify the stages of dying according to Kubler-Ross, and discuss these stages in light of more recent
research.
4. Explain the concept of palliative care, focusing on the advantages and disadvantages of hospices.
5. Discuss the steps that patients, family members, and medical personnel can take to plan for a swift,
pain-free, and dignified death.
6. Discuss issues surrounding euthanasia.
7. Describe recent changes in the mourning process, and identify several specific problems that may
become pathological.
8. Suggest steps that can be taken in helping someone to work through grief and bereavement.