READINGS FOR GRADUATE CRIMINOLOGY COMPREHENSIVE EXAM
The following subdivisions are simply meant to be a heuristic device. They are not necessarily mutually
exclusive or exhaustive. There are two lengthy sections titled at the end of the list labeled “Other
Theoretical Readings” and “Empirical Tests of Theory” that could easily be incorporated into the
subdivisions.
Note: Students are responsible for the last 5 years of articles in scholarly journals related to the area
including Criminology, Criminology and Public Policy, and related papers published in the American
Sociological Review, the American Journal of Sociology, and Social Forces and all other top journals.
Social Disorganization and the Chicago School
Bursik, R.J. 1988. “Social Disorganization theories of crime and delinquency: Problems and Prospects.”
Criminology 26:519-552.
Bursik, R.J. (1999). The Informal Control of Crime through Neighborhood Networks Sociological Focus,
32, 1, 85-97.
Bursik, R.J. and Grasmick, H.G. Longitudinal Neighborhood Profiles in Delinquency: The Decomposition
of Change, Journal of Quantitative Criminology, 8, 247-263.
Park, Robert E. The City: Suggestions for the Investigation of Human Behavior in the City Environment.
American Journal of Sociology, 20:577-612, 1915.
Rose, D. and T. Clear. 1998. “Incarceration, social capital and crime: implications for social
disorganization theory.” Criminology 36:441-479.
Sampson, R., S.W. Raudenbush and F. Earls. 1997. “Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study
of collective efficacy.” Science 277:918-924.
Sampson, R., and Raudenbush, S.W. 1999. Systematic Social Observation of Public Spaces: A New Look
at Disorder in Urban Neighborhoods, American Journal of Sociology, 105, 603-651.
Sampson, R., and Groves, W.B. (1989). Community Structure and Crime: Testing Social-Disorganization
Theory, American Journal of Sociology, 94, 4, 774-802
Shaw, Clifford R., and Henry D. McKay. Juvenile Delinquency in Urban Areas. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1942.
Thrasher, Frederic M. The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1927.
Differential Association and Social Learning Theories
Akers, Ronald L. 1998. Social Learning and Social Structure: A General Theory of Crime and Deviance.
Northeastern University Press.
Burgess, Robert, and Ronald Akers. "A Differential Association Reinforcement Theory of Criminal
Behavior." Social Problems 14 (1966): 128-47.
Cressey, Donald R. “The Theory of Differential Association: An Introduction." Social Problems 8, no. 1
(1960): 2-6.
Glaser, Daniel "Differential Association and Criminological Prediction." Social Problems 8 (1960): 614.
Revised, Spring 2011
Kraeger, Derek A., Kelly Rulison, and James Moody. 2011. “Delinquency and the Structure of Adolescent
Peer Groups.” Criminology 49: 95-127.
Meldrum, R.C., J.T.N. Young, and F.M. Weerman. 2009. “Reconsidering the Effect of Self Control and
Delinquent Peers: Implications of Measurement for Theoretical Significance.” Journal of Research
in Crime and Delinquency. 46 (3): 353-376
Sutherland, Edwin H. "Is 'White Collar Crime' Crime?" American Sociological Review 10, no. 2 (1945):
132-39.
Sykes, Gresham M. and David Matza. "Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency."
American Sociological Review 22 (1957): 664-70
Routine Activities and Rational Choice
Baccaria, Cesare. 1764 (1985). Essay on Crimes and Punishments. Translated by H. Paolucci. New York:
Macmillan.
Bentham, Jeremy. 1789 (1962). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. In the Works of
Jeremy Bentham. J. Bowring (ed.) New York: Russell and Russell.
Clark, Ronald V. and Marcus Felson. 1993. Routine Activity and Rational Choice: Advances in
Criminology Theory, Vol. 5. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Press.
Cohen, Lawrence, E. and Marcus Felson. 1979. Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activities
approach. American Sociological Review, 44: 588-608.
Cornish, Derek B. and Ronald V. Clarke. 1986. The Reasoning Criminal: Rational Choice Perspectives on
Offending. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Felson, Marcus, 2000. Crime and Everyday Life.
