Pre-Columbian
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Major cultures of the pre-Columbian Americas
Cultural areals of pre-Columbian North America
The Pre-Columbian era incorporates all period subdivisions in the history and prehistory of the
Americas before the appearance of significant European influences on the American continents,
spanning the time of the original settlement in the Upper Paleolithic to European colonization
during the Early Modern period.
While technically referring to the era before Christopher Columbus' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in
practice the term usually includes the history of American indigenous cultures until they were
conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even
centuries after Columbus' initial landing.
Pre-Columbian is used especially often in the context of the great indigenous civilizations of the
Americas, such as those of Mesoamerica (the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacano, the Zapotec,
the Mixtec, the Aztec, and the Maya) and the Andes (Inca, Moche, Chibcha, Cañaris).
Many pre-Columbian civilizations established characteristics and hallmarks which included
permanent or urban settlements, agriculture, civic and monumental architecture, and complex
societal hierarchies. Some of these civilizations had long faded by the time of the first permanent
European arrivals (c. late 15th–early 16th centuries), and are known only through archaeological
investigations. Others were contemporary with this period, and are also known from historical
accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya, had their own written records. However, most
Europeans of the time largely viewed such texts as heretical, and much was destroyed in
Christian pyres. Only a few hidden documents remain today, leaving modern historians with
glimpses of ancient culture and knowledge.
According to both indigenous American and European accounts and documents, American
civilizations at the time of European encounter possessed many impressive accomplishments.
For instance, the Aztecs built one of the most impressive cities in the world, Tenochtitlan, the
ancient site of Mexico City, with an estimated population of 200,000. American civilizations also
displayed impressive accomplishments in astronomy and mathematics.
Where they persist, the societies and cultures which are descended from these civilizations may
now be substantively different in form from that of the original. However, many of these peoples
and their descendants still uphold various traditions and practices which relate back to these
earlier times, even if combined with those that were more recently adopted.
Contents
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1 Origins
2 North America
3 Mesoamerica
4 South America
5 See also
6 Notes
7 References
8 External links
[edit] Origins
[edit] Asiatic migration
Main article: Models of migration to the New World and Origins of Paleoindians
Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge (Beringia),
now the Bering Strait and possibly along the Northwest coast. Genetic evidence found in
Amerindians' maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) supports the theory of multiple
genetic founding populations migrating from Asia, although it does not rule out a single
migration. Over the course of millennia, people spread throughout North America and South
America. Exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of
much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating
from some 13,000 years ago. However, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been
claimed, and some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between
40,000 to 13,000 years ago. Also, multiple waves of immigration have been suggested. [1] [2]
In any case, artifacts have been found in both North and South America which have been dated
to at least 14,000 BP[1], and humans are thought to have reached Cape Horn at the southern tip of
South America by this time. Most scholars agree that the Inuit and related peoples arrived
separately and at a much later date, probably during the first millennium CE, moving across the
ice from Siberia into Alaska.
[edit] Prehistory
Main articles: Paleo-Indians, Pre-Siberian American Aborigines and Lithic stage in
Canada (18000 BCE - 8000 BCE)
After the migration or migrations, it was several thousand years before the first complex
civilizations arose, at the earliest emerging 5000 BCE. The inhabitants of the Americas were
hunter-gatherers, and even after the emergence of advanced civilizations, such societies covered
most of the continents' area until the 18th century. Numerous archaeological cultures can be
identified with some of the classifications including Early Paleo-Indian Period, Late Paleo-Indian
Period, Archaic Period, Early Woodland Period, Middle Woodland Period, and Late Woodland
Period.
[edit] Agricultural development
Early inhabitants of the Americas developed agriculture, developing and breeding maize (corn)
from ears 2–5 cm in length to the current size we are familiar with today. Potatoes, tomatoes,
tomatillos (a husked green tomato), pumpkins, chili peppers, squash, beans, pineapple, sweet
potatoes, the grains quinoa and amaranth, chocolate, vanilla, onion, peanuts, strawberries,
raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, papaya, and avocados were among other plants grown by
natives. Over two-thirds of all types of food crops grown worldwide are native to the Americas.
