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Time Delay
Overview
Many of the characteristics of ASD have important implications for planning and
implementing instruction. In particular, many learners with ASD have considerable
difficulty transferring and adapting skills learned in one context to another setting. As a
result, they often become dependent upon prompts from teachers and/or peers to use
particular skills (Allen & Cowan, 2008; McCormick, 2006a). For example, a learner with
ASD may not put his coat on every day at dismissal until the teacher tells him to do so.
Prompt dependence limits a learner's ability to generalize the use of skills to new
situations, activities, and with a variety of individuals. Time delay is particularly effective
at preventing prompt dependence, because prompts are systematically faded, so that
learners with ASD must focus on naturally occurring situational cues, rather than
prompts, to use a target skill (McCormick, 2006a).
Pre-Assessment
Pre-Assessment
Which of the following is a key component of a time delay trial?
Select an answer for question 292
Teachers/practitioners always begin time delay trials by delivering a controlling prompt
that helps learners with ASD use target skills correctly.
Select an answer for question 293
Which of the following is NOT a time delay procedure?
Select an answer for question 294
Time delay can be used only during one-to-one instruction with a learner with ASD.
Select an answer for question 295
Before implementing time delay, assessments of individual learners with ASD should
focus on a learner's ability to
Select an answer for question 296
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Typically developing peers can be taught how to implement time delay.
Select an answer for question 297
Step-by-Step Instructions: Phase 1:
Preparing for the Intervention
Step-by-Step Instructions for Time Delay are provided in two phases. Phase 1 steps
include:
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Identifying target skills
o
Determining current skills
Selecting activities
Selecting cues
Selecting the controlling prompt
Designing data collection procedures, and
Collecting baseline data
o
o
o
o
o
Step 1. Identifying Target Skill(s)
In Step 1, teachers, practitioners, other team members, and families confer and review
individual family service plan/individualized education program (IFSP/IEP) goals to
identify target skill(s) that learner(s) with ASD need to develop.
Teachers/practitioners identify a behavior or skill that will serve as the focus of
the intervention.
Many times, teachers and other practitioners select priority goals from a learner's
IFSP/IEP to serve as the target skills during the intervention. Target skills should be
based upon individual learner needs. Examples of skills that might be taught using a
time delay procedure include:
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language/communication (requesting, responding, greeting, seeking information);
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academic (multiplication facts, sight word reading, letter identification, number
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identification); and
social skills/play (greeting adults/peers, exchanging materials).
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Teachers/practitioners define learner response behaviors.
Before implementing time delay procedures, teachers and other practitioners define
learner response behaviors so that they can determine a correct or incorrect response
during the teaching activities. For example, if a target skill for a learner with ASD is to
request, then the teacher or other practitioner must determine what will be considered a
request. Is "Help" considered a correct response? Or should the learner be expected to
say, "I need help, please?"
Step 2. Determing Current Skills
The next step is to identify a learner's current skills. This is particularly important when
implementing time delay because some prerequisite skills are needed (e.g., waiting,
imitating, attending) before the practice can be used to teach a target skill. Through this
process, teachers/practitioners can determine a learner's current ability to use them and
participate in the activity successfully. Such assessment of skills often is completed
through direct observation. Anecdotal notes (i.e., running records) can be helpful in
identifying skills that a learner uses throughout the day.
Teachers/practitioners assess a learner's current skills by directly observing the
learner during daily routines and activities.
The table illustrates how teachers and other practitioners can assess a learner's current
skills using anecdotal notes.
Using results from the direct observations, teachers and other practitioners can
determine whether or not the learner has the prerequisite skills needed to participate in
the learning activity. However, some of the skills are more critical than others. For
instance, a learner should be able to wait and stay seated before time delay can be
implemented. Other prerequisite skills (i.e., respond to instructional cues, imitate others,
increase positive behaviors, follow one-step instructions) provide teachers/practitioners
with important information that can be used to increase the success of the intervention.
For example, observations of learners responding to instructional cues throughout the
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day help teachers/practitioners determine which types of cues (e.g., direct instructions,
environmental arrangement, written instructions) are successful with individual learners.
Teachers/practitioners determine a learner's current ability to:
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o
o
o
o
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respond to instructional cues. Learners with ASD must look in the direction of the
teacher when a cue or attention-getting strategy is used.
wait. With constant time delay in particular, learners must be able to wait for a
prompt if they are not certain of the correct response. In general, learners should be
able to wait for approximately four seconds.
imitate others. Learners with ASD must be able to imitate others because this is a
key part of the instructional process. When initially teaching a skill, teachers and
other practitioners provide a cue, wait for the learner to respond, and then provide a
prompt to teach the target skill. For example, if the target skill is requesting, the
learner must be able to imitate the phrase, "More, please," after the teacher models
it for him.
stay seated during individual or small group work time. Learners with ASD
must be able to stay seated during individual or small-group work times in order to
benefit from the intervention. Generally, learners with ASD should be able to stay at
an activity for 5 to 10 minutes before time delay procedures can be used to teach
skills.
increase positive behaviors in response to reinforcers. Learners with ASD
should have a history of using behaviors more frequently after appropriate
reinforcers have been provided.
follow one-step instructions. Learners should be able to follow simple instructions
such as "Get coat," "Wash hands," and "Clean up." Being able to follow written onestep instructions or respond to transition objects/cards also can be counted for this
skill.
