VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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ISBN: 978-1-925264-09-8
© Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1
Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1
Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1
Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 6
Resources ................................................................................................................................... 6
Assessment................................................................................................................................... 6
Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 8
Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 8
Authentication ............................................................................................................................... 9
Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 10
Unit 1: How can the diversity of materials be explained? ........................................................... 10
Unit 2: What makes water such a unique chemical? ................................................................. 19
Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 30
Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 36
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 37
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 39
Appendix 5: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 43
VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Introduction
The VCE Chemistry Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment
advice for Units 1 and 2. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of
teaching and learning activities and resources for each unit.
The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE
Chemistry Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.
Administration
Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates
to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA
Bulletin.
Curriculum
Developing a course
A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students
to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly
describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration
of each outcome.
Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Chemistry listed on pages 10
and 11 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key science skills
must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of
pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where
students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and
propose solutions to problems.
Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable
students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit.
Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students,
contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses
a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must
include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory
work and/or field work. This may involve the use of data logging and other technologies.
Other learning activities may include investigations involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data through simulations, animations, literature reviews, examination of case
studies and the use of local and global databases.
Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Chemistry; they enable students to explore
concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method. Common
to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key aspects that are
central to the study design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using
evidence.
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Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but
findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment
tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are
comparable in scope and demand.
Scientific inquiry focus
The VCE Chemistry Study Design enables students to engage with science-related issues
by building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate
scientific investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science
works as a process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve collecting
and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.
Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to
critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and
read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.
The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied
in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media.
Unit
Concept
Issues
1
Impacts of polymer production and use
Use of polyamide (nylon) engineering plastics as a
replacement for metal in cars that result in lighter
cars requiring less fuel consumption but have
associated issues related to collision safety
Use of epoxy resins in the production of the rotor of
modern wind turbines for increased efficiency
contrasted with health concerns related to epoxy
resin production
2
Chemical nature of contaminants
Levels at which chemical contaminants become a
problem for society
Fluoridation of water supplies
The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important
feature of the VCE Chemistry Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying
science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding.
The VCE Chemistry Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of
study questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical
and creative thinking about the chemistry concepts identified in the key knowledge and to
encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding
to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of
different concepts to practical applications.
Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in
the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to
develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a
particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to
students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies or
fieldwork activities. Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning
approach to develop scientific skills and understanding.
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Designing scientific investigations
Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Chemistry. Research
questions of interest may be investigated through a range of research methodologies
including experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should be collected in
order to test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends and relationships
in data and to draw evidence-based conclusions.
An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between
variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated
and which will be controlled.
The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:
research
question
Topic selection phase
problem
definition
report
Reporting phase
Planning phase
experimental
design
evaluation
data
collection
and analysis
Investigation phase
Topic selection phase
The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or
question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a
question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical
problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified
students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from
brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an
appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
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statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in
Appendix 1.
In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may
not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work
directly with their research questions.
Planning phase
Prior to undertaking an investigation, students should produce a plan that outlines their
reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines the biological concepts
involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment required, outlines the
design of any experiment including sampling protocols where relevant, notes any anticipated
problems, identifies and suggests how possible safety risks can be managed and outlines
any ethical issues.
In planning an experimental investigation students will formulate a hypothesis that will be
tested by the collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation
outcomes based on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent,
dependent and controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables
may or may not affect the outcome. Students should be able to explain how they expect that
the evidence they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning an
investigation, students may undertake relevant background reading. In addition, students
should learn the correct use of scientific conventions, including the use of standard notation
and International System (SI) units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate
acknowledgments.
A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 2.
Investigation phase
In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative
data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation,
fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note
any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be
recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the
investigation.
Reporting phase
An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or
relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the chemical phenomenon
being investigated. For VCE Chemistry, the analysis of experimental data requires a
qualitative treatment of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and random and
systematic errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1.
Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or
problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider
how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make
reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and
uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be
identified and explained.
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For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence
will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead
the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the
student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence
alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors.
The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are
recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms
including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the
investigation.
For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1.
Maintenance of a logbook
Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the
student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example,
contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting
back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical
worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a
scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.
The logbook may be digital or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and
may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments;
results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at
the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in
short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations and other student digital records and
presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts;
web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of
simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work
completed outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order.
Investigation partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be
acknowledged and/or referenced.
Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.
Fieldwork
The study of VCE Chemistry may require fieldwork or site tours. If using local, state or
national parks for field work, regulations regarding activities and the collection of samples
should be checked and followed. Activities should be planned to create minimal impact on
the environment under investigation. Industrial sites, water and sewage treatment plants,
research and development laboratories and chemistry laboratories will have special safety
warnings and requirements that must be strictly followed, including that students wear the
appropriate clothing and footwear.
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Student safety and wellbeing
When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health
and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative
compliance (for example, chemical handling and storage, information privacy and copyright);
sensitivity to cultural differences and personal beliefs (for example, in discussions related to
health and environmental issues); adherence to community standards and ethical guidelines
(for example, respecting the confidentiality of industrial processes and data); respect for
persons and differences in opinions; debriefing students after completing learning activities
(for example, after discussing or debating a chemical issue).
For more detail regarding legislation and compliance, refer to page 8 of the Study Design.
Employability skills
The VCE Chemistry study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of
learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the
content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills
through their learning activities.
The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising;
Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and
Learning.
The table (Appendix 5) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or
non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within
the VCE study.
Resources
A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list
includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject
associations and professional organisation.
Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it:
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identifies opportunities for further learning
describes student achievement
articulates and maintains standards
provides the basis for the award of a certificate.
As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable:
 the demonstration of the achievement of an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory
completion of a unit
 judgment and reporting of a level of achievement for school-based assessments at Units
3 and 4.
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The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are
extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE
Studies published on the VCAA website.
VCE assessment
will be valid
This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the
outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced way
and without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system. The
overarching concept of validity is elaborated as follows.
VCE assessment
should be fair and
reasonable
Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools,
government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and
achievement of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable
and transparent.
The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers in
each study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments should
not assess learning that is outside the scope of a study design.
Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test, project,
practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational schedule)
should give students clear instructions. It should be administered under conditions
(degree of supervision, access to resources, notice and duration) that are
substantially the same for all students undertaking that assessment.
Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of external
review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment results are fair and
comparable across the student cohort for that study.
VCE assessment
should be equitable
Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain groups
of students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic background,
physical disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location.
Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar
conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This
may be the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for
assessment of an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a
different time due to a student’s absence.
VCE assessment
will be balanced
The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to provide
a range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts and
modes the knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the curriculum.
This assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to demonstrate
different levels of achievement specified by suitable criteria, descriptors, rubrics or
marking schemes.
Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results from
a variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a study.
Students may be required to respond in written, oral, performance, product, folio,
multimedia or other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive nature of a study
or group of related studies.
VCE assessment
will be efficient
The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a robust
judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the study
design. Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of precision with
those of efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload and/or stress that
unduly diminish the performance of students under fair and reasonable
circumstances.
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Scope of tasks
For all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching and learning
program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that program. They must
be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe.
Points to consider in developing an assessment task:
1. List the key knowledge and key skills.
2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the study design.
It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however,
teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand.
3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and
design the criteria and a marking scheme
4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key
knowledge and key skills outlined in the study design and provide for different learning
styles.
5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several
considerations including:
 the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the
outcome
 the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task
 the likely length of time required for students to complete the task
 when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for
students.
Units 1 and 2
The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision.
Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA.
Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or
other indicators.
In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for
each outcome in accordance with the study design.
Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key
knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks
do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of
an outcome.
A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of
assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment
tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design.
Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of
each outcome in the units.
There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the
units in the study design.
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Authentication
Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is
the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed
outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to
completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of
records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her
understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work.
If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a
breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult
to resolve, the following strategies are useful:
 Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to
students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or
electronically without due care.
 Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the
teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss
aspects of the work with the student.
 Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an
early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research.
 Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development.
 Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use
student work from the previous year.
 Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects
the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency
of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to
authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible
breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work
between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and
the implementation of appropriate action.
 Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show
the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can
provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the
authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a
family member.
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Learning activities
Unit 1: How can the diversity of materials be explained?
This unit focuses on materials and their modification for use in society. Practical activities
should not be limited to assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce a chemical
concept, to build understanding of a chemical concept or skill and to practise specific
scientific skills for example use of electronic balances and interpretation of mass
spectroscopy data.
Area of Study 1: How can knowledge of elements explain the properties of matter?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Relate the position of
elements in the periodic table
to their properties, investigate
the structures and properties
of metals and ionic
compounds, and calculate
mole quantities.
 view emission spectra of various elements; perform flame tests by heating
various metallic compounds in a flame; use a spectrometer to observe and
compare the emission spectra obtained from the flames; use these findings
to suggest how the different colours in fireworks may be generated
 interpret a series of ionisation energies as evidence for electron shells and
subshells
 conduct an introductory experiment to demonstrate the variety of ways
elements and compounds can react; write precise observations using
appropriate chemical vocabulary; reflect on observations by classifying
them on the basis of involvement of the five senses (sight, smell, touch,
taste, hearing)
 write a media article or produce an infographic on a useful isotope
 contribute to a whole class activity to create a relative scale (may be threedimensional) to display on the classroom wall
 discuss Herbert Spencer’s quote that “Science is organized knowledge” in
terms of the value of placing elements into a periodic table
 conduct experiments demonstrating trends within the periodic table based
on data related to the physical and chemical properties of a selection of
elements and their position in the periodic table; work in groups to predict
the properties of other elements; compare predictions with actual properties
 create a periodic table using representations of the electronic structures of
elements 1-36; annotate the table to highlight trends in structures and
properties
 use simulations to investigate atomic structure, for example Build an Atom;
Isotopes and Atomic Mass; Models of the Hydrogen Atom
 https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom
 participate in group work to model the structure and properties of different
metals
 compare the physical properties of metals, for example malleability;
hardness; electrical conductivity; heat conductivity; density
 examine metallic crystals under a stereomicroscope
 compare the chemical properties of main group metals and transition
metals, for example, reaction with water and reaction with acid (where safe),
including testing for products, formation of colourless and coloured
compounds
 perform simple displacement reactions to deduce an activity series of
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metals
extract copper from a solution of a copper ore using electrolysis and/or
extract copper by heating malachite and carbon
illustrate Dalton’s theory that atoms are rearranged in chemical reactions by
carrying out a series of experiments whereby a sample of copper metal is
reacted to form a series of copper compounds and then extracted as the
metal
model the properties of alloys using plasticine and sand, for example
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/modelling-alloysplasticine
investigate practically the trends in reactivity as you go down a group in the
periodic table, for example the alkaline earth metals
test the rate of corrosion of iron nails that are uncoated and coated with
different materials, including different metal foils, and embedded in agar gel
containing phenolphthalein; record observations over a period of several
days
investigate experimentally the effects of annealing, quenching, and
tempering on metals using metal pins or nails; determine which type of heat
treatment results in the hardest and/or the strongest metal
undertake an internet search or invite a guest expert to outline
contemporary research into metallic nanomaterials
participate in group work to model the structures and properties of different
ionic compounds
investigate the physical properties of ionic compounds, for example,
malleability, hardness, density, electrical conductivity, and heat conductivity
examine mineral crystals using a hand lens and a stereomicroscope;
investigate the factors that affect ionic crystal formation over time, for
example, temperature, humidity
simulate crystal formation in rocks by making chocolate fudge under
different temperature conditions
determine experimentally the empirical formula of an ionic compound, for
example magnesium oxide or copper(II) oxide
demonstrate the allotropes of sulfur, for example
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/allotropes-sulfur
create a classroom display of one mole of different substances (students
weigh out the different substances after calculating the mass required)
visualise the mole by calculating how deep a ‘blanket’ of a mole of
marshmallows over Australia would be, or how high a ‘tower’ made from a
mole of dollar coins or sheets of A4 paper would reach, or how long it would
take to count a mole of marbles if you counted one every second every day
until finished
interpret mass spectra to determine relative atomic masses
perform calculations of relative atomic masses from abundances and
relative isotopic masses
use an “if…then…when…” structure to develop hypotheses related to
empirical formulae determinations and test the predictions inherent in these
hypotheses
solve quantitative exercises involving the mole and Avogadro’s constant
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Detailed example
SIMULATION OF CRYSTAL FORMATION IN ROCKS USING CHOCOLATE FUDGE
Background
Why do some rocks that are made of the same minerals have different sized crystals in them? What effect will faster versus
slower cooling have on the formation of crystals?
The inside of Earth is hot enough to melt rocks. Both magma and lava are forms of hot, molten rock, with the main
difference being where they are located. Magma is deep underground in chambers beneath volcanoes whilst lava is the
molten material that is expelled from volcanoes when they erupt. When magma and lava cool and solidify, igneous rock
forms. Igneous rocks contain randomly arranged interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depends on how quickly the
molten magma and lava solidify. Magmas, retained deep within the Earth, cool very slowly over tens of thousands of years
to produce plutonic rocks such as granite and gabbro. The more slowly the magma cools, the larger the crystals. Lavas,
erupted at the Earth’s surface, cool quickly to form volcanic rocks such as basalt and obsidian. These rocks are smoother
and contain much smaller crystals that may not be visible even with the use of a hand lens.
In this activity, students will simulate the process of igneous rock formation by making chocolate fudge and compare fudge
textures of samples that are cooled quickly with those that are cooled slowly.
General procedure
 Obtain a recipe for fudge and organise to make the fudge, up to the point where the fudge is to be cooled.
 Divide the cooked fudge mix into two batches. Spoon equal quantities of each fudge mix into two separate
greased cake tins of the same size so that the fudge mix in each tray is at least 2 cm thick.
 Place one cake tin into the refrigerator, and leave the other cake tin out at room temperature.
 When both fudge mixes have cooled completely, cut each fudge block into 2 cm blocks.
 Test the constituency of each of the two types of cooled fudge blocks:
 observe each type of fudge block carefully; note any similarities and/or differences in a table in your
logbooks, for example, differences in texture or colour
 observe each type of fudge block using a hand lens; slice thinly and observe under a stereomicroscope;
note any similarities and/or differences in a table in your logbooks, for example, differences in texture or
colour
 Taste each type of fudge block; note any similarities and/or differences in a table in your logbooks, for
example, differences in flavour or texture.
Questions
Students could respond to a series of graded questions, for example:
 Explain: How does the nature of the cooling process for the fudge mimic the environmental conditions
involved in rock formation?
 Design: Design a controlled experiment to further investigate other factors that may affect crystal formation.
 Apply: Explain why some igneous rocks have a glassy appearance in terms of their formation.
 Model: Use a molecular modelling kit or an animation program to demonstrate why slower cooling rates
encourage formation of an ordered, crystal structure while faster cooling rates lead to less orderly crystal
structures.
 Propose: Suggest why, unlike sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks do not contain fossils.