The natives began using fire in a widespread manner. Intentional burning of vegetation was
taken up to mimic the effects of natural fires that tended to clear forest understories, thereby
making travel easier and facilitating the growth of herbs and berry-producing plants that were
important for both food and medicines. This created the Pre-Columbian savannas of North
America.[2]
While not as widespread as in other areas of the world (Asia, Africa, Europe), native Americans
did have livestock. In Mexico as well as Central America, natives had domesticated deer which
was used for meat and possibly even milk. Andean societies had llamas and alpacas for the same
reasons, as well as for beasts of burden. Guinea pigs were raised for meat in the Andes. Iguanas
were another source of meat in Mexico, Central, and northern South America.
By the 15th century, maize had been transmitted from Mexico and was being farmed in the
Mississippi embayment and as far as the East Coast of the United States and as far north as
southern Canada. Potatoes were utilized by the Inca, and chocolate was used by the Aztec.
[edit] North America
Main articles: Aboriginal peoples in Canada and Native Americans in the United States
Early Paleoamericans soon spread throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of
culturally distinct nations and tribes.[3] Paleoindian adaptation across North America was likely
characterized by small, highly mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an
extended family. These groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted
and new supplies were sought. [4] Paleoindian groups were efficient hunters and carried a variety
of tools. These included highly efficient PP/Ks of the types mentioned above, as well as less
distinctive implements used for butchering and hide processing. During much of the Paleoindian
period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct megafauna
such as mastodon and bison. [5]
The North American climate finally stabilized by 8000 BCE, climatic conditions were very
similar to today's.[6] This led to wide spread migration, cultivation and subsequently a dramatic
rise in population all over the Americas.[6] Over the course of thousands of years, American
indigenous peoples domesticated, bred and cultivated a large array of plant species. These
species now constitute 50–60% of all crops in cultivation worldwide.[7] The vastness and variety
of the climates, ecology, vegetation, fauna, and landforms separations have define ancient
peoples implicitly as cultural or linguistic divisions. The identity of a people is in part created by
language because language influences social life ways and spiritual practices.[8] According to the
oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living there
since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional creation accounts.
When the Europeans arrived, many natives of North America were semi-nomadic tribes of
hunter-gatherers; others were sedentary and agricultural civilizations. Many formed new tribes or
confederations in response to European colonization. Well-known groups included the Huron,
Haida, Apache, Cherokee, Sioux, Delaware, Algonquin, Choctaw, Mohegan, Iroquois (which
included Mohawk, Oneida, Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga and later the Tuscarora tribe), and Inuit.
Although not as technologically advanced as the Mesoamerican civilizations further south, there
were extensive pre-Columbian sedentary societies in what is now the United States of America.
The Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House" was a politically advanced and
unique social structure that was at the very least inspirational if not directly influential on the
later development of the democratic United States government, a departure from the strong
monarchies from which the Europeans came.
[edit] Woodland period
Main article: Woodland period
The Woodland period of North American pre-Columbian cultures refers to the time period from
roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The term "Woodland" was
coined in the 1930s and refers to prehistoric sites between the Archaic period and the
Mississippian cultures.
This period is considered a developmental stage without any massive changes in a short period,
but instead having a continuous development in stone and bone tools, leather working, textile
manufacture, tool production, cultivation, and shelter construction. Some Woodland peoples
continued to use spears and atlatls until the end of the period when they were replaced by bows
and arrows.
[edit] Mississippian Culture
Main article: Mississippian Culture
Pre-Columbian effigy pipe unearthed by archaeologists at Nacoochee Mound in the State of
Georgia.
The Mississippian culture dominated much of the area along the Mississippi River in PreColumbian history. One of the distinguishing features of this culture was the construction of
large earthen mounds, leading to the nickname the Moundbuilders. They grew maize and other
crops intensively, participated in an extensive trade network, and had a complex stratified
society. The Mississippians first appeared around 1000 CE, following and developing out of the
less agriculturally intensive and less centralized Woodland period. The culture reached its peak
in c. 1200-1400, and in most places it seems to have been in decline before the arrival of the
Europeans.
