Properties of matter:
You can tell one state of matter from another by examining its properties.
State of matter:
Shape:
Mass:
Volume:
Density (divide mass
by volume)
Make it flow:
Compress:
Look:
Solid
Definite
Definite
Definite
High
Liquid
Varies
Definite
Definite
High
Gas
Varies
Definite
Varies
Low
Hard
Hard
Easy
Hard
Easy
Easy
Used for (e.g.):
- Build structures
(machines, office
tower blocks)
-In structure with
moving parts, the solids
rub against each other
and are worn away. A
liquid – oil flows over
the surfaces of the
moving parts and forms
a coating that also
moves so different parts
move over each other
smoothly.
- A moving car is
stopped by pressing the
brake pedal. Beneath the
pedal is a cylinder,
which is connected by
pipes to four other
cylinders (per wheel).
The cylinders and pipes
are full breaking fluid.
When the pedal is
pushed down, the force
is applied to the liquid.
As it cannot be squashed
(geplet), it pushes
outwards through levers
to the brake pads on all
four wheels at once. The
pads rub against the
wheels and slow them
down. If the brakes did
not work together the
car would skid out of
control.
- If a gas is squashed
(geplet) into a small space
and is then released, it
spreads out rapidly. A
compressed gas is used in
an aerosol (spuitbus) spray
to spread droplets of liquid.
When the nozzle of the
spray is pressed down,
some of the gas is released,
causing the liquid in the can
to form droplets and spread
out. The droplets may
contain chemicals to kill
flies or to give a pleasant
smell to a room.
- Air is a mixture of gasses.
Air is compressed into
bicyle tires to give it
strength, but as the tyre
moves over the small
bumps in the road, they
push on the flexible tyre
walls and squash some of
the air even more. This
stops the pushing force of
the bumps being
transferred to the bicycle
and stops the cyclist from
being shaken out.
Changing states:
The mass of a substance does not change when it’s state changes.
Heating/cooling:
Melting
States of matter:
Solid -> Liquid
How:
If a solid is
heated enough it
loses is shape
and starts to
flow -> changes
into a liquid.
Temperature:
The temperature
at which melting
takes place is
called the
melting point.
Freezing
Liquid -> Solid
If a liquid is
cooled enough it
loses is ability to
flow, forms a
shape and turns
into a solid.
The temperature
at which freezing
takes place is
called the
freezing point.
Evaporating
Liquid -> Gas
Over a range of
temperatures
Boiling
Liquid -> Gas
Condensation
Gas -> Liquid
Sublimation
1. Solids which
turn directly into
a gas when
heated (not first
into a liquid).
2. Gas turns
directly into a
solid.
The gas escapes
from the surface
of the liquid. If
the temperature
of the liquid is
raised it
evaporates
faster.
At a certain
temperature the
gas forms inside
the liquid and
makes bubbles
which rise to the
surface and
burst into the
air.
The gas is cooled
down.
Opposite of
evaporation.
Examples:
1. Solid carbon
dioxide (dry ice)
sublimes when it
is heated to
-78°C.
2. Sulphur
vapour escaping
from a volcano
sublimes to form
a solid crust on
the rocks close
by.
Boiling point.
Extra:
The temperature
of the melting
point is the same
as the
temperature of
the freezing
point.
The temperature
of the melting
point is the same
as the
temperature of
the freezing
point.
If the boiling
liquid is heated
more strongly its
temperature
does not rise but
it boils more
quickly.
The changing state of water:
Water cycle (water moves between oceans, atmosphere and land in a huge circular path).
# 1.5 Million million million litres of water
on earth.
# The states of water can change at
temperatures found naturally on the
earth.
# Water -> water vapour (gas) by
evaporation at any water surface. In the
cool, upper air the water vapour
condenses to form millions of water
droplets that make clouds. At the tops of
the clouds it is so cold that the droplets
freeze and form snowflakes. They fall
through the cloud and melt to form
raindrops.
# Precipitation = Falling water in the form
of rain, snow or hail. Plant roots take up
the water that passes through the soil, and their leaves return water to the atmosphere by
transpiration.
Particles of matter:
Observations on the three states of matter and how they change can be explained by considering
that matter is made of particles. This is the ‘particle theory of matter’.
State of matter:
How
strong/weak are
the forces that
hold the
particles
together?
What is the
shape of the
particles?
How do the
particles look?
Solid
Strong forces.
Liquid
The forces are weaker
than in solids.
Gas
The forces of
attraction are very
small.
Do they move?
A little.
They slide over each
other.
No, but they vibrate to
and fro (heen en weer)
about one position.
Yes, by sliding over each
other.
They move away from
each other in all
directions. When they
hit each other/the
surface of their
container they bounce
and change direction.
(at high speed)
Yes.
Does their
position change?
Three-dimensional.
Particles form an
orderly arrangement
(lattice).
When matter changes state:
Expanding
and melting
Solid
Freezing
Evaporation
Boiling
Condensation
Sublimation
Liquid
Liquid
Liquid
Gas
Temperature
Energy
Heated
It expands
and then it
melts. The
heat provides
the particles
with more
energy.
Cooled
The
particles
lose
energy.
The
particles
have
different
amounts of
energy.
Heated
All the
particles
receive
more
energy.
Cooled
The particles
in a gas
possess a
large amount
of energy
which they
use to move.
A few
substances
(iodine and
solid carbon
dioxide)
Heated
The
particles
receive
energy.
Movement
The particles
vibrate more
strongly and
push each
other a little
further apart
– the solid
expands.
They can
no longer
slide over
each other.
The only
movement
possible is
the
vibration
to and fro
about one
position in
the lattice.
The
particles
with the
most energy
move the
fastest.