Matsueda, Ross L., Derek A. Kreager, and David Huizinga. 2006. “Deterring Delinquents: A Rational
Choice Model of Theft and Violence.” American Sociological Review 71:95-122.
Nagin, Daniel S. 1998. Criminal deterrence research at the outset of the twenty-first century. Pp. 1-42 in M.
Tonry (ed.) Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, Vol. 23. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Paternoster, Ray. 1987. “The Deterrent Effect of the perceived certainty and severity of punishment.”
Justice Quarterly 4:173-217.
Wilcox, Pamela, Land, Ken, and Scott Hunt. 2002. Criminal Circumstance: A Dynamic, Multicontextual
Opportunity Theory. Aldine De Gruyter.
Anomie and Social Strain
Agnew, Robert. 1992. Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology,
30:47-87.
Cloward, Richard A. "Illegitimate Means, Anomie, and Deviant Behavior." American Sociological Review
24 (Apr. 1959): 164-76.
Cohen, Albert. Delinquent Boys: The Culture of the Gang (1955)
Merton, Robert "Opportunity Structure." In The Legacy of Anomie Theory, edited by Freda Adler and
William Laufer. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1995.
Revised, Spring 2011
Merton, Robert K. 1938. “Social Structure and Anomie.” American Sociological Review 3:672-82.
Messner, Steven F. and Richard Rosenfeld. 2001. Crime and the American Dream. Wadsworth.
Cloward and Ohlin. Delinquency and Opportunity: A Theory of Delinquent Gangs (1960)
Control Theories
Baumer, EP and R Gustafson. 2007. “Social organization and instrumental crime: Assessing the
empirical validity of classic and contemporary anomie theories.” Criminology 43 (3):617-663.
Booth, JA, A Farrell and SP Varano. 2008. “Social Control, Serious Delinquency, and Risky
Behavior.” Crime and Delinquency 54 (3): 423-456
Gottfredson, Michael and Travis Hirschi. 1990. A General Theory of Crime. CA: Stanford University
Press.
Hirschi, Travis. 1969. Causes of Delinquency. University of California Press.
Laub, John, and Robert Sampson. 2003. Shared Beginnings, Divergent Lives. Harvard University Press.
Matza, David. Delinquency and Drift. New York: John Wiley, 1964.
Miller, Walter B. "Lower Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency." Journal of Social
Issues 14 (1958): 5-19.
Pratt, Travis and Francis Cullen. 2000. “The empirical status of Gottfredson and Hirschi’s
general theory of crime: a meta-analysis.” Criminology 38 (3): 931-964.
Reckless, Walter C. The Crime Problem. 3rd Edition. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1961.
Sampson, Robert, and John Laub. Crime in the Making: Pathways and Turning Points Through Life.
Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Staff, Jeremy, D. Wayne Osgood, John E. Schulenberg, Jerald D. Bachman, and Emily E. Messersmith
(2010) “Explaining the Relationship Between Employment and Delinquency.” Criminology 48: 1101-1131.
Labeling and Shaming Theories
Beckett, Katherine. Making Crime Pay: Law and Order in Contemporary American Politics. London:
Oxford University Press, 1997.
Braithwaite, John. 1999. Restorative justice: Assessing optimistic and pessimistic accounts. Pp. 1-27 in
Crime and Justice: A Review of Research. Vol. 25, M.Tonry (ed.) Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Braithwaite, John. 1989. Crime, Shame and Reintegration. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Chiricos, T, K Barrick, W Bales, and S Bontrager. 2007. “The labeling of convicted felons and its
consequences for recidivism.” Criminology 45 (3): 547-581
Erickson, Kai T. "Notes on the Sociology of Deviance." [1962]. In The Other Side: Perspectives on
Deviance, edited by Howard S. Becker. New York: The Free Press, 1964.
Foucault, Michel. "The Dangerous Individual." [1978]. Translated from the French by Alain Baudot and
Jane Couchman. In Michel Foucault: Politics, Philosophy, Culture: Interviews and Other Writings 19771984, edited by Lawrence D. Kritzman. New York: Routledge, 1988.