The largest site of this people, Cahokia — located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois — may
have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries,
Cahokia was the most populous city in North America, although far larger cities were
constructed in Mesoamerica and South America. Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of
Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.
[edit] Mesoamerica
Main article: History of Mesoamerica
One of the pyramids in the upper level of Yaxchilán
Atlantes at Tula, Hidalgo
Mesoamerica is the region extending from central Mexico south to the northwestern border of
Costa Rica that gave rise to a group of stratified, culturally related agrarian civilizations spanning
an approximately 3,000-year period before the European discovery of the New World by
Christopher Columbus. Mesoamerican is the adjective generally used to refer to that group of
pre-Columbian cultures. This refers to an environmental area occupied by an assortment of
ancient cultures that shared religious beliefs, art, architecture, and technology in the Americas for
more than three thousand years.
Between 1800 and 300 BCE, complex cultures began to form in Mesoamerica. Some matured
into advanced pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Olmec, Teotihuacan,
Maya, Zapotec, Mixtec, Huastec, Purepecha, Toltec, and Mexica (Aztecs), which flourished for
nearly 4,000 years before first contact with Europeans.
These indigenous civilizations are credited with many inventions in: building pyramid-temples,
mathematics, astronomy, medicine, writing, highly accurate calendars, fine arts, intensive
agriculture, engineering, an abacus calculator, a complex theology, and the wheel. However,
without any draft animals, the wheel was used only as a toy. They also used native copper and
gold for metalworking.
Archaic inscriptions on rocks and rock walls all over northern Mexico (especially in the state of
Nuevo León) demonstrate an early propensity for counting in Mexico. The counting system was
one of the most complex in the world, with a base 20 number system. These very early and
ancient count-markings were associated with astronomical events and underscore the influence
that astronomical activities had upon Mexican natives before the arrival of Europeans. In fact,
many of the later Mexican based civilizations carefully built their cities and ceremonial centers
according to specific astronomical events.
The biggest Mesoamerican cities such as Teotihuacan, Tenochtitlan, and Cholula were among
the largest in the world. These cities grew as centers of commerce, ideas, ceremonies, and
theology, and they radiated influence outwards onto neighboring cultures in central Mexico.
While many city-states, kingdoms, and empires competed with one another for power and
prestige, Mesoamerica can be said to have had five major civilizations: The Olmec, Teotihuacan,
the Toltec, the Mexica and the Maya. These civilizations (with the exception of the politically
fragmented Maya) extended their reach across Mexico—and beyond—like no others. They
consolidated power and distributed influence in matters of trade, art, politics, technology, and
theology. Other regional power players made economic and political alliances with these four
civilizations over the span of 4,000 years. Many made war with them, but almost all peoples
found themselves within these five spheres of influence.
[edit] Olmec civilization
Main article: Olmec
The earliest known civilization is the Olmec. This civilization established the cultural blueprint
by which all succeeding indigenous civilizations would follow in Mexico. Olmec civilization
began with the production of pottery in abundance, around 2300 BCE. Between 1800 and 1500
BCE, the Olmec consolidated power into chiefdoms which established their capital at a site
today known as San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán, near the coast in southeast Veracruz. The Olmec
influence extended across Mexico, into Central America, and along the Gulf of Mexico. They
transformed many peoples' thinking toward a new way of government, pyramid-temples, writing,
astronomy, art, mathematics, economics, and religion. Their achievements paved the way for the
greatness of the Maya civilization in the east and the civilizations to the west in central Mexico.
[edit] Teotihuacan civilization
Main article: Teotihuacan
The decline of the Olmec resulted in a power vacuum in Mexico. Emerging from that vacuum
was Teotihuacan, first settled in 300 BCE. By 150 CE, Teotihuacan had risen to become the first
true metropolis of what is now called North America. Teotihuacan established a new economic
and political order never before seen in Mexico. Its influence stretched across Mexico into
Central America, founding new dynasties in the Maya cities of Tikal, Copan, and Kaminaljuyú.