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Area of Study 2: How can the versatility of non-metals be explained?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and explain the
properties of carbon lattices
and molecular substances
with reference to their
structures and bonding, use
systematic nomenclature to
name organic compounds,
and explain how polymers can
be designed for a purpose.
 individually create ball-and-stick models of simple polyatomic molecules of
different shapes, for example H2; F2; Cl2; O2; HCl; HF; H2O; H2S; NH3; CH4;
CO2; BF3; sketch them using appropriate chemical conventions to indicate
their three-dimensional shape; annotate the models to show polarities and
to explain their shapes; bring together different students’ molecular models
to show the alignments of the molecules and annotating them to show the
intermolecular bonding forces operating
 capillary action, or capillarity, can be demonstrated by the tendency of a
liquid to rise in a narrow tube and results from the intermolecular attractions
within and between the liquid and solid materials: investigate capillary action
by formulating hypotheses and undertaking experiments for one of the
following research questions:
 Is capillary action related to the polarity of the liquid?
 How does the capillary diameter affect capillary action?
 How is capillary action affected by different capillary tube materials, for
example glass or plastic?
 Does temperature affect capillary action?
 How does capillary action differ for polar liquids of different densities?
 How does capillary action differ for non-polar liquids of different
densities?
 graph the boiling points of alkanes and explain these in terms of
intermolecular bonding
 chocolate appears to be a solid material at room temperature but melts
when heated to around body temperature. When cooled down again, it often
stays molten even at room temperature. Investigate the factors that affect
the temperature range over which chocolate can exist in both molten and
‘solid’ states
 a wire with weights attached to each end is placed across a block of ice:
investigate the phenomenon that the wire can pass through the ice without
cutting it
 introduce organic chemistry by asking each student to capture an image of
a local environment inside or outside the classroom: students should print
their images and label all physical objects, or parts of objects, as ‘organic’ or
‘inorganic’; at the end of their study of organic chemistry students should revisit their labelled images and re-label objects as required
 research why crude oil reserves around the world have different
hydrocarbon compositions; identify uses for crude oil fractions; justify
whether oil reserves around the world can be ranked in terms of usefulness
 use steam distillation to extract oil from eucalyptus leaves, ti-tree leaves;
olives; orange peel or cloves; improve the method by investigating different
collection, heating and extraction methods, for example, different aged
leaves; crushing versus slicing plants; temperature; heating rate
 visit an olive leaf distillery or oil refinery; use images and brief descriptions
to summarise processes; identify safety precautions involved in processing;
note three points of interest into logbook
 create models of, and name, a range of alkanes, alkenes and alkynes,
including structural isomers
 predict trends in the melting points and boiling points of a range of alcohols,
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carboxylic acids and/or non-branched esters
solve quantitative exercises involving empirical and molecular formulas of
organic compounds
use a predict-observe-explain approach to investigate volume contraction in
alcohol-water mixtures
use a published recipe to make cheese or sour cream; identify how organic
chemistry knowledge and science inquiry skills may be applied to identify
factors that may affect the quality of the product; undertake and report on an
investigation that attempts to improve the quality of the product
investigate some allotropes of carbon by creating and annotating models of
diamond, graphite, a ‘buckyball’ and a carbon nanotube; compare
similarities and differences between their structures; explain their properties
in terms of their structures
work in groups to create multiple models of the ethene molecule then join
them up to form a segment of a polyethene (PE) molecule; modify the
models of ethene molecules to create models of propene molecules and
join them to build a model of a segment of a polypropene (PP) molecule;
repeat to build models of vinyl chloride molecules and a segment of a
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) molecule; use data about the mean mass or length
of PE molecules to calculate how long a model of a complete polyethene
molecule would be on this scale; use the models to compare and explain
their properties and uses
‘slime’ is used in hot or cold packs because it is not dangerous if it leaks
out, and is formed when polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) has been crosslinked by
the addition of borax Na2B4O7.10H2O (sodium tetraborate): use a standard
recipe for slime and investigate experimentally the effects of:
changes in amounts of borax on viscosity of the slime
changes in pH on the properties of slime
investigate experimentally the physical properties of thermoplastic and
thermosetting polymers: electrical and heat conductivity; density; hardness;
response to immersion in a hot water bath; reaction when a very small
sample is exposed to a flame
discuss Wernher von Braun’s comment that ‘Research is what I’m doing
when I don’t know what I’m doing’ in terms of undertaking chemical
investigations or with reference to an example of contemporary chemistry
research
debate that ‘Plastics should be banned’ or that ‘Plastics are the best
materials the world has ever seen’
design and undertake experiments to investigate whether there is a
difference in the recyclability of thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers
discuss the significance of size and surface area in the application of
nanoparticles
conduct a web search and write a report or prepare a web page on the
development, properties and uses of a selected customised polymer, for
example dentrimers used in medicine or intelligent polymers used in textiles
design experiments to compare the relative biodegradabilities of different
polymers labelled as ‘biodegradable’; investigate environmental factors that
affect biodegradability, for example UV light, pH, heat, water
use a problem-based learning approach to investigate an issue in
chemistry, for example, safety issues associated with the use of
nanoparticles in the manufacture of sunscreens; replacement of plastic
shopping bags with paper alternatives
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 view computer-generated models of covalent molecular compounds;
research and explain how computer modelling of molecules can be used in
medicinal drug design and customisation of polymers for purpose
 identify an object that could be made from a polymer and identify how a
particular set of properties could be achieved in the object through selection
of appropriate monomers or polymer characteristics
 organise a site tour to a polymer manufacturing or recycling plant;
summarise processes, safety aspects and three major points of interest in
logbooks
Detailed example
PREDICT-OBSERVE-EXPLAIN: INVESTIGATING VOLUME CONTRACTION IN ALCOHOL-WATER
MIXTURES
Aim
To investigate and explain volume contraction in terms of relative bonding strengths within and between
covalent substances.
Introduction
When ethanol and water are mixed together the final volume is less than the sum of the separate volumes
before mixing. This shrinkage is known as ‘volume contraction’ and is due to the strength of hydrogen bonding.
Hydrogen bonding is classified as weak bonding but is stronger between water molecules than it is between
alcohol molecules. This contraction can have vital consequences in everyday applications, for example alcohol
absorption into the bloodstream and the resultant volume contraction can upset the plasma concentration of
various chemicals in the blood and result in a number of medical complications.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task
Health and safety notes
 Safety data sheets should be made available for all chemicals used
 Safety warning: alcohol water mixtures can burn even when the amount of alcohol is less than 50%,
especially at higher temperatures.
Procedure
Part A
Students:
 Measure the volume contractions due to various mixtures of ethanol and water and enter data into a table in
logbook.
Volume of water (mL)
Volume of ethanol
(mL)
25.0
75.0
50.0
50.0
75.0
25.0
Final volume of
mixture (mL)
% contraction
 Use the data to determine the point of maximum contraction (further proportional mixes of water and ethanol
will be required - enter data into the table).
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Part B
Teachers use a predict-observe-explain approach to explore students’ understanding of the bonding within and
between molecular substances, including that the strength of dispersion forces becomes more significant as the
molecular mass of an alcohol increases.
Students complete the following table by making predictions about different experiments related to volume
contraction, investigate and recording observations related to the experiments and explain their observations in
terms of the bonding involved.