Revised, Spring 2011
Gove, Walter R. 1980. The Labeling of Deviance. CA: Sage.
Matza, David. 1969. Becoming Deviant. Prentice Hall.
Melossi, Dario. "Overcoming the Crisis in Critical Criminology: Toward a Grounded Labeling Theory."
Criminology 23 no. 2 (1985): 193-208.
Conflict, Radical, Feminist and Other Critical Theoretical Readings
Chambliss, William J. 2001. Power, Politics, and Crime. Westview Press.
Colvin, Mark. 2000. Crime and Coercion: An Integrated Theory of Chronic Criminality. Palgrave
MacMillan.
Meda Chesney-Lind and Randall G. Sheldon's 2004. Girls, Delinquency, and Juvenile Justice. 3rd edition.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Lisa Maher. 1998. Criminology at the Crossroads: Feminist readings in crime and justice. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Miller, J.G. 1996. Search and Destroy: African-American Males in the Criminal Justice System, New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Susan Miller, 1998. Crime Control and Women: Feminist Implications for Criminal Justice Policy,
Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications.
Quinney, Richard. The Social Reality of Crime. Boston: Little,Brown, 1970.
Simpson, Sally S. "Feminist Theory, Crime, and Justice." Criminology 27 (1989): 605-31.
Smart, Carol. "Feminist Approaches to Criminology: Postmodern Woman meets Atavistic Man." In
Feminist Perspectives in Criminology, edited by A. Morris and L. Gelsthorpe, 71-84. London: Routledge
and Kegan Paul, 1990.
Sparks, Richard. "A Critique of Marxist Criminology." In Crime and Justice: An Annual Review of
Research 2 (1980), pp. 159-210. Michael Tonry and Norval Morris, ed.
Spitzer, Stephen. "Towards a Marxian Theory of Deviance." Social Problems 22, no. 5 (1974): 638-51.
Sykes, Gresham M. "The Rise of Critical Criminology." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 65 no.
2 (1974): 206-13.
Turk, Austin. "Conflict and Criminality." American Sociological Review 31 (June 1966): 338-52.
Sam Walker, Cassia Spohn, Miriam DeLone. The Color of Justice: Race, Ethnicity and Crime in
America. Wadsworth.
Theoretical Integration
Bernard, Thomas, J. 2001. Integrating Theories in Criminology. In Paternoster and Bachman (eds.)
Explaining Criminals and Crime, Roxbury Publishing.
Elliott, D., Ageton, S. and R. Cantor. 1979. An integrated theoretical perspective on delinquent behavior.
Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 16:3-27.
Liska, A.E. and Messner, S.F. 1999. Perspectives on Crime and Deviance: Prentice Hall.
Revised, Spring 2011
Messner, S.F., Krohn, M.D. and Liska, A.E. 1989. Theoretical Integration in the Study of Deviance and
Crime: Problems and Prospects. SUNY Press.
Tittle, C.R. 1989. Control Balance: Toward a General Theory of Deviance. Boulder, CO: Westview.
Other General Theoretical Readings
Beirne, Piers. Inventing Criminology: Essays on the Rise of ‘Homo Criminalis’. Albany: SUNY Press,
1993.
Durkheim Emile. Suicide (1951)
Galton, Francis "Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims." American Journal of Sociology 10, no. 1
(1904): 1-25.
Paternoster, Raymond and Bachman, Ronet. 2001. Explaining Criminals and Crime. Roxbury Press.
Pfohl, S.J. (1994). Images of Deviance & Social Control: A Sociological History, New York: McGrawHill.
Platt, Anthony. The Child Savers: The Invention of Delinquency. (1977)
Porter, Theodore M. The Rise of Statistical Thinking. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986. [pp.12848.]
Rothman, David J. The Discovery of the Asylum: Social Order and Disorder in the Republic. [1971].
Revised second edition. Boston, Massachusetts: Little, Brown and Company, 1990.
Wolfgang, Marvin E. and Franco Ferracuti. The Subculture of Violence (1967)
Measurement, SES, Race, Gender, and Crime
Bachman, R. 1992. Death and Violence on the Reservation: Homicide, Suicide and Family Violence in
Contemporary American Indian Populations. Auburn House.