Teotihuacan's influence over the Maya civilization cannot be understated: it transformed political
power, artistic depictions, and the nature of economics. Within the city of Teotihuacan was a
diverse and cosmopolitan population. Most of the regional ethnicities of Mexico were
represented in the city, such as Zapotecs from the Oaxaca region. They lived in apartment
communities where they worked their trades and contributed to the city's economic and cultural
prowess. By 500 CE, Teotihuacan had become the largest city in the world. Teotihuacan's
economic pull impacted areas in northern Mexico as well. It was a city whose monumental
architecture reflected a monumental new era in Mexican civilization, declining in political power
about 650 CE—but lasting in cultural influence for the better part of a millennium, to around 950
CE.
Maya architecture at Uxmal
[edit] Maya civilization
Main article: Maya civilization
Contemporary with Teotihuacan's greatness was the greatness of the Maya civilization. The
period between 250 CE and 650 CE was a time of intense flourishing of Maya civilized
accomplishments. While the many Maya city-states never achieved political unity on the order of
the central Mexican civilizations, they exerted a tremendous intellectual influence upon Mexico
and Central America. The Maya built some of the most elaborate cities on the continent, and
made innovations in mathematics, astronomy, and calendrics. The Mayans also evolved the only
true written system native to the Americas using pictographs and syllabic elements in the form of
texts and codices inscribed on stone, pottery, wood, or highly perishable books made from bark
paper.
[edit] Aztec/Mexica civilization
Main article: Aztec
With the decline of the Toltec civilization came political fragmentation in the Valley of Mexico.
Into this new political game of contenders to the Toltec throne stepped outsiders: the Mexica.
They were also a proud desert people, one of seven groups who formerly called themselves
"Azteca", in memory of Aztlán, but they changed their name after years of migrating. Since they
were not from the Valley of Mexico, they were initially seen as crude and unrefined in the ways
of Nahua civilization. Through cunning political maneuvers and ferocious fighting skills, they
managed to become the rulers of Mexico as the head of the 'Triple Alliance' (which included two
other "Aztec" cities, Texcoco and Tlacopan).
Latecomers to Mexico's central plateau, the Mexica thought of themselves as heirs of the
civilizations that had preceded them. For them, highly-civilized arts, sculpture, architecture,
engraving, feather-mosiac work, and the invention of the calendar were because of the former
inhabitants of Tula, the Toltecs.
The Mexica-Aztecs were the rulers of much of central Mexico by about 1400 (while Yaquis,
Coras and Apaches commanded sizable regions of northern desert), having subjugated most of
the other regional states by the 1470s. At their peak, 300,000 Mexica presided over a wealthy
tribute-empire comprising about 10 million people (almost half of Mexico's 24 million people).
The modern name "Mexico" comes from their name.
Their capital, Tenochtitlan, is the site of modern-day Mexico City. At its peak, it was one of the
largest cities in the world with population estimates of 300,000. The market established there
was the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived.
[edit] South America
It has been suggested that this section be split into a new article entitled Pre-Columbian
South America. (Discuss)
By the first millennium, South America’s vast rainforests, mountains, plains, and coasts were the
home of tens of millions of people. Some groups formed permanent settlements. Among those
groups were the Chibchas (or "Muiscas" or "Muyscas"), Valdivia and the Tairona. The Chibchas
of Colombia, Valdivia of Ecuador, the Quechuas of Peru, and the Aymara of Bolivia were the
four most important sedentary Amerindian groups in South America. In the last two thousand
years, there seems to have been contact with Polynesians across the South Pacific Ocean, as
shown by the spread of the sweet potato through some areas of the Pacific, and recent genetic
studies[9][10], showing that the domesticated chicken arrived in Chilé from its original home in
South-East Asia via the Pacific. There is however, no genetic legacy of human contact.