Step 3. Selecting Activities
Time delay procedures can be used during more didactic approaches to learning, in
which instruction takes place during individual work time or small group activities. Time
delay procedures also can be embedded within ongoing routines and activities. For
example, a teacher could work on "requesting help" using time delay when a learner is
getting his coat on to go home at the end of the day. The selection of activities and
materials is entirely dependent upon the skill(s) that a learner or small group of learners
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need to acquire. Teachers and other practitioners also should consider using favorite
activities or materials during teaching activities to increase motivation.
Teachers/practitioners identify one of the following activities as a time to
implement a time delay procedure and teach target skill(s):
o
o
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individual work (seat work, working with teacher during free play);
small group activities (centers, circle time, peer-mediated instructional activities,
group project); or
embedded instruction within ongoing classroom routines and activities
(putting coat on to go home, requesting snack, requesting help to turn on computer,
greeting others).
Step 4. Selecting Cues
In Step 4, teachers and other practitioners must identify the cue that will signal the
learner to perform the target skill. A cue basically tells the learner that it is time to use
the target skill. Identification of a relevant cue is a critical part of the implementation
process because it provides a way for the learner to associate the cue with using the
target skill rather than becoming dependent upon the teacher's prompts. That is, if a
teacher does not select and use a cue during a teaching activity, learners with ASD will
not know what is expected of them and will rely upon the teacher's prompts to use the
skill. Depending upon the target skill and activity, the teacher, peers, or natural
environment may cue the learner to use the skill.
Teachers/practitioners select at least one of the following cues to begin the
teaching activity:
o
o
arranging the environment (getting the materials set up and ready before the
learner comes to the activity, such as setting up tasks for individual work time,
setting the table before snack, placing play dough and toys on the table, arranging
desks for small group work); and/or
providing instructions about the task or activity (telling learner to get his coat on
to go home, giving a picture card to go wash hands, ringing a bell for learner to go
to next class, presenting a flash card with a sight word on it).
It is essential that the cue be clear enough that learners with ASD know what they are
supposed to be doing during the particular task or activity. Instructions should be clear,
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complete, specific, and aimed at learners' skill and interest levels. For example, a
teacher would not use picture cards with a learner who is able to follow verbal
instructions.
Step 5. Selecting the Controlling Prompt
When learning a new skill, a learner with ASD initially will need assistance in using it.
Therefore, teachers and other practitioners use prompting procedures in conjunction
with time delay to teach target skills. For example, if the learner is presented with a cue
and does not respond, the teacher provides the controlling prompt to teach the learner
how to use the skill.
Teachers/practitioners select one of the following prompting types as the
controlling prompt:
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o
o
o
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verbal. Statements that teachers/practitioners make that help learners acquire a
particular skill (e.g., "Maybe you should try it a different way.");
gestural. Movements made by teachers/practitioners that cue learners to engage in
behaviors (e.g., pointing, raising hands up and shrugging shoulders as if to say,
"What do you need?")
model. Teachers/practitioners perform the behavior that the learner is learning to
do. Model prompts can be (a) verbal (e.g., "Milk, please," "Help, please," "Two
times two is four") or (b) motor (e.g., having learner watch teacher tie her shoes,
teacher opens a jar, teacher zips up coat);
physical. Adults touch learners and help them engage in the target skill (e.g.,
teacher touches learner's hand to prompt him to write his name, teacher puts her
hand over the learner's hand to demonstrate how to zip up his coat); and/or
positional. With positional prompting, materials are arranged, so that the correct
item is in a position that is apparent to the learner with ASD. For example, if the
task is to pick out the number "2" from five different cards with numbers on them,
teachers/practitioners might initially arrange the cards so that the correct number is
directly in front of the learner. As the learner acquires the skill, the other cards can
be gradually moved closer to the learner until they are even with the correct choice.
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Prompting ranges in intensity from least to most restrictive. For example, tapping the top
of the paper to prompt a learner to write his name is less restrictive than saying, "Write
your name." Teachers and other practitioners should always select the least restrictive
prompt needed by the learner to use the target skills successfully as the controlling
prompt. The following table illustrates how prompting procedures can be used to
provide the least and most support to learners with ASD.
Step 6. Designing Data Collection
Procedures
In Step 6, teachers and other practitioners design data-collection procedures, which will
be a critical component of the implementation process. When designing procedures,
teachers and other practitioners identify criteria for increasing the time delay. It is
generally recommended that teachers conduct at least two trials using a 0-second delay
before increasing the wait time.
Teachers/practitioners determine how many 0-second delay trials will be
implemented before increasing the time delay.
Teachers/practitioners create a data-collection sheet to record learner responses
during the teaching activity (see example data-collection sheet in Step 7).
Step 7. Collecting Baseline Data
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Before implementing a teaching activity that uses time delay as the primary means of
instruction, teachers and other practitioners collect baseline data to determine the
learner's current use of the target skill. This is accomplished by implementing a teaching
activity using the predetermined cue. No feedback is provided to the learner. All learner
responses are recorded in the After Prompt column of the data collection sheet.
Teachers/practitioners present the cue to begin the teaching activity.
Teachers/practitioners wait 3 to 5 seconds for the learner to respond.