The fastest
moving
particles
escape
from the
liquid
surface or
collect in
the liquid
to form
bubbles.
The state
changes
When it’s
heated
further, the
energy makes
the particles
vibrate so
strongly that
they slide
over each
other and
become a
liquid. The
temperature
does not rise.
The liquid
has
become a
solid.
High energy
liquid
particles
near the
surface
move so fast
that they
can break
through the
surface and
escape into
the air and
form a gas.
The
bubbles
rise to the
surface and
burst open
into the air.
The fast
moving
particles
released
from the
liquid form
a gas.
If the
particles are
cooled they
lose some of
their energy
and slow
down. If the
gas is cooled
sufficiently,
the particles
lose so much
energy that
they can no
longer
bounce off
each other
when they
meet.
The particles
now slide
over each
other and
form a liquid.
Sate of
matter
The
particles
separate
and form a
gas without
forming a
liquid first.
Pressure:
Solids (e.g. a brick pressing down on your toes), liquids (e.g. a dam with thick walls to withstand
the pressure of the water that collects in the reservoir behind it) and gases (they do not have a
surface like but it still pushes on any surface with which it makes contact. Pressure = this push
on the surface area of a liquid or solid.
Pressure on ice:
Skaters move across ice -> their weight pushes down through the small surface of the blades ->
large pressure -> the ice beneath the blade melts -> skaters pass by -> pressure is reduced on the
ice surface -> water freezes again.
This change happens because: Ice is less dense than its liquid form (water). The change does not
happen with other solids because they are denser than the liquids they form when they melt.
On other planets:
- Different from earth:
x Jupiter: made from a very large amount of hydrogen. The pressures and temperature near the
centre of the planet have made the hydrogen there into a solid like metal. Above the solid
hydrogen there is a vast ocean of liquid hydrogen.
x Uranus: most of the planet is made from ammonia (a gas), methane (gas) and water. The
conditions near the centre of the planet have changed large amount of these substances into
solids and liquids.
Diffusion:
Diffusion is a process in which one substance spreads out through another. It occurs in liquids
and gasses (e.g. the gases escaping from food cooking can move to other rooms). The moving
particles in different liquids flow over each other and the particles in different gases bounce off
each other. These movements eventually spread all the particles of one substance evenly
through the other. Liquids are denser than gases and this makes diffusion in liquids much slower
than in gases.
At start:
After an hour:
After a day:
Testing for purity:
If water contains other substances dissolved in it, it is impure. The impure water forms ice that
melts at a temperature below 0 °C and boils at a temperature above 100 °C. The melting and
boiling points of a substance can therefore also be used to find out if a substance is pure.
Atmospheric pressure:
Atmosphere:
- a mixture of gases that covers the surface of the earth.
- 1000 km thick.
- pushes everywhere on the Earth’s surface.
- pressure of the atmosphere at sea level = standard pressure (10 N/cm²). It is the pressure at
which the boiling point of any substance is measured.
- at the top of very high mountains the pressure is less than at sea level.
What?
Boiling and low pressure
Boiling and high pressure
If a flask is connected to a vacuum
pomp and some of the air is sucked out
there is less air inside the flask to push
on the surface and the air pressure is
smaller. The reduced air pressure
allows evaporation to take place more
quickly and less heat is needed to make
the liquid boil. Lowering the
atmospheric pressure on a liquid
lowers the boiling point of the liquid.
When a gas gets hot it expands and
increases its pressure on the surfaces
around it. If water is boiled in a pan
with a lid, the steam escaping from the
water pushes on the lid and makes it
rise – allowing the gas to escape.
The first ideas about matter:
The earliest people used the materials they could find around them. When people learned to
make fire they began to change one material into another.
By 600BC, philosophers in the Greek civilization were thinking about what different things were
made of. They thought that if one substance could change into another, perhaps it could go on
changing into other substances (they didn’t do experiments but tried to explain them with more
ideas).
Ideas:
- A Greek philosopher called Thales (642 – 546BC) believed that all substances were made from
different forms of one single substance (an element).
- Some believed everything was made from air. They believed air reached up from the ground
and filled the whole of space. They thought that air could be squashed to make liquids and solids.
- Some suggested that fire was the basic element because it was always changing and it was the
element in everything that made things change.
Eventually it was agreed that there were four elements from which all mater was made. Each
element was given properties.
The way that the elements and their properties were related to each other:
The Greeks’ ideas of elements were used for 2000 years to explain the structure of materials and
the way they change.
Structure of matter:
Democritus (470 – 380BC) was a Greek philosopher who thought about the structure of matter.
He thought on what would happen if you took a substance and divided it into two and then
carried on dividing. He believed that eventually a tiny piece would be produced which could not
be divided. He called this an atom (indivisible).
He believed in the four Greek elements and thought that each of them was made from atoms that
matched its properties.
Hero was a Greek engineer who lived about 400 years after Democritus but used his idea about
atoms to explain his observations about air. He thought that the air was made of tiny particles
with space between them. Hero believed this idea explained how air could be squashed. When
air was squashed, particles move closer together and had less space between them. Hero was
unable to test his ideas because the Greeks at that time did not think that experiments had any
importance.
Robert Boyle (1627 – 1691) performed experiments on gases. He was also the first person to
write down the descriptions of his experiments very carefully so that other scientists could not
try them. He found that there was a relationship between the pressure on a gas and its volume.
He also believed that his observations could be explained by gases being made of atoms.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831 – 1879) and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844 – 1906) studied the results of
experiments on gases and the idea of gases being made of atoms. They performed calculations
and worked out the kinetic theory of gases in which they believed gases were made of tiny
particles which could move rapidly in every direction. From this theory models were made of
how particles moved in gases, liquids and solids.