[edit] Norte Chico
Main article: Norte Chico
On the northern coast of present-day Peru, Norte Chico was a cluster of large-scale urban
settlements which emerged around 3000 BCE (contemporary with urbanism's rise in
Mesopotamia) and declined around 1800 BCE. Caral, in the Supe valley, is one of the largest and
best studied sites. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas.
[edit] Valdivia
Main article: Valdivia Culture
The Valdivia culture was concentrated on the coast of Ecuador. Their existence was recently
discovered by Archeological findings. Their culture is the oldest in the Americas, spanning from
3500 to 1800 BCE. The Valdivia lived in a community that built its houses in a circle or oval
around a central plaza, and were sedentary people that lived off farming and fishing, though
occasionally they went hunting for deer. From the remains that have been found, it has been
determined that Valdivians cultivated maize, kidney beans, squash, cassava, hot peppers, and
cotton plants, the last of which was used to make clothing. Valdivian pottery initially was rough
and practical, but it became showy, delicate, and big over time. They generally used red and gray
colors; and the polished dark red pottery is characteristic of the Valdivia period. In their ceramics
and stone works, the Valdivia culture shows a progression from the most simple to much more
complicated works.
[edit] Cañaris
Main article: Cañaris
The Cañaris were the indigenous natives of today's Ecuadorian province of Cañar, and Azuay.
They were an elaborate civilization with advanced architecture, and religious belief. Most of
their remains were burned, and destroyed by attacks from the Inca. Their old city was replaced
twice, first by the Incan city of Tomipamba, and later by the Colonial city of Cuenca. The city
was also believed to be the site of El Dorado, the city of gold from the mythology of Colombia.
(see Cuenca) The Cañaris were most notable to have repelled the Incan invasion with fierce
resistance for many years until they fell to Tupac Yupanqui. Many of their descendents are still
present in Cañar with the majority not having mixed, and reserved from becoming Mestizos.
Larco Museum houses the largest private collection of pre-Columbian art. Lima, Peru.
[edit] Chavín
Main article: Chavín culture
The Chavín, a South American preliterate civilization, established a trade network and developed
agriculture by 900 BCE, according to some estimates and archeological finds. Artifacts were
found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. The Chavín
civilization spanned from 900 to 300 BCE.
[edit] Chibchas
Main article: Chibcha
The Chibcha linguistic communities were the most numerous, the most territorially extended and
the most socio-economically developed of the pre-Hispanic Colombians. By the 3rd century, the
Chibchas had established their civilization in the northern Andes. At one point, the Chibchas
occupied part of what is now Panama, and the high plains of the Eastern Sierra of Colombia. The
areas that they occupied were the Departments of Santander (North and South), Boyacá and
Cundinamarca, which were also the areas where the first farms and first industries were
developed, and where the independence movement originated. They are currently the richest
areas in Colombia. They represented the most populous zone between the Mayan and Inca
empires. Next to the Quechua of Peru and the Aymara in Bolivia, the Chibchas of the eastern and
north-eastern Highlands of Colombia were the most striking of the sedentary indigenous peoples
in South America. In the Oriental Andes, the Chibchas were composed of several tribes who
spoke the same language (Chibchan). Among them: Muiscas, Guanes, Laches, Cofan, and
Chitareros.
[edit] Moche
Main article: Moche
The Moche thrived on the north coast of Peru 1,500–2,000 years ago. The heritage of the Moche
comes down to us through their elaborate burials, recently excavated by UCLA's Christopher
Donnan in association with the National Geographic Society.
As skilled artisans, the Moche were a technologically advanced people who traded with faraway
peoples, like the Maya. Almost everything we know about the Moche comes from their ceramic
pottery with carvings of their daily lives. The Larco Museum of Lima, Peru has an extensive
collection of these ceramics. We know from these records that they practiced human sacrifice,
had blood-drinking rituals, and that their religion incorporated non-procreative sexual practices
(such as fellatio).