Learner responses are recorded in the following ways:
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unprompted correct response (learner uses the target skill correctly within 3-5
o
seconds of the cue being presented)
unprompted incorrect response (learner attempts to use the target skill within 3-5
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seconds of the cue being presented but performs it incorrectly), and
no response (learner does not initiate use of the target skill within 3-5 seconds of
the cue being presented) (Kurt & Tekin-Iftar, 2008; Schuster et al., 1998; Wolery,
Anthony, Caldwell, Snyder, & Morgante, 2002).
If no response is given or if the response is incorrect, teachers/practitioners put a
- in the After Prompt column.
If the learner does not use the target skill correctly, teachers/practitioners do not
provide the correct response.
If a correct response is given, teachers/practitioners put a + in the After Prompt
column. Teachers/practitioners collect baseline data for at least 10 trials (i.e., cue,
learner response).
The table provides an example data-collection sheet that can be used to collect
baseline data.
Step-by-Step Instructions: Phase 2:
Implementing Time Delay
Step-by-Step Instructions for Time Delay are provided in two phases. Phase 2 steps
include:
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Gaining learner attention
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o
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Implementing time delay
Increasing the delay, and
Monitoring progress
Step 1. Gaining Learner Attention
Teachers/practitioners gain the learner's attention by:
o
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using an attention-getting strategy (e.g., saying learner's name, saying, "Look") and
presenting the cue.
Once eye contact has been established with the learner, teachers/practitioners can
present the cue to begin the teaching activity.
Example
A teacher says, "David." David looks at the teacher. The teacher presents a flash card
with the word "Stop" on it and says, "What is this, David?" while pointing at the flash
card (cue).
Step 2. Implementing Time Delay
When first teaching a skill, a fixed 0-second delay is used with both constant and
progressive time delay. That is, there is no wait time between the cue and delivery of
the controlling prompt.
o
Teachers/practitioners use a 0-second delay by providing the learner with the cue
to use the target skill followed immediately by the controlling prompt.
o
Teachers/practitioners use the least restrictive prompt needed for the learner to use
the skill.
Example
After the teacher in the example in Step 1 says, "What is this, David?" she immediately
says, "Stop." The teacher continues to use the 0-second time delay 10 more times
before increasing the delay between the cue and the prompt.
After the 0-second delay is implemented over a predetermined number of trials, the
delay is increased based upon the time delay procedure being used (see Step 3).
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Step 3. Increasing the Delay
Two different time delay procedures can be used to increase the wait time between the
initial cue and the controlling prompt: constant and progressive time delay. Both
procedures are effective in teaching learners with ASD target skills.
With constant time delay, teachers/practitioners implement a fixed delay (i.e., 3-5
seconds) after using the 0-second delay over a predetermined number of trials. The
delay provides an opportunity for the learner to use the target skill independently before
being offered support from the teacher or practitioner.
Teachers/practitioners present the cue to the learner.
Teachers/practitioners wait 3 to 5 seconds for the learner to use the target skill.
If the learner's response is correct, teachers/practitioners immediately provide
positive feedback by:
o
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offering reinforcement (e.g., praise, access to materials, break) and
stating what the learner did (e.g., "You said, More,' Here's more snack." "You said,
Two times two is four.' That's right. Two times two is four.")
If the learner's response is incorrect, or if the learner does not respond to the cue,
teachers/practitioners:
o
o
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provide the cue again,
wait 3 to 5 seconds, and
use the controlling prompt to help the learner use the target skill.
With progressive time delay, teachers and other practitioners gradually increase the
delay (e.g., 1-second intervals) as learners become more proficient at using the target
skill.
Teachers/practitioners present the cue to the learner.
Teachers/practitioners wait using the increased delay time before prompting the
learner to use the skill.
If the learner's response is correct, teachers/practitioners immediately provide
positive feedback by:
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o
o
offering reinforcement (e.g., praise, access to materials, break) and
stating what the learner did (e.g., "You said, More,' here's more snack." "You said,
Two times two is four.' That's right. Two times two is four.")
If the learner's response is incorrect or if the learner does not respond to the cue,
teachers/practitioners:
o
o
o
provide the cue again,
wait for the increased time interval (e.g., 1 second, 2 seconds), and
use the controlling prompt to help the learner use the target skill.
Step 4. Monitoring Progress
Monitoring learner progress is essential because it allows teachers and other
practitioners to modify the wait time as learners become more proficient at using target
skills. Teachers and other practitioners collect progress monitoring data as the teaching
activity is implemented. Often teachers and other practitioners place clipboards with
data collection sheets at the activity, so that they can easily record learner responses.
Teachers/practitioners record the number of correct/incorrect learner responses
during the teaching activity.
Learner responses are recorded in the following ways:
o
o
o
o
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unprompted correct response (learner uses the target skill correctly without
prompts within the time delay interval),
prompted correct response (learner uses the target skill correctly after being
prompted),
unprompted incorrect response (learner attempts to use the target skill without
prompts within the time delay interval, but performs it incorrectly),
prompted incorrect response (learner attempts to use the target skill after being
prompted, but performs it incorrectly), and
no response (learner does not initiate use of the target skill during the time delay
interval) (Kurt & Tekin-Iftar, 2008; Schuster et al., 1998; Wolery et al., 2002).
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Teachers/practitioners review progress monitoring data after two teaching
activities to determine a learner's mastery of the target skill.