Experiment
Prediction
Observations
Explanation in
terms of bonding
If volume contraction is due to hydrogen
bonding, predict what will happen when water
is mixed with methanol
If volume contraction is due to hydrogen
bonding, predict what will happen when water
is mixed with propan-1-ol
If volume contraction is due to hydrogen
bonding, predict what will happen when water
is mixed with propan-2-ol
If volume contraction is due to hydrogen
bonding, predict what will happen when water
is mixed with methyl propan-2-ol
If volume contraction is due to hydrogen
bonding, predict what will happen when water
is mixed with butan-3-ol
If heat affects the strength of hydrogen
bonding, predict how stable the % contraction
will be over a range of temperatures
Questions
A series of graded questions could be set for students to answer in their logbook, for example:
 Compare: In what ways is volume contraction similar to, and different from, combining sand and marbles in
a jar?
 Explain: Use a series of annotated images including reference to intermolecular bonding to illustrate how
temperature affects volume contraction
 Evaluate: Collate class results for volume contraction and comment on the accuracy, precision and reliability
of the results
 Generalise: Suggest a relationship between nature of hydrogen bonding and volume contraction
 Reflect: Review your predictions in this activity and comment on Vera Rubin’s quote that ‘Science
progresses best when observations force us to alter our preconceptions’.
 Imagine: Under what circumstances could volume expansion occur?
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Area of Study 3: Research investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate a question related
to the development, use
and/or modification of a
selected material or chemical
and communicate a
substantiated response to the
question.
 the teacher provides a list of possible research questions from pages 15–18
of the VCE Chemistry Study Design; students submit a proposed timeline
and research plan related to a research question of interest; a negotiated
research question is undertaken by the student and monitored by the
teacher
 groups of students investigate a selected and/or negotiated research
question from the set of possible questions on pages 15–18 of the VCE
Chemistry Study Design; each member of the group contributes a
nominated newspaper item related to the research question in a class
chemistry e-newspaper (for example, letter to the editor, a report of a
chemical issue, survey results from a public opinion poll related to a
chemical issue, a cartoon about a chemical issue, interviews with a chemist
or other chemistry-based professional)
 the teacher selects questions from each of the six topic areas listed on
pages15–18 of the VCE Chemistry Study Design that have a ‘case study’
theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a response to the
case study using an inquiry approach; sample questions in this category
include: How has biomimicry been used to develop different materials?
What biomimicry research is currently happening? How are ocean oil spills
treated? Does the cleaning up of oil spills lead to a different set of problems
for society? Are sunscreens containing nanoparticles safe? What
precautions should be taken in working with nanomaterials? Should a
product’s life cycle be considered prior to the product being available to
consumers? Is ‘green chemistry’ a social and political priority?
 the teacher selects questions from each of the ten options listed on pages
15–18 of the VCE Chemistry Study Design that have an ‘experimental’
theme; students work individually or in groups to provide a response to
investigate the research question of interest; sample questions in this
category include: Does surfactant biodegradability affect performance? How
do the recycling capacities of different types of polymers compare? How are
the properties of metals affected by heat treatment? How can crystal
formation be sped up?
Detailed example
AN INQUIRY APPROACH TO EXPLORING A CASE STUDY IN CHEMISTRY
The research investigation in this area of study must build on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 1 Area of
Study 1 and/or Area of Study 2. The focus is on students being able to communicate a response to a selected
research question. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account
number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 To whom will students be expected to communicate their results?
 What alternative communication formats will students be able to consider?
 To what extent, and at what stages, will students work independently and in groups?
 To what extent will students work on their research and response inside and outside class time, and how will
student work be monitored and authenticated?
 Will time be allocated in class for students to present their work to other students?
Background information
This detailed example has been developed with an inquiry-based framework in mind. There are many methods
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by which students may undertake inquiry-based learning; this detailed example has been informed by the
following article by Jeni Wilson and Kath Murdoch:
http://extranetportal.bne.catholic.edu.au/re/REL/Documents/CU8%20What%20is%20inquiry%20learning.pdf
In essence, the inquiry process involves a question, a hypothesis, data collection and analysis, drawing
conclusions, making generalisations, reflection and authentic action. The process of answering their question
should involve students considering prior knowledge to gather new ideas. Students should then gather new
information (for case studies, this will mostly involve secondary data; however, some primary data may also be
collected including surveys of public opinion) and organise this information into new ideas. They will then draw
conclusions, reflect upon their learning and also take some sort of personal action related to a specific outcome
and audience to conclude their investigation.
Topic selection phase
In order to manage the inquiry process in the class, the teacher determined that students in the class could work
independently or in groups to research questions related to one of four areas related to content across Unit 1
Area of Study 1 and Area of Study 2:
 How has biomimicry been used to develop different materials? What biomimicry research is currently
happening?
 How are ocean oil spills treated? Does the cleaning up of oil spills lead to a different set of problems for
society?
 Are sunscreens containing nanoparticles safe? What precautions should be taken in working with
nanomaterials?
 Should a product’s life cycle be considered prior to the product being available to consumers? Is ‘green
chemistry’ a social and political priority?
The teacher provided relevant case studies related to these questions, but students were also able to research
and provide their own case study of interest.
The task involved students investigating the chemical aspects of the case study and responding to the case
study by developing a relevant media product (such as an information pamphlet, YouTube video, multimedia
product or community campaign) for a selected audience.
Planning phase
Communication of chemical concepts is the major focus of this task. Students should be clear about the purpose
of the intended communication to a specified audience.
Students may need guidance in considering appropriate communication formats for specific audiences.
Teachers should work with students to:
 set timeframes and milestones for the task
 determine the nature of the work that is to be completed inside and outside the classroom
 check the scientific accuracy of content prior to students working on the response (communication) phase.
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
The template may subsequently be adapted by students as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Investigation phase
It is important that students structure the research component into a set of manageable tasks that constitute a
personal work program. Work in this phase can be done outside the classroom and recorded in students’
logbooks, with class time allocated to check on progress and the quality of material being researched.
This activity provides students with opportunities to learn how to document resources and acknowledge
contributions using standard conventions.
Reporting phase
Students could use a variety of formats to present their response to the investigation question to a specific
audience. Teachers may wish to limit the number of formats used and to set time and/or word limits. The
response communication should clearly address the question, demonstrate that the student understands the
relevant chemical concepts and be appropriate for the nominated audience.
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Unit 2: What makes water such a unique chemical?
This unit focuses on water quality issues. Practical activities should not be limited to
assessment tasks; they may be used to introduce a chemical concept, to build
understanding of a chemical concept or skill and to practise specific scientific skills for
example dilution, acid-base titrations, colorimetry, construction and use of calibration curves.
Area of Study 1: How do substances interact with water?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Relate the properties of water  interpret and summarise data from world maps showing water distribution
and quality to identify five major points of interest
to its structure and bonding,
and explain the importance of  capture photos or images of a rapidly occurring phenomenon related to
the properties and reactions of
reactions in water; use the images and add text to produce a photoessay or
water in selected contexts.
infographic of the phenomenon
 demonstrate the polarity of water by bringing a charged rod slowly towards
a stream of water from a tap; draw labelled diagrams that explain the
resultant distortion of the water stream
 design and perform an experiment to determine the effect of temperature on
the density of water
 determine qualitatively the solubility of a variety of solid, liquid and gaseous
solutes in water; write equations for substances dissolving in water
 plot a solubility curve derived from experimental data; explain whether a
plot of solubility versus amount of solute should pass through the origin
(the point (0, 0) on the graph)
 produce an animation to illustrate why ice is less dense than liquid water
 compare the specific heat capacities of water and cooking oil
 create and annotate a series of images to explain:
 why evaporation of water requires more energy than evaporation of
methane, despite both molecules having similar molecular masses
 how the process of dissolving a crystal of salt differs from dissolving a
crystal of sugar in water
 the movement of protons in acid-base reactions
 the movement of electrons in redox reactions
 create an imaginative response to: ‘What would Earth and its lifeforms be
like if water followed the same trends in melting point and boiling point that
are displayed by the other Group 16 hydrides
 bubbles in a glass of sparkling water adhere to the walls of the glass at
different heights: find a relationship between the average size of the
bubbles and their height on the side of the glass
 organise the class into groups to formulate hypotheses and design and
perform experiments so that each group investigates and reports on one of
the following research questions:
 Can a saturated solution of sodium chloride dissolve any Epson salts?