[edit] Inca Empire
Machu Picchu
Main article: Inca Empire
Holding their capital at the great cougar-shaped city of Cuzco, the Inca civilization dominated
the Andes region from 1438 to 1533. Known as Tawantin suyu, or "the land of the four regions",
in Quechua, the Inca civilization was highly distinct and developed. Inca rule extended to nearly
a hundred linguistic or ethnic communities, some 9 to 14 million people connected by a 25,000
kilometer road system. Cities were built with precise, unmatched stonework, constructed over
many levels of mountain terrain. Terrace farming was a useful form of agriculture. There is
evidence of excellent metalwork and even successful brain surgery in Inca civilization.
[edit] See also
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Pre-Columbian Civilizations and Cultures
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List of pre-Columbian civilizations
Pre-Inca cultures in Peru
Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact
Pre-Columbian population
Columbian Exchange
Pre-Columbian engineering in the Americas
[edit] Notes
1. ^ http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/science/04fossil.html Evidence Supports Earlier
Date for People in North America, NYT, April 4, 2008
2. ^ Owen, Wayne (2002). "Chapter 2 (TERRA–2): The History of Native Plant
Communities in the South". Southern Forest Resource Assessment Final Report. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station.
http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/sustain/report/terra2/terra2.htm. Retrieved 2008-07-29.
3. ^ Jacobs (2002).
4. ^ Kelly, Robert L.; Lawrence C. Todd (1988). "Coming into the Country: Early
Paleoindian Hunting and Mobility". American Antiquity 53: 231–244.
5. ^ Breitburg, Emanual; John B. Broster, Arthur L. Reesman, and Richard G. Strearns
(1996). "Coats-Hines Site: Tennessee's First Paleoindian Mastodon Association". Current
Research in the Pleistocene 13: 6-8.
6. ^ a b J. Imbrie and K.P.Imbrie, Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery (Short Hills NJ: Enslow
Publishers) 1979.
7. ^ "Native Americans: The First Farmers." AgExporter October 1 1999
8. ^ Fagan, Brian M. People of the Earth: An Introduction to World Prehistory. University
of California: Harper Collins, 1992.
9. ^ DNA reveals how the chicken crossed the sea Brendan Borrell, Nature, 5 June 2007.
Retrieved 2007-10-01.
10. ^ A. A. Storey et al., "Radiocarbon and DNA evidence for a pre-Columbian introduction
of Polynesian chickens to Chile,"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America, www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0703993104; John Noble
Wilford, "First Chickens in Americas were Brought from Polynesia, New York Times,
June 5, 2007
[edit] References
This article includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but its sources
remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by
introducing more precise citations where appropriate. (December 2008)
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Sorenson, J. L.; Johannessen, C. L. (2006). "Biological Evidence for Pre-Columbian
Transoceanic Voyages". in Mair, Victor H. (ed.). Contact and Exchange in the Ancient
World. Honolulu: University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 238–297. ISBN 0824828844.
Wright, Ronald (2005). Stolen Continents: 500 Years of Conquest and Resistance in the
Americas. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0618492402.
Mann, Charles C. (2005). 1491: New revelations of the Americas before Columbus. New
York: Knopf. ISBN 140004006X.
Fernández-Armesto, F. (1987). Before Columbus: Exploration and Colonisation from the
Mediterranean to the Atlantic: 1229-1492. Hampshire/London: Macmillan Education.
ISBN 0333403827.
Schurr, T. G.; et al. (1990). "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations
at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages".
American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (3): 613–623.
Brown, M. D.; et al. (1998). "mtDNA haplogroup X: An ancient link between
Europe/Western Asia and North America?". American Journal of Human Genetics 63
(6): 1852–1861. doi:10.1086/302155.
[edit] External links
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Central Andes Prehistoric Sequence
Pre Columbian textiles - Virtual Museum of Textile Arts
McGuiness Publishing site on pre-Columbian archaeological topics
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Categories: Historical eras | Pre-Columbian
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articles to be split | Articles lacking in-text citations from December 2008
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This page was last modified on 12 September 2009 at 17:58.
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