Generally, teachers and other practitioners review data after two teaching activities
have been implemented. This way, the wait time can be increased quite quickly to
ensure rapid acquisition of skills. Learners should demonstrate 100% correct
responding before a prompt over two consecutive teaching activities before the wait
time is increased. If after two teaching sessions, 25% of a learner's responses are
wrong after the prompt, a more controlling prompt may be needed. A no response on
25% or more trials after two teaching sessions often indicates that the reinforcer is not
motivating enough for the learner with ASD.
The example provides the same data collection sheet that was used during baseline;
however, it contains data from a teaching activity that used a 3-second delay during two
teaching activities.
Teachers/practitioners gradually increase the time delay (e.g., 1-second intervals)
as learners demonstrate 100% mastery of the target skill over the course of two
instructional activities.
After the learner has demonstrated 100% mastery of the target skill using the increased
delay, teachers/practitioners continue to gradually increase the delay. When teachers
and other practitioners reach a 5- to 6-second delay, they should continue teaching the
target skill using this time interval until the learner masters the target skill. The goal is to
entirely stop using the time delay and prompting procedures so that learners are use
target skills independently.
Next Steps
Time delay procedures are often implemented during one-to-one and small group
teaching activities; however, both constant and progressive time delay can be
incorporated into other types of learning activities. Two of the most common
approaches outlined in the research relate to (a) implementing time delay procedures
within the context of daily routines and activities and (b) training typically developing
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peers to use time delay. Both of these approaches are discussed further in the following
section.
Embedding Time Delay Within Ongoing
Classroom Routines and Activities
Embedding Time Delay Within Ongoing Classroom Routines and Activities
The number of learners with developmental disabilities (including learners with ASD)
who are educated in inclusive classrooms for at least a portion of the school day has
risen dramatically in recent years (Lipsky & Gartner, 1996). For this reason, as well as
the difficulty with which learners with ASD have generalizing the use of newly acquired
skills, embedded instruction has become an efficient way to systematically teach
learners with ASD.
Research has shown that time delay can be easily embedded within naturally occurring
activities by providing instruction during short, systematic interactions (i.e., trials)
(Jameson et al., 2007; McCormick, 2006a, 2006b; Riesen et al., 2003; Wolery, 2001).
Embedded instruction is particularly helpful for teaching learners with ASD because it
promotes generalization of skills and offers more opportunities for instruction across the
school day (Jameson et al., 2007). For example, teachers/practitioners may arrange the
environment and instructional activities so that time delay trials occur frequently during
transitions from one activity/class to another, at circle time, at snack, or during small
group activities (McDonnell et al., 2006).
Embedding time delay within ongoing routines and activities offers many benefits. First,
teachers/practitioners can implement a greater number of trials across the day, which
provides a more intensive approach to instruction. Second, teachers/practitioners
support learners' use of target skills across the day, which offers many opportunities for
generalization. Finally, time delay can be implemented within ongoing routines and
activities without interrupting instruction with other students in the classroom (Riesen et
al., 2003).
The following steps developed by Wolery (2001) are helpful when attempting to embed
time delay procedures within ongoing routines and activities.
Step 1. Identifying Routines and Activities
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Identify routines and activities where target skills can be taught. For example, a time
delay procedure can be implemented during one activity in a classroom (e.g., smallgroup activity during science class, at snack time) or during multiple activities/classes
across the day (e.g., during transitions, during free play, circle time, outside). Teachers
and other practitioners decide when to implement time delay based upon the skills
being taught, how many teaching opportunities are possible, and the responsibilities of
the teacher in a particular classroom (Wolery, 2001).
Step 2. Determining How Trials Will Be Implemented
Decide how many trials will be provided and how often. It is recommended that
approximately five trials be provided for each skill per day (Wolery, 2001). Trials could
be implemented in one activity (e.g., at snack, at circle, during a small-group activity) or
across the day (e.g., at snack, circle, and outside; in science, English, and PE).
Teachers and other practitioners also must decide how much time should pass between
each trial. For example, a teacher might decide that a trial should be given
approximately every 5 minutes during free play. Another teacher might decide to
implement constant time delay every 2 minutes during a small group activity in science
class.
The step-by-step instructions presented earlier in the module can be followed once
teachers/practitioners determine (a) when and where time delay procedures will be
implemented, (b) how many trials will be implemented across the day or class period,
and (c) how much time will pass between trials.
Teaching Typically Developing Peers to
Implement Time Delay
Another effective instructional approach is to train typically developing elementary
school-, middle school-, and high school-aged peers how to implement time delay
procedures. This approach to providing instruction offers several benefits. First, peermediated instruction addresses the difficulties that many learners with ASD have with
generalization. For example, having typically developing peers provide instruction
requires that learners with ASD use target skills with individuals other than the
classroom teacher. Second, typically developing peers increase the intensity of the
intervention by providing more frequent instruction across the day. Finally, interactions
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with typically developing peers during learning activities increase the number of
opportunities that learners with ASD have to interact with other students in the class.
Teachers/practitioners can train an entire class or a subset of typically developing peers
to use time delay. Generally, teachers/practitioners select peers who are social and
motivated to participate (Telescan et al., 1999). Once typically developing peers have
been identified, teachers/practitioners follow a series of steps to train peers how to use
time delay effectively.