 Can a saturated solution of sugar dissolve any Epson salts?
 Can a saturated solution of Epsom salts dissolve any sodium chloride?
 Can a saturated solution of Epsom salts dissolve any sugar?
 Can a saturated solution of sodium chloride dissolve any sugar?
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 Can a saturated solution of sugar dissolve any sodium chloride?
 How does solubility vary with temperature?
 How does solubility vary with the atomic mass of the solute?
 How does solubility vary with the polarity of the solute?
use solubility rules to predict the outcomes of precipitation reactions and
experimentally test the predictions; write ‘full’ and ionic equations for
precipitation reactions that occurred
each student should collect an empty package of processed food that
contains salt or sugar: calculate total amount of salt or sugar for the product
contained in the package; produce a class display to show increasing salt or
sugar content for the food product
use a multimeter to compare the total amount of electrolytes in various
drinks for example tap water; mineral water; fruit juices; soft drinks; sports
drinks; research and provide a brief report on the function of electrolytes in
the human body
develop and test hypotheses through the investigation of a research
question, for example, ‘How can hard water be softened?’
confirm the Law of Conservation of Mass for a chemical reaction in a closed
system; model the chemical reaction to show the rearrangement of atoms
perform experiments to differentiate between strong and weak acids on the
basis of conductivity, pH and rate of reaction with magnesium
relate the strength and concentration of acids and bases to the safety
procedures for their use
discuss the accuracy, precision and reliability of collated class
measurements of the pH of a variety of everyday solutions, for example tap
water; bottled mineral water; distilled water; saline solution; drain cleaner
(sodium hydroxide); vinegar (acetic acid); dishwashing powder (sodium
carbonate); cloudy ammonia; baking soda; battery acid (sulfuric acid);
concrete cleaner (hydrochloric acid); albumin and yolk of an egg;
investigate indicator colours at different pH values
create scales (a logarithmic scale versus an arithmetic scale) to show the
relative positions of solutions with [H3O+] of 1.0 M. 0.1 M. 0.01 M and
0.001 M
perform simple redox reactions, for example combustion of magnesium and
metal displacement reactions; write balanced redox reactions including
states; annotate equations to identify direction of electron flow, oxidising
agents, reducing agents, conjugate redox pairs
perform experiments to determine the order of metals in a reactivity series;
compare predictions with results
use a problem-based learning approach to investigate an issue in
chemistry, for example, source and effects of acid rain on living and nonliving things; source and effects of ocean acidification on living things and
the environment; impact of metal corrosion in marine and acidic
environments; impact of the production of vast quantities of sulfuric acid as
a result of extracting metals from sulfide ores
fold a 4 cm x 4 cm sheet of copper foil into the shape of an envelope; wear
eye protection and light a Bunsen burner; hold the copper envelope in tongs
and heat strongly in the flame for 5 minutes; place the copper envelope on a
heatproof mat to cool; open the envelope, compare the inside to the outside
and record observations in your logbook; explain results in terms of
oxidation; devise an experiment to show that the effects on the outside of
the envelope were not due to carbon formation
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 investigate the effects of the pH level of a solution on the corrosion of iron
and copper; explore different methods of corrosion prevention
 when a layer of hot salt solution lies above a layer of cold water, the
interface between the two layers becomes unstable and a structure
resembling fingers develops in the fluid: investigate and explain this
phenomenon
Detailed example
HOW CAN HARD WATER BE SOFTENED?
Aims
 To develop skills in hypothesis formulation related to the softening of hard water
 To design, perform and analyse an experimental investigation related to the softening of hard water that
involves generation of primary data
 To effectively communicate investigation findings
Background information for teachers and students
Water hardness relates to the concentration of certain minerals dissolved in the water, particularly calcium and
magnesium, and to a lesser degree iron, manganese and barium. The scale used to determine water hardness
ranges from ‘soft’ to ‘very hard’ as follows:
Water classification
Hardness (mg L-1)
Soft
0–60
Moderately hard
61–120
hard
121–180
Very hard
≥181
Various recommendations have been made for the maximum and minimum levels of calcium (40–80 ppm) and
magnesium (20–30 ppm) in drinking water, and a total hardness expressed as the sum of the calcium and
magnesium concentrations of 2–4 mmol L-1.
Information related to measurements of water hardness in Australian cities, for example by the Australian Water
Association www.awa.asn.au, shows a wide range of values:
Capital city
Total hardness
(calcium carbonate mg L-1)
Adelaide
134–148
Brisbane
100
Canberra
40
Darwin
31
Hobart
5.8–34.4
Melbourne
10-26
Perth
29–226
Sydney
39.4–60.1
Hard water forms when water filters through limestone and chalk deposits, which are largely made up of calcium
and magnesium carbonates. Although hard drinking water may have some health benefits it can also pose
serious problems in industrial settings where it can impair the function of boilers, cooling towers and other
equipment that involve water. In domestic settings hard water is often indicated by a lack of suds formation
when soap is agitated in water and by the formation of limescale in kettles, water heaters and on the inside of
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bathtubs. In swimming pools hard water can have a turbid, or cloudy (milky) appearance. Hard water may affect
soil quality leading to changes in growth of plants including crops.
Hard water can be either ‘permanent’ hard water (water that contains calcium or magnesium salts other than the
hydrogen carbonates) or ‘temporary’ hard water. Temporary hardness may be removed by boiling, but
permanent hardness survives the boiling process.
With hard water soap solutions form a white precipitate (soap scum) instead of producing lather, because the
Ca2+ ions react with the stearate ions of the soap to form calcium stearate, a solid precipitate (the soap scum):
2 C17H35COO- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) → (C17H35COO)2Ca (s)
The hardness of a water sample can therefore be measured in terms of its soap-consuming capacity.
Water softening is commonly used to reduce hard water’s adverse effects in situations where water hardness is
a concern. Lime (Ca(OH)2) and soda ash (Na2CO3) are commonly used to treat hard water. Synthetic detergents
do not form soap scums in hard water.
Topic selection phase
The practical investigation enables teachers to work with students to develop hypotheses, design and perform
experimental investigations that require generation of primary data and present investigation findings. Teachers
must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students, available
resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 What input will students have into the selection of the investigation question?
 Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
 To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the
same question so that class data can be pooled?
 What input will students have into the design of the experiment?
In this detailed example, students were presented with the background information and used out-of-class time to
undertake further internet research to consider available treatments of hard water. As a class, a methodology for
testing water hardness was devised, based on the provided general definition of water hardness as being the
soap-consuming capacity of a water sample. Students then worked in groups to propose a research question for
investigation related to the softening of hard water.
Sample student-generated research questions include:
 Does pH affect water hardness?
 What is the effect of adding sodium carbonate crystals (washing soda) to different types of water samples
(untreated deionised water; untreated tap water; untreated temporary hard water; untreated permanent hard
water; boiled deionised water; boiled tap water; boiled temporary hard water; boiled permanent hard water)?
 Does temporary hard water respond to the same treatments as permanent hard water?
 Alum is a complex compound of aluminium that can be used to remove clay from a water sample. Can it also
be used to treat hard water, and if so, what concentrations are most effective?
 How effective are different concentrations of borax and washing soda in treating hard water?