Belknap, J. 2001. The Invisible Woman. 2nd Ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Bernard, T. 1990. “Angry Aggressions Among the ‘Truly Disadvantaged’" Criminology 28:73-96.
Braithwaite, J. (1981). “The Myth of Social Class and Criminality Reconsidered.” ASR, 46:37-57
Bridges, George S. and Sara Steen. 1998. "Racial Disparities in Official Assessments of Juvenile
Offenders: Attributional Stereotypes as Mediating Mechanisms." American Sociological Review 63(4):
554-570. Chesney-Lind, Meda and Katherine Irwin (2007) Beyond Bad Girls: Gender, violence and hype.
NY: Taylor & Francis
Crowell, N.A. & Burgess, A.W. (1996). Understanding Violence Against Women, National Research
Council, Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Daly, Kathleen. Gender, Crime, and Punishment. Connecticut: Yale University Press. 1996.
Dunaway, R. G., F. I. Cullen, V. S. Burton and T. D. Evans. 2000. “The Myth of Social Class
and Crime Revisited: An Examination of Class and Adult Criminality” Criminology 38:589-632.
Farrington, David F. 1986. “Age and Crime.” In Michael Tonry and Norval Morris, (eds.) Crime
and Justice, Vol. 7. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 189-250.
Revised, Spring 2011
Gove, Walter R., Michael Hughes and Michael Geerken. 1985. “Are Uniform Crime Reports a
Valid Indicator of the Index Crime? An Affirmative Answer with Minor Qualifications.” Criminology 23,
451-501.
Hagan, John and Ruth D. Peterson. Crime and Inequality. Berkeley, California: Stanford University Press,
1995
Jones, Nikki (2010) Between Good and Ghetto: African American Girls and Inner-city Violence. New
Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
LaFree, Gary. 1998. Losing Legitimacy. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Liska, A. and P. Bellair 1995. “Violent-Crime and Racial Composition: Convergence over Time.”
Mann, Coramae Richey and Marjorie S. Zatz (eds.) (1998) Images of Color, Images of Crime. Los Angeles:
Roxbury.
Messerschmidt, James W. Crime as Structured Action: Gender, Race, Class and Crime in the Making .
California: Sage 1997.
Miller, Jody. 2008. Getting Played: African American Girls, Urban Inequality and Gendered Violence.
NY: NYU Press.
Jeffrey Reiman, The Rich Get Richer (2001)
Russell, Kathryn K. 1998. The Color of Crime. New York University Press.
Sampson, Robert, and William Julius Wilson. "Toward a Theory of Race, Crime and Urban Inequality." In
Crime and Inequality, edited by John Hagan and Ruth D. Peterson. Berkeley, California: Stanford
University Press, 1995.
Steiner, Benjamin D. “The Consciousness of Crime & Punishment: Reflections on Race, Political
Narrative, & Lawmaking in the War on Drugs.” 23 Studies in Law, Politics, & Society: 185-212, (2001).
Tonry, Michael. Malign Neglect. New York: Oxford University Press. 1996.
Wilson, William Julius. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Zimring, Franklin and Gordon Hawkins. 1997. Crime is Not the Problem. Oxford University Press.
General Readings and Empirical Tests of Offending and Victimization
.
Drugs and Crime
Anderson, Elijah. 1999. Code of the Street. New York: W.W. Norton.
Conrad, Peter, and Joseph W. Schneider. 1992. Deviance and Medicalization: From Badness to Sickness
Goldstein. Temple University Press.
Gusfield, Joseph R. 1981. The Culture of Public Problems: Dirking-Driving and the Symbolic Order. The
University of Chicago Press.
Harrison, Lana & Backemheimer, Michael, 1998, Special Issue of Substance Use and Misuse: Research
Careers in Unraveling the Drug-Crime Linkages in the USA.”
Inciardi, James A. and Karen McElrath (Eds.) 1998. The American Drug Scene. Roxbury Publishing Co.