Step 1. Introducing Time Delay
First, teachers/practitioners talk with typically developing peers about helping other
students. For example, they might explain to peers that learners with ASD may need
help learning a new skill and discuss and model appropriate ways to provide praise and
reinforcement when teaching other learners. Teachers/practitioners often facilitate a
discussion that concludes with a list of suggestions for praising correct responses. Next,
teachers/practitioners introduce the concept of the cue.
Example Script for Introducing Time Delay to Peers
Teacher: When you are teaching something new (e.g., naming letters, reading sight
words, reciting multiplication facts) to one of your friends, always give them a signal so
they know what they are supposed to be doing. So, if you want to teach Caleb how to
name letters, you want to get his attention by saying, "Hey, Caleb." Then hold up the
card, point to the letter, and say, "What letter?"
Step 2. Introducing the 0-Second Delay, Controlling Prompt, and Feedback
Teachers/practitioners then introduce the concept of the 0-second delay, controlling
prompt, and feedback with students. After these concepts have been explained, peer
tutors role play with a teacher/practitioner, who assumes the role of the learner with
ASD. Through this process, typically developing peers learn how to deliver the cue, use
the 0-second delay, and provide feedback through the use of positive reinforcement or
the controlling prompt.
Example Script for Modeling the 0-Second Delay
Teacher: At first, Caleb will need help saying the letter on the card. So, you will hold up
the card and say, "Hey, Caleb. What letter?" while pointing to the letter on the card.
Then you immediately say, "The letter N'." Teacher demonstrates. This is called the 0second delay because you are not waiting at all before giving Caleb the answer.
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After you hold up the card and say the letter on it, immediately say, "Good job," give
Caleb a sticker, and say, "That's right. That's the letter N'." Even if you aren't giving him
a chance to say the letter, you still want to tell him, "That's right. That's the letter N.'
Good job," and give him the sticker because it lets him know what he needs to do.
Now, I am going to be the student, Tracey is going to be the teacher. Everyone else
watch and tell us if there is anything we need to do differently.
Peer: Peer holds up card, says, "Hey Caleb. What letter? The letter N.' That's right. The
letter N.' Good job," and gives the teacher a sticker.
Teacher: Teacher addresses other peers. Okay, so what did you see?
Step 3. Practicing the 0-Second Delay
The next step involves helping typically developing students practice the 0-second delay
with other students. Teachers/practitioners provide immediate feedback to peer tutors
during this practice stage to ensure that students use the time delay procedures
correctly with each other.
Step 4. Modeling the Delay
After peers have been taught to use the 0-second delay, teachers/practitioners
demonstrate how to use the delay procedure. Teachers/practitioners talk with peers
about the importance of waiting a certain length of time before helping a learner with
ASD (e.g., "Caleb needs time to answer correctly." "It helps him become more
independent." "It helps him learn how to do things by himself"). During this step, peers
are taught to wait 3 to 5 seconds after they provide the cue before delivering the
controlling prompt. Teachers/practitioners assume the role of the learner with ASD and
model both correct and incorrect responses so that peers can practice providing
feedback through the use of reinforcement or the controlling prompt.
Example Script for Modeling the Delay
Teacher: Okay. So, after two or three times of using the 0-second delay ... What is the
0-second delay again? (Peers answer.) Good. So, after about three times of using the
0-second delay, you start waiting before you help Caleb say the letter on the card. This
will help him say the letters by himself. Give Caleb the cue (teacher holds up card) and
wait for 3 seconds. You can count silently in your head: one-one thousand, two-one
thousand, three-one thousand to give you an idea of how long 3 seconds are. If Caleb
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doesn't say the letter on the card after 3 seconds, say, "What letter, Caleb?" and wait 3
more seconds. If he says the letter, what do you need to do?
Peers: Say, "Good job," give him a sticker, and say, "That's right. You said, N.'"
Teacher: That's right. But if he says a different letter or doesn't respond at all, give him
the cue again. What is the cue we are using?
Peers: Hold up the card and say, "Look, Caleb. What letter?"
Teacher: Great! So, if Caleb says a different letter or doesn't respond at all, you give
him the cue again and immediately tell him the letter that is on the card. But don't give
him the sticker or say, "Good job." Just move on to the next card. What do you have to
do if Caleb says a different letter or doesn't respond at all?
Peers: Give the cue again and immediately tell him the letter on the card.
Teacher: That's right. Also, remember that you don't want to tell him "Good job" or give
him a sticker if he says a different letter or doesn't respond. Now, I am going to be the
student and Marcy will be the teacher. I want you guys to watch and tell us if there is
anything we need to do differently. The teacher then assumes the role of the learner
with ASD by modeling incorrect, correct, and no responses so that the peer tutor can
practice giving appropriate feedback.
Step 5. Practicing the Delay
In this step, peers practice using the identified delay (i.e., 3 to 5 seconds) with each
other. During these practice session, peers take turns assuming the role of the tutor.
Students are encouraged to provide a variety of responses (e.g., correct, incorrect), so
that peer tutors can practice providing the cue, waiting for the learner to respond, and
delivering the appropriate feedback (i.e., reinforcement, controlling prompt).
Peer training typically takes place over a series of sessions (i.e., 3 to 5) before peers
begin using time delay procedures within classroom activities. Instructional activities are
generally implemented once per day as soon as peers are able to use time delay with
90% accuracy. The first instructional session often focuses on peers using the 0-second
delay. In subsequent sessions, teachers/practitioners provide support to peers when
implementing the time delay.