 How is the proportion of calcium and magnesium in a water sample related to water hardness?
Teacher preparation notes
 'Temporary' hard water can be made by decanting a saturated solution of Ca(OH)2.
 ‘Permanent’ permanent hard water can be made by using either 1 g CaSO4•2H2O or 1 g MgSO4•7H2O in 100
mL water.
 Comparing samples for degree of hard water: Teachers could use or adapt the standard Clarke’s soap
solution - devised by Dr. Thomas Clarke, Professor of Chemistry at Aberdeen University, in 1843 – which
involves finding out the volume of a soap solution of known concentration (for example 10 g of plain laundry
soap per 100 mL of 80 % ethanol) required to form a permanent lather with a known volume of the water to
be tested (for example 5 mL) in a test tube.
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
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 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
 identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation, and
 ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
Teachers should work with students to:
 discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in proposed experiments
 identify safety aspects associated with undertaking experiments related to hearing and sound
 establish the use of physical units of measurement and standard notation, and how to reference sources and
provide appropriate acknowledgments.
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
The template may subsequently be adapted by students as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Investigation phase
Student-designed methodologies must be approved by the teacher prior to students undertaking practical
investigations. A possible schedule for management of the multiple investigations in the class is as follows:
 each student undertakes internet research, if required, to find background information related to the general
topic for investigation
 students work individually or in groups to confirm a research question, formulate a hypothesis and propose a
research methodology, including management of relevant safety and health issues
 teacher approval for the methodology is granted prior to students undertaking the investigation
 students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of their findings
using an agreed report format.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to
explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed
following evaluation of their experimental design and quality of data.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or a multimedia or oral presentation of the investigation.
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Area of Study 2: How are substances in water measured and analysed?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Measure amounts of
dissolved substances in water
and analyse water samples
for salts, organic compounds
and acids and bases.
 use local examples of the management of chemical contaminants in each of
the categories of salts, organic compounds and acids or bases
 describe two sampling protocols and identify how they would contribute to
accuracy, precision, reliability and/or validity of water analysis results
 formulate hypotheses and design and perform investigations related to the
following research questions:
 How do commercial brands of water differ from each other?
 How does bottled water differ from tap water?
 How does bottled water differ from filtered tap water?
 How is bottled water sanitised for human consumption?
 What are some practical ways to recycle plastic bottles?
 undertake a water quality analysis for samples of water, for example,
combine laboratory ‘wet’ and instrumental techniques with online calculators
such as that at the Water Research Centre in Dallas, Texas, USA at
www.water-research.net/index.php/water-treatment/watermonitoring/monitoring-the-quality-of-surfacewaters that calculates water
quality based on nine indicators (in order of decreasing significance:
dissolved oxygen; fecal coliform; pH; biochemical oxygen demand;
temperature change; total phosphate; nitrates; turbidity; total solids)
 examine the ingredients list of chemicals and foods for which solution
quantities are provided; convert between given units and alternate units of
concentration, for example, g L-1; mg L-1; %(m/m); %(m/v); %(v/v)
 explain why acids should be added to water, rather than adding water to
acids, when diluting acids or when undertaking acid-base experiments
 perform dilutions of different solutions and calculate quantities at each
dilution stage
 investigate the Law of Conservation of Mass by tracking mass changes
occurring during chemical reactions in closed systems
 perform a gravimetric analysis and use mass-mass stoichiometry to
determine the mass of salt in a water sample; collate and compare class
data to evaluate accuracy and precision; discuss whether performing
repeated analyses improves accuracy and precision
 prepare a standard solution of anhydrous sodium carbonate and use it to
standardise a solution of hydrochloric acid
 perform an acid-base titration and use volume-volume stoichiometry to
calculate the concentration of an acid or base in a water sample
 perform an instrumental analysis of a coloured species in solution, for
example compare the phosphate content of various fertilisers or washing
powders; investigate why phosphates pose problems in waterways and how
these problems are resolved
 bottled water is sometimes fortified with various vitamins and nutrients:
investigate and produce a short report to explain the purpose of the
additives and how the amounts that are added are determined
 discuss the following quote by Thomas A. Edison’s in terms of analytical
analysis: ‘Negative results are just what I want. They’re just as valuable to
me as positive results. I can never find the thing that does the job best until I
find the ones that don’t’
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 investigate the applicability of Benford’s Law, also called the first-digit law
(in lists of numbers from many everyday sources of large datasets, the
leading digit is distributed in a specific, predictable way: 1 = 30.1 %; 2 =
17.6%; 3 = 12.5 %; 4 = 9.7 %; 5 = 7.9 %; 6 = 6.7 %; 7 = 5.8 %; 8 = 5.1 %; 9
= 4.6 %) to chemical data, for example, global water quality data such as
those at: http://www.gemstat.org/ or data obtained from state or local water
authorities
 respond to a chemistry-based issue in society, for example ‘Would you drink
recycled water?’
Detailed example
RESPONDING TO A CHEMISTRY-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY: WOULD YOU DRINK RECYCLED WATER?
Many contemporary issues in society involve chemistry ideas and concepts in addition to the consideration of
personal and communal values. In this detailed example, the teacher used the question ‘Would you drink
recycled water?’ as a summative learning task following learning activities related to measurements of solubility
and concentrations, chemical analysis and a class excursion to a water treatment plant. The focus of this activity
is on students being able to consider the nature of evidence, distinguish between facts and opinion and
synthesise arguments to communicate a response to a chemistry-related social issue.
Aim
To communicate a justified response to a social issue involving chemistry concepts through participation in a
‘Question & Answer’ panel discussion.
Introduction
Teachers could organise the class so that students work in groups to form a number of different Q&A panels
where each student takes on the role of a different stakeholder, or use a jigsaw approach to create one class
Q&A panel with each panelist having a team of ‘researchers’ to assist in the development of panel arguments.
Students role-play a Q&A panel discussion to examine the arguments for and against using recycled water as a
source of drinking water. Each student will assume the role of one stakeholder, or become part of the
stakeholder’s research team, and become part of the panel discussion. Following the panel discussion each
student provides an individual response to the question ‘Would you drink recycled water?’ by producing a public
communication in an agreed format, for example newspaper article; infographic; TV advertisement. The
communication must include referenced qualitative and quantitative data, distinction between identified facts
and opinions presented in the Q&A panel discussion and justified personal stance on the question.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation
 Prior learning experiences related to water sampling techniques, measurement of solubility and
concentration, and analytical techniques used to analyse for salts, organic compounds, and acids and bases
 Prior consideration of validity, reliability, facts and opinions: for example, students discussed sources of
reliable information related to the following chemistry-based information:
a. drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is defined as water that is safe
enough for drinking and food preparation
b. globally, in 2012, 89% of people had access to water suitable for drinking.
 Students should have discussed examples of ‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’ oral and written communication
techniques and practices.
 Students become panel members that represent stakeholder interests (students select the names of
stakeholders at random ‘from a hat’), for example local resident with young family; mayor; local water
authority representative; analytical chemist; site worker from company contracted to carry out water
treatment; medical professional; local producer of carbonated water; meteorologist; environmental activist.
 Students should have access to ‘fact sheets’ or authoritative sites related to water treatment and drinking
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water specifications for example, excerpts from the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines at
www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines-publications/eh52; World Health Organization’s guidelines for drinking water
quality www.who.int/dwq/gdwq0506; comparison of drinking water standards around the world such as
www.safewater.org.
Health, safety and ethical notes
 Students should be respectful of others and their opinions at all times.
 Students should be reminded that this activity is simply a role-play and the comments made do not
necessary reflect the attitudes of the individual speakers.