Revised, Spring 2011
MacCoun, Robert and Reuter, Peter. 2001. Drug War Heresies: Learning from Other Vices, Times, and
Places. Cambridge
Musto, David. 1999. The American Disease. 3rd Edition. New York: Oxford. Courts
Parker, Robert Nash and Linda-Anne Rebhun. 1995. Alcohol and Homicide: A Deadly Combination of
Two American Traditions. SUNY Press.
Venkatesh, Sudhir Alladi. 1997. "The Social Organization of Street Gang Activity in an Urban Ghetto,"
American Journal of Sociology, 103(1): 82-111.
Law, the Courts and Sentencing
Abramson, Jeffrey, We, the Jury: The Jury System and the Ideal of Democracy (Basic Books, 1994)
Albonetti, Celesta (1987). Prosecutorial Discretion: The Effects of Uncertainty. Law and Society Review
21: 291-313.
Black, Donald. The Social Structure of Right and Wrong. Academic Press. 1989.
Blumberg, Abraham (1967). The Practice of Law as a Confidence Game. Law and Society Review 1: 1539.
Davis, Kenneth Culp, Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry (Illinois, 1971)
Dixon, Jo (1995) “The Organizational Context of Criminal Sentencing.” American Journal of Sociology.
100: 1157-98.
Feld, Barry C. (1999) Bad Kids: Race and the transformation of the juvenile court. NY: Oxford University
Press.
Guidorizzi (1998) Should we really ‘Ban’ plea bargaining The core concerns of plea bargaining critics.
Emory Law Journal, 47:753-783.
Jensen, Eric, and Jurg Gerber (1996). The Civil Forfeiture of Assets and the War on Drugs: Expanding
Criminal Sanctions While Reducing Due Process Protections. Crime and Delinquency 42: 421-434.
Kurk, L. (2000). Restorative and community justice in the United States. Crime and Justice, 27: 235-303.
McIntyre, Lisa J., The Public Defender: The Practice of Law in the Shadows of Repute (Chicago, 1987)
Roach, Kent W. (1999). Four Models of the Criminal Process. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology
89: 671-716.
Robertson, James E. (2001). The Jurisprudence of the PLRA [Prison Litigation Reform Act]: Inmates as
"Outsiders" and the Countermajoritarian Difficulty. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 92: 187-209.
Savelsberg, Joachim J. (1992) “Law That Does Not Fit Society: Sentencing Guidelines as a Neoclassical
Reaction to the Dilemmas of Substantivized Law.” American Journal of Sociology 97: 1346-81.
Slobogin, Christopher (1999). Why Liberals Should Chuck the Exclusionary Rule. Illinois Law Review
1999: 363-446.
Spohn, C. and Halleran, D. (2000). The imprisonment penalty aid by young, unemployed Black and
Hispanic male offenders, Criminology, 38, 281-306.
Sudnow, David (1965). Normal Crimes: Sociological Features of the Penal Code in a Public Defender’s
Office. Social Problems 12: 254-264.
Revised, Spring 2011
Thomas, George C., III, and Richard A. Leo (2002). The Effects of Miranda v. Arizona: "Embedded" in
Our National Culture? Crime and Justice 2002: 203-271.
Zimring, Franklin E. (2005) American Juvenile Justice. NY: Oxford University Press.
Police
Bayley, D. H. (Ed.). (1995). What Works in Policing. Oxford.
Bell, Jeannine. Policing Hatred: Law enforcement, civil rights, and Hate Crime. New York University
Press.
Bittner, E. (1970). The Functions of Police in Modern Society: a Review of Background Factors, Current
Practices, and Possible Role Models. NIMH, Center for Studies of Crime and Delinquency.
Black, D. (1980). The Manners and Customs of the Police. Academic.
Carr, Patrick, Laura Napolitano, and Jessica Keating. 2007. We Never Call the Cops and Here is Why: A
Qualitative Examination of Legal Cynicism in Three Philadelphia Neighborhoods. Criminology 45: 15-40.
Decker, Scott. 2003. Policing gangs and youth violence. Wadwsorth.
Forst, Brian and Peter K. Manning. 1999. The privatization of policing: Two views. Georgetown University
Press.