A challenge of this instructional approach is keeping typically developing peers
motivated to participate in the instructional activities. Therefore, teachers/practitioners
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should develop a reinforcement program to maintain peer motivation. Peers may
receive points or tokens each time they implement the procedures correctly. As peers
acquire points/tokens, they can trade them in for some type of reinforcer (e.g., extra
computer time, free time, "cool" school supplies) (Godsey, Schuster, Lingo, Collins, &
Kleinert, 2008; Hughes & Fredrick, 2006; Telescan et al., 1999). When used accurately,
peer implementation of time delay can be an effective teaching approach.
Case Study Examples
Case examples are provided on both constant and progressive time delay procedures.
Constant Time Delay: Michael
Case Study: Constant Time Delay: Michael
Michael is a 6-year-old boy with Asperger Syndrome who receives services within an
inclusive first grade classroom. His teacher, Ms. Miller, would like to start using constant
time delay with him to teach addition facts. Ms. Miller knows that she must do some
planning before she can use the time delay procedure with Michael.
First, she observes Michael during small-group activities throughout the day to
determine what skills he currently uses. Ms. Miller already knows that Michael responds
positively to reinforcement, so she does not observe this skill. Over the course of two
days, Ms. Miller keeps brief notes on each of the prerequisite skills that she observes
during small-group language and math activities (shown in the chart). She knows that
these are good times to observe because she often lets the groups work together while
she floats around the room to monitor their progress.
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Through her observations, Ms. Miller determined that she can implement time delay
with Michael because he has all of the prerequisite skills needed. Next, she decides that
she will start using time delay during individual seatwork with Michael because this is a
time when most of the other children are able to work independently.
Ms. Miller then selects the cue that she will use during the instructional activities. She
decides that she will arrange the environment by putting flash cards at Michael's desk.
She also decides that she will put a chair in front of Michael's desk so that she can
provide the additional cue of holding up a flash card while saying, "What is (2+2, 1+1,
etc.)?" Ms. Miller feels that these verbal instructions are appropriate, because Michael is
able to follow verbal one-step instructions very successfully.
Once Ms. Miller has decided on the cue, she selects the controlling prompt that will be
used to teach addition facts. She chooses a gestural prompt (i.e., pointing) and a model
prompt (i.e., answer to the question) as the controlling prompt for this activity. Ms. Miller
feels that these two prompts together will help Michael use the skill successfully. He has
had very little success with this skill in the past, and she feels that a fairly restrictive
prompt will be necessary for him to respond correctly.
Next, Ms. Miller decides to collect baseline data during individual math seat work for
four days before starting time delay. When collecting baseline data, Ms. Miller presents
the cue to Michael by holding up a flash card and saying, "Michael, what is 1+1?" Then
she waits for 3 seconds before recording his response. In each of the trials, Michael
either did not respond or responded incorrectly. Therefore, Ms. Miller recorded his
responses as "-" in the After Prompt column on the data sheet (see a portion of Ms.
Miller's data-collection sheet below). She conducts three trials per day for four days to
document Michael's current use of the target skill.
The baseline data indicate that Michael did not respond correctly to any of the addition
facts when they were presented to him with the cue.
The following day Ms. Miller begins implementing constant time delay with Michael.
While the class is finishing up a small-group math activity, she sets up Michael's desk
so that she can immediately begin the teaching activity when he comes to his desk for
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individual math seat work. She places her chair in front of his desk and lays the addition
flash cards on his desk. When Michael sits down at his desk, Ms. Miller says, "Look
Michael. What is 1+1?" while holding up the card for Michael to see. She immediately
says, "Two. That's right. One plus one equals two. Good job," while pointing to the
number "2" on the back of the card and giving Michael a thumbs-up. Ms. Miller then
holds up another card and says, "Look, Michael. What is 1+2?" Again, she immediately
provides the controlling prompt (verbally providing the answer while pointing to the
number on the card). After four trials, Ms. Miller then inserts a delay of four seconds.
She does this by saying, "Look, Michael. What is 1+1?" Instead of immediately
providing the controlling prompt, Ms. Miller begins counting in her head, "One-one
thousand, two-one thousand..." After 4 seconds, Michael does not respond. At this
point, Ms. Miller provides feedback by presenting the cue again (i.e., "What is 1+1") and
immediately providing the controlling prompt. Michael then says, "Two." Ms. Miller does
not respond but simply holds up another card while giving the cue (i.e., "What is 1+2?")
to begin the second trial. Ms. Miller begins counting in her head again. Michael says,
"Two." Ms. Miller repeats the cue (i.e., "What is 1+2?") because his response was
incorrect and waits an additional 4 seconds for Michael to respond. After 3 seconds,
Michael says, "Three." Ms. Miller says, "Three. That's right. Two plus one equals three,"
while pointing to the number on the back of the card and giving Michael a thumbs-up.
Ms. Miller conducts three more trials in this manner. During the activity, Ms. Miller keeps
a clipboard with a data-collection sheet on her lap so that she can record Michael's
responses.
The following day, Ms. Miller implements the math teaching activity again. This time, the
teaching activity is highly successful, with Michael responding correctly before the
prompt four out of five times. Ms. Miller continues to collect data during the activity to
monitor Michael's progress (see example data-collection sheet below).