Procedure
Lessons 1 and 2: In this lesson students will: consider general information about the process of treating water to
make it potable including statutory requirements for water to be classified as ‘drinkable’; put themselves in the
role of one stakeholder and present their position; construct a question they would like addressed by a
discussion panel; prepare possible responses to these questions from their perspective as one stakeholder.
Some time out of class may also be required for students to complete background research. Students:
 Read through the ‘fact sheets’ or websites relating to water treatment and water quality.
 In the logbook, jot major points of interest
 Select at random the name of a stakeholder relevant to the issue.
 Spend 10 minutes brainstorming the likely perspective of the stakeholder towards the issue. Students may
discuss their ideas with peers and the teacher. Students need to consider the biases (feelings, opinions,
prejudices) that their stakeholder may have for this issue and write these into the logbook.
 Present a 20-second oral summary of the stakeholder to the class, for example: ‘My name is X and I am the
mayor of this town where it is proposed that we supplement our drinking water supplies with treated water,
since we often need to apply water restrictions due to low water reserves in our dam. The majority of my
constituents are against the proposal since there are concerns that the treated water will still contain
microbes or chemicals that may threaten human health and that treated water could never exactly replicate
the quality of rain water or the water in our dams.’
 On a slip of paper, construct one question that they would like addressed by someone relating to this case
study. Students may suggest which stakeholder they would like to primarily respond to their question. The
question should be well thought out so as to give as much insight into different perspectives in considering
the issue. Students may use the following list of question terms to assist them –
List 1: Who/What/Where/When/Why/How…?
List 2: …would/could/should/is/are/might/will/was/were…?
Submit the question to the teacher, who will collate these (perhaps by photocopying all slips onto a single
sheet of paper) and distribute them to the relevant discussion panel.
 Now working with the other members of the panel, discuss the questions that have been submitted and write
notes into the logbook detailing the response to these questions from the perspective of a stakeholder.
Include as much scientific data as possible in the responses. Students may need to conduct additional
Internet research to develop responses.
Lesson 3: In this lesson students will: role-play the perspective on one stakeholder as part of a panel discussion.
They may use any notes already written in the logbook and may also make additional notes in the logbook
during the class.
Lesson 4: In this lesson students will: provide an individual response to the question ‘Would you drink recycled
water?’ by producing a public communication in an agreed format, for example newspaper article; infographic;
TV advertisement. By the end of the lesson they will submit a draft of their response. They may use any notes
from the logbook.
The communication must include referenced qualitative and quantitative data, distinction between identified
facts and opinions presented in the Q&A panel discussion and justified personal stance on the question.
The media communication should identify / highlight the:
 a likely target audience
 specific scientific concept/s being communicated
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 distinction between fact and opinion
 scientific data used to justify position of the stakeholder.
Students will be assessed with respect to:
 accuracy of scientific information
 clarity of explanations
 appropriateness for purpose and audience.
Area of Study 3: Practical investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Design and undertake a
quantitative laboratory
investigation related to water
quality, and draw conclusions
based on evidence from
collected data.
 How effective are different sampling methods in the accurate analysis of the
quantity of a substance that is dissolved in water?
 How are the specific heat capacities of different liquids affected by the
addition of salts, acids, bases, oxidants or reductants?
 How are the conductivities of different liquids affected by the addition of
salts, acids, bases, oxidants or reductants?
 Is solubility related to biodegradability?
 How does the solubility of a solute vary in fresh water as compared to sea
water?
 Which ions are more important in determining the ‘hardness’ of water?
 How do different types of detergents perform in water of varying ‘hardness’?
 How does water quality differ at various points along a waterway or around
a body of water?
 Is the pH of sea water affected in the same way as the pH of fresh water
when acidic or basic substances are added to them?
 How are different types of shells/polymers/metals affected by different pH
conditions?
 How does the rate of corrosion of different metals compare in salt and fresh
water?
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Detailed example
HOW DOES WATER QUALITY DIFFER AT VARIOUS POINTS ALONG A RIVER?
The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or Unit 2
Area of Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account
number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require consideration:
 What input will students have into the selection of the investigation question?
 Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
 To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the
same question so that class data can be collated?
 What input will students have into the design of the experiment?
 Will off-school site work be involved?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
The template may subsequently be adapted by students as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Topic selection phase
In Unit 2 Area of Study 2, the teacher made use of the local river that ran through the town to explore concepts
related to identifying and measuring different substances in water. In this detailed example, a general class
investigation question was generated following student interest in exploring factors that affected the river’s water
quality. In a class discussion following Unit 2 Area of Study 2 activities where students measured the pH and
total dissolved solids of river water samples, students wondered whether their results would have been different
if they had performed the experiments at different times of the day or in different seasons of the year. They
discussed the different environment conditions at various points in the river, such as shaded or exposed sites,
and treed versus cleared areas. One environmentally conscious student noted that a public picnic ground
abutted the river and that paper, plastic and food scraps often ended up in the river. Another student referred to
sections of the river allocated to swimming and boating activities and wondered whether factors such as body
oils and turbulence affected water quality. From this discussion students formulated a number of research
questions for investigation, based on a general question: How does water quality differ at various points along a
river?
Sample student-generated research questions include:
 What chemical categories of rubbish are dumped into the river and how is water quality affected?
 How do recreational activities such as swimming and fishing affect water quality?
 Does exposure to sunlight affect the pH of water?
 Does exposure to sunlight affect the solubility of salts in water?
 Do overhanging trees change the chemical composition of the water?
 Is the proportion of chemicals in faster-running parts of the river different from the proportion of chemicals in
slower-running parts of the river?
 Is the proportion of chemicals in deeper parts of the river different from the proportion of chemicals in
shallower parts of the river?
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 formulating a testable hypothesis
 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
 identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation, and
 ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
Teachers should work with students to:
 determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups in undertaking the experiment (for
example, different students or groups may investigate different aspects of river quality; all students may
investigate a selected question and work at different sites along the river to collect and collate data; a limited
number of questions may be self-selected for investigation by students)
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 discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in proposed experiments
 determine the types of quantitative experiments that will be performed, for example, titrations, solubility tests,
instrumental analysis
 identify safety aspects associated with undertaking experiments in the field and in the laboratory, and in
working with chemicals and apparatus
 establish the use of physical units of measurement and standard notation
 determine the nature of the communication: Who would be interested in the results of students'
investigations? What would be the most effective way to communicate results to an interested audience?
Investigation phase
Student-designed methodologies must be approved by the teacher prior to students undertaking practical
investigations. A possible schedule for management of the multiple investigations in the class is as follows:
 each student undertakes internet research to find background information related to the general topic for
investigation
 students work individually or in groups to confirm a research question, formulate a hypothesis and propose a
research methodology, including management of relevant safety and health issues
 teacher approval for the methodology is granted prior to students undertaking the investigation
 time is allocated for water sample collection in the field
 if required, time is allocated to access equipment/instrumentation out-of-school
 students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of their findings
using an agreed report format.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to
explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed
following evaluation of their experimental design and quality of data.
Students may work individually or in groups
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or a multimedia or oral presentation of the investigation.
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Appendix 1: Scientific investigation
Hypothesis formulation
Once a topic has been identified students develop a research question for investigation,
which may involve formulating a hypothesis.
Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or
hypothesis that is not testable.
Variables
The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification and control of variables. A variable
is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be
measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a
magnitude.
Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for
example, metre rulers. Shades of colour are less easily measured and are more likely to be
subjective. They might be measured by, for example, using photographic comparisons to
produce a set of graduated ‘standards’ that are nominated and named for the purposes of
the investigation.