Harcourt, Bernard E. 2001. Illusion of Order: The false promise of broken windows policing. Harvard
Univ. Press.
Kubrin, Charis E., Steven F. Messner, Glenn Deane, Kelly McGeever and Thomas D. Stucky (2010)
“Proactive Policing and Robbery Rates Across U.S. Cities.” Criminology 48: 57-97.
Leo, Richard A. (2008) Police Interrogation and American Justice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, MA.
Manning, P. K. (1997). Police Work: The Social Organization of Policing (2nd ed.). Waveland.
Manning, Peter K. 2003. Policing Contingencies. University of Chicago Press.
Marvell, T. B., & Moody, C. E. (1996). Specification Problems, Police Levels, and Crime Rates.
Criminology, 34. 609-646.
Miller, S.L. 1999. Gender and Community Policing. Boston, MA: Northeastern Press.
Morash, Merry and J. Kevin Ford. (Eds) 2002. The move to community policing: Making change happen.
Sage Publications.
Muir, W. K., Jr. (1977). Police: Streetcorner Politicians. University of Chicago.
Tonry, M., & Morris, N. (Eds.). (1992). Crime and Justice, A Review of Research: Vol. 15. Modern
Policing. University of Chicago.
Klinger, D. A. (1994). Demeanor or Crime? Why Hostile Citizens are More Likely to be Arrested.
Criminology, 32, 475-492.
Revised, Spring 2011
Sherman, L. W., & Smith, D. A. (1992). Crime, Punishment, and Stake In Conformity: Milwaukee and
Omaha Experiments. American Sociological Review, 57, 680-690.
Sherman, L. W. (1990). Police Crackdowns: Initial and Residual Deterrence. In M. Tonry & N. Morris
(Eds.), Crime and Justice, A Review of Research: Vol. 12. (Pp. 1-48). Chicago: University of Chicago.
Smith, D. A. (1986). The Neighborhood Context of Police Behavior. In A. J. Reiss & M. Tonry (Eds.),
Crime and Justice, An Annual Review of Research: Vol. 8. (Pp. 813-841). Chicago: University of Chicago.
Websdale, Neil. 2001. Policing the Poor: From slave plantation to public housing. Northeastern University
Press.
Punishment and Correction
James Acker et al, eds. 2003 America’s Experiment with Capital Punishment, 2nd Ed. Carolina
Academic Press
Clear, Todd R. 2007. Imprisoning Communities: How Mass Incarceration Makes Disadvantaged
Neighborhoods Worse. NY: Oxford.
Garland, David. The Culture of Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2001.
Garland, David. 2001. Mass imprisonment : social causes and consequences. Sage.
Hugo Adam Bedau, ed., The Death Penalty in America; Current Controversies (Oxford: 1997)
Keen, B., and D. Jacobs. 2009. Racial threat, partisan politics, and racial disparities in prison
admissions: a panel analysis. Criminology 47 (1): 209-238.
Merback, M. 1999. The thief, the Cross, and the wheel : pain and the spectacle of punishment
in medieval and Renaissance Europe, Chicago Univ. Press.
Norval Morris and David J. Rothman, eds., The Oxford History of the Prison (Oxford: 1998)
Norval Morris and Michael Tonry, Between Prison and Probation (Oxford: 1990)
Jeffrie G. Murphy, ed., Punishment and Rehabilitation, 3rd ed. (Wadsworth: 1995)
Simon, Jonathon. 2007. Governing through Crime. NY: Oxford University Press.
Tonry, Michael and Joan Peterisilia. 1999. Prisons. University of Chicago Press.
Unnever, James D., and Francis T. Cullen (2010) “Social Sources of Americans’ Punitiveness: A Test of
Three Competing Models.” Criminology 48: 99-129.
Vivian Stern, A Sin Against the Future: Imprisonment in the World (Northeastern: 1998)
Whitman, J.Q. 2003. Harsh Punishment, Oxford.
Zimring, Franklin. Punishment and Democracy: Three strikes and you’re out in California. Oxford
University Press.
Revised, Spring 2011