After two teaching activities, Ms. Miller reviews the progress-monitoring data for this
target skill. She determines that Michael is responding correctly before the prompt 50%
of the time. Therefore, she decides that she should continue with a delay of 4 seconds
during at least two more teaching activities before increasing the delay.
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After two more teaching activities, Michael is demonstrating 100% correct responding
with a 4-second delay interval. At this time, Ms. Miller decides to increase the delay to 5
seconds. She will use this delay for two more teaching activities.
As Michael continues making progress with his addition facts, Ms. Miller will gradually
increase the delay until she reaches 6 seconds, at which point she will remove the delay
entirely. This will allow Michael to use the target skill independently without any
prompting. Ms. Miller will continue to take data on Michael's proficiency with addition
facts even after the time delay is no longer being used. By collecting these data, Ms.
Miller will be able to monitor Michael's acquisition and maintenance of this skill without
the use of time delay.
Progressive Time Delay: Zoe
Case Study: Progressive Time Delay: Zoe
Zoe is an 11-year-old girl with classical-autism who receives services within a selfcontained classroom. There are four other children in Zoe's class; all of them have been
diagnosed with ASD. Zoe's teacher, Mr. Connelly, and his assistant, Ms. Smith, are in
Zoe's classroom at all times. A target skill that Mr. Connelly and Zoe's parents would
like her to acquire is the ability to make requests. Mr. Connelly decides to use
progressive time delay to teach this skill during mealtimes, because he thinks that using
small, incremental delays will help Zoe be more successful at learning this skill. He also
decides that lunch is an optimal time to work on requesting because Zoe is highly
motivated by food, which could serve as the natural reinforcer for the activity. The target
skill he has identified is for Zoe to request more food at lunch by saying, "More, please."
Through his observations, Mr. Connelly has determined that Zoe is able to wait during
activities (e.g., waiting in line, waiting for her turn), imitate others (e.g., clapping when
others clap, repeating what people say), stay seated during individual work time
(although she typically stays seated for only about 5 minutes at a time), increase target
behaviors in response to reinforcers, and follow one-step instructions (e.g., "Get coat,"
"Sit in chair").
Before beginning the progressive time delay intervention, Mr. Connelly selects the cue
that will signal Zoe to request food at mealtimes. He decides that instead of giving her
lunch all at once, he will provide Zoe with small portions of her favorite foods so that she
will need to request more. Mr. Connelly plans to set up the environment by placing a
plate of food at Zoe's place at the table and by sitting across the table from her with the
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additional food directly in front of him and out of Zoe's reach. Mr. Connelly also will cue
Zoe to request "more" by holding up the food and saying, "Zoe, what do you want?"
Mr. Connelly then selects the controlling prompt. He decides that he will say, "More,
please" if Zoe does not use the target phrase within the time interval. Because she
imitates others' verbalizations well, Mr. Connelly thinks that this controlling prompt will
help Zoe be successful.
Before implementing progressive time delay, Mr. Connelly collects baseline data over
two consecutive days. Each day he implements five trials to determine Zoe's current
use of the target skill (i.e., "More, please" to request more food at lunch). On the first
day, Mr. Connelly sits with Zoe at lunch, provides the cue (i.e., sitting across from her
with the food out of reach), and waits for Zoe to eat the small portions of food that he
has given her. As Zoe finishes eating what is on her plate, she reaches for the food. Mr.
Connelly holds up the food and says, "Zoe, what do you want?" Mr. Connelly repeats
this process each time Zoe reaches for the food instead of requesting more. During
each trial, Zoe does not use the target skill.
On the following day, Mr. Connelly completes the same process to collect sufficient
baseline data. Again, Zoe does not respond to Mr. Connelly's delivery of the cue during
each of the five trials.
With baseline data collection complete, Mr. Connelly begins to implement progressive
time delay with Zoe. To begin the teaching activity, he arranges the environment so that
it is ready when Zoe comes to the table. Mr. Connelly then sits down at the table as Zoe
starts eating. When she finishes the portions of food that have been provided, she
reaches for the food in front of Mr. Connelly, who says, "Zoe, what do you want?" He
immediately says, "More, please. You said, More, please.' Here's more food," while
placing another small portion of food on Zoe's plate. Mr. Connelly continues using the 0second delay for the remainder of lunch.
The following day, Mr. Connelly decides to increase the time interval to 1 second.
Therefore, he will wait 1 second after providing the cue (i.e., "Zoe, what do you want?"
while holding up food) before delivering the controlling prompt ("More, please."). When
Zoe finishes her initial plate of food, she reaches for the food and grunts. Mr. Connelly
then says, "What do you want?," waits one second, and delivers the controlling prompt
after Zoe does not respond. When Zoe finishes eating the food on her plate again, she
reaches for the food and grunts. Mr. Connelly delivers the cue again and waits one
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second; however, Zoe does not respond. Therefore, Mr. Connelly delivers the
controlling prompt again by saying, "More please. You said, More please.' Here's more
food," while placing another small portion of food on Zoe's plate. Mr. Connelly continues
using the 1-second delay for the remainder of lunch. During the last five trials, Zoe
begins to say, "Muh" when Mr. Connelly provides the cue. Mr. Connelly immediately
provides another serving of food and says, "You said, More, please.' Here's more food"
when she vocalizes in this way.