In VCE Chemistry, students are required to identify independent and dependent variables.
They should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous variables
including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the
interpretation of results. Operationalisation of variables is beyond the scope of the VCE
Chemistry Study Design.
Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Chemistry are specified in Appendix 3.
Developing a testable hypothesis
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or
qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying
hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.
There is no mandated VCE Chemistry style’ for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null and
alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and non-directional
hypotheses is not required.
The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a
research question using an ‘If-then-when’ construction process:
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Step 1: Ask a research question related to a chemical reaction under investigation: How much magnesium oxide
can be produced from a given quantity of magnesium??
Step 2: Identify the independent variable (IV): initial mass of magnesium undergoing combustion
Step 3: Identify the dependent variable (DV): final mass of magnesium oxide produced in the reaction
Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below):
a
b
c
…then…
d
trend indicator
e
…when…
f
If…
relationship phrase
(the
DV)…
(to the IV)
(effect on the DV)
(action by the IV).
…depends on…
...show an increase/
decrease ...
…increased/ decreased…
…results from…
…is affected by…
…is directly related to…
trend indicator
…greater/ less…
…be greater than/less
than…
…large/small…
…be larger /smaller…
Hypothesis: If magnesium reacts with oxygen in a 1:1 ratio, then 12.9 g of magnesium oxide will form when 7.80 g of
magnesium undergoes complete combustion in oxygen.
Notes:
 Alternative writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid
 Some hypotheses include reasons for the inherent prediction, for example the above hypothesis may be extended as: ‘If
magnesium reacts with oxygen in a 1:1 ratio because both elements form divalent ions, then 12.9 g of magnesium oxide
will form when 7.80 g of magnesium undergoes complete combustion in oxygen.’
Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Accuracy
Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the
accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is
the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an
experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g,
but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not
close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is
known as the ‘measurement error’.
While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in
some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true
or accepted value for a physical quantity may be unknown at the conditions under which the
experiment is conducted. For example, the accepted value of the ionic product of water of
1.0 x 10-14 M2 only applies at 25 ºC. This value does not apply at other temperatures. As a
result, the pH of pure water is 7.0 only at 25 ºC. Many practical activities in the classroom
involve an experimental setup that is unique to the student, for example, determination of the
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conductivity of the water in the water tank or dam on the student’s property. In such
instances, there is no accepted single value with which comparisons can be made.
Precision
Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other.
Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise
measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given
substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the
experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true
mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be
accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to determine
the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were obtained, then if
the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since the measurements
for the given substance are close to the true value, but the measurements are spread over a
range.
Experimental precision can be improved by:
 repeating the experiment multiple times
 collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples
 practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved.
Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the
magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there
is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values, for
example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g. A
quantitative treatment of precision is beyond the scope of the VCE Chemistry Study Design.
Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility
Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable
and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the
closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on
identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same
laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of
agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test
material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different
laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of
the reliability of an experiment.
Reliability
Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly
the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a
very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always
produce reliable results.
Validity
Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements
of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s.
Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results:
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 internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of
the steps of the scientific research method
 external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are
any other possible causal relationships.
Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single
independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control
variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.
Experimental uncertainties, errors and significant figures
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being
measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement
result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’.
Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be
eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are
two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors.
Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors.
Human errors
Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the
depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring
the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter
by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r2. Human errors can be
eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part
of error analysis.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors
cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted
value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by
repeating those measurements.
Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax
error’).
Random errors
Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always
present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of
uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread
of readings.
Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between
the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument
because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a
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transient event, for example, measuring the temperature at which a crystal first forms as a
solution cools in order to construct a solubility curve.
The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and
calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.
Outliers
Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers should be further
analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Extra readings may
be useful in further examining an outlier.
Significant figures
Non-zero digits in data are always considered significant. Leading zeros are never significant
whereas following zeros and zeros between non-zero digits are always significant. For
example, 075.0210 contains six significant figures with the zero at the beginning not
considered significant. 400 has three significant figures while 400.0 has four.
Using a significant figures approach, one can infer the claimed accuracy of a value. For
example, 400 is closer to 400 than 399 or 401. Similarly 0.0675 is closer to 0.0675 than
0.0674 or 0.0676.
Columns of data in tables should have the same number of decimal places, for example,
measurements of lengths in centimetres or time intervals in seconds may yield the following
data: 5.6, 9.2, 11.2 and 14.5. Significant figure rules should then be applied in subsequent
data analysis.
Calculations in chemistry often involve numbers having different numbers of significant
figures. In mathematical operations involving:
 addition and subtraction, the student should retain as many digits to the right of the
decimal as in the number with the fewest significant digits to the right of the decimal, for
example: 386.38 + 793.354 - 0.000397 = 1179.73
 multiplication and division, the student should retain as many significant digits as in the
number with the fewest significant digits, for example: 326.95 x 10.2 ÷ 20.322 = 164.
Presenting and analysing data
To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment,
data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident.
Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they are limited in depicting the
design of an investigation and may not be the best way to show trends, patterns or
relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more clearly show whether any
trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical representation used by students
will depend upon the type of variables investigated:
 pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is
categorical
 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent
variables are continuous
 lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables
 scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables
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 sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not
necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between
two variables.
When drawing graphs, students should note that:
 the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable is represented on the vertical axis
 the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal
relationship between two variables
 not all experiments will show a correlation between variables
 common types of relationships in chemistry include linear, non-linear and sometimes
exponential.
Students should understand why it is important not to 'force data through zero'. In drawing
conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with
the limitations of the data in mind. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not
go beyond, the data available.
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 2: Defining variables
The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Chemistry.
Type of variable
Definitions
Categorical
Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or
characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are
generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as
ordinal or nominal.
 Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or
ranked, for example, ionisation energies (1st, 2nd 3rd), degree of
satisfaction with a new gadget (small, medium, large) and attitudes
(strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
 Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical
sequence, for example, gender, colour and type of sub-atomic particle
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
Numerical
Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable
quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They
are further classified as continuous or discrete.
 Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers, for example, distance (2.85 kilometres), length of time (12.5
seconds) or temperature (25.4 °C)
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of
distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one
value and the next closest value, for example, number of carbon atoms in
a polysaccharide or number of electrons in an atom
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
Independent
An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated
(selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct
effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the
horizontal axis of graphs.
Dependent
A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after
selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent
variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Controlled
A controlled variable is a variable that has been held constant in an
experiment in order to test the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
Extraneous
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an
extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least
monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of
experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.
Confounding
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either
directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and
can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative
explanations for experimental results.
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based
learning approaches
A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to sciencebased issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from actual research studies reported
in scientific journals, local scenarios or issues, an imaginary scenario, an interesting
chemical phenomenon or a fact-based or fictional case study as in the following example:
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Case study: The non-sparkling diamond:
Problem brief: An insurance company has received a claim for $15,000 to replace a 2-carat diamond ring that
a female passenger in a car claimed had been internally shattered when the car was involved in a collision
with another car. The passenger claims that the diamond no longer shines as brilliantly as it did before the
accident and wants to purchase a replacement diamond. In her claim, the passenger states that she has had a
quote for $25,000 as a replacement ring and can sell her ‘shattered’ ring for $10,000. The passenger’s jeweller
has submitted photographs that show the diamond has an ‘inclusion’.
The insurance company has approached your chemistry class to investigate whether it is possible that a
diamond can be shattered in a car accident, and to recommend whether the claim is legitimate and should be
paid out:
Student task: Draw on chemistry concepts related to covalent bonding to develop a model or simulation that
demonstrates to a non-chemistry expert what