On the third and fourth days of the intervention, Zoe is responding correctly to the cue
all of the time. Because she has reached 100% correct responding, Mr. Connelly can
now increase the delay. He decides to increase the delay to 2 seconds. He implements
the teaching trials in the same manner as before except this time he inserts a 2-second
delay after providing the cue. He uses this delay for four more days until Zoe reaches
100% correct responding. As Zoe becomes more successful at using the target skill, Mr.
Connelly gradually increases the delay until it reaches five to six seconds. At this point,
the delay is faded out completely so that Zoe can independently request at mealtimes
by saying, "More, please."
As soon as Zoe has mastered the target skill, Mr. Connelly plans to use progressive
time delay during other activities to expand Zoe's requesting skills. For example, Zoe
has difficulty asking for help when getting her coat on at the end of the day, which
provides another opportunity to teach Zoe to request by using time delay.
Summary
Time delay is an evidence-based practice that can be used to teach learners with ASD
a variety of skills, including those related to language/communication, academic, and
social/play. With time delay, teachers/practitioners implement learning trials in which a
cue and controlling prompt are used to teach target skills. As learners become more
successful at using newly acquired skills, teachers/practitioners increase the time
interval between the initial cue and the controlling prompt by using one of two
procedures: constant time delay and progressive time delay. With constant time delay, a
fixed delay interval of 3 to 5 seconds is used. With progressive time delay,
teachers/practitioners gradually increase the delay between the initial cue and the
controlling prompt using 1-second intervals. With both procedures, the goal is to fade
the time delay so that learners begin to independently use target skills. Time delay can
be implemented within a variety of activities across the school day, including small-
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group and individual work times. Additionally, teachers/practitioners can address issues
related to generalization of skills by embedding time delay procedures within ongoing
routines and activities and by training typically developing peers to use time delay
during learning activities.
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Overview
Module Objectives
CEC Professional Standards
Step-by-Step Instructions: Phase 1: Preparing for the Intervention
Step-by-Step Instructions: Phase 2: Implementing Time Delay
Next Steps
Case Study Examples
Summary
Evidence Base for Time Delay
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Citation and References
Post-Assessment
RESOURCES
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Step-by-Step Instructions
Implementation Checklist
Documents
Discussion Questions
Activities
MODULE NAVIGATOR > TIME DELAY
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
Q. How often should intervention activities occur?
A. Structured learning activities using time delay should take place at least once a day;
however, time delay can be implemented whenever teachers/practitioners plan for it,
particularly when they embed time delay procedures within ongoing classroom routines
and activities.
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Q. How do I make data collection more feasible?
A. Data collection is essential when implementing time delay; however, it can seem
overwhelming at times. Teachers/practitioners can plan for data collection in advance
so that the task becomes less daunting. The first step is to identify when and where
data collection will occur. Generally, it should take place during the activity in which time
delay is being used. It is often helpful to create a master data collection sheet that can
be used during both baseline and intervention. A blank time delay data sheet may be
found in the Resources section of this module. Once copies of the data-collection sheet
have been made, teachers/practitioners can place it on a clipboard with a pencil/pen
attached. As trials are implemented, teachers/practitioners can record the learner's
response using the clipboard on their laps. After two consecutive learning activities,
teachers/practitioners simply divide the correct number of responses by the total
number of trials to get the percentage of a learner's correct responses (see below) to
make decisions about the intervention (e.g., increase the delay, select a different
controlling prompt).
# of correct responses = % of correct responses
Total # of trials
When a learner has achieved 100% correct responding before the prompt over the
course of two consecutive instructional activities, the time interval may be increased.
Q. What strategies can be used to increase the likelihood that generalization and
maintenance will occur?
A. Teachers/practitioners can increase the likelihood that learners with ASD will
generalize the use of skills by (a) training typically developing peers to implement time
delay, (b) embedding time delay procedures within ongoing routines and activities, and
(c) fading the use of time delay by gradually increasing the interval between the initial
cue and the controlling prompt. These strategies help learners with ASD use skills
independently without becoming dependent upon prompts.
Q. Are any other evidence-based practices used in conjunction with time delay
procedures?
A. Time delay procedures are always used in conjunction with two evidence-based
practices: prompting and reinforcement. Teachers/practitioners also might use peermediated instruction/intervention (PMII) as well as naturalistic teaching when
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implementing time delay, particularly when they are looking for additional ways to
promote generalization of skills.
Post-Assessment
Post-Assessment
Which of the following is a key component of a time delay trial?
Select an answer for question 298
Teachers/practitioners always begin time delay trials by delivering a controlling prompt
that helps learners with ASD use target skills correctly.
Select an answer for question 299
Which of the following is NOT a time delay procedure?
Select an answer for question 300
Time delay can be used only during one-to-one instruction with a learner with ASD.
Select an answer for question 301
Before implementing time delay, assessments of individual learners with ASD should
focus on a learner's ability to
Select an answer for question 302
Typically developing peers can be taught how to implement time delay.
Select an answer for question 303
Citation and References
If included in presentations or publications, credit should be given to the authors of this
module. Please use the citation below to reference this content.
Neitzel, J. (2010). Time delay for children and youth with autism spectrum disorders:
Online training module (Chapel Hill, NC: National Professional Development Center on
Autism Spectrum Disorders, FPG Child Development Institute, UNC-Chapel Hill). In
Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence (OCALI), Autism Internet Modules,
www.autisminternetmodules.org. Columbus, OH: OCALI.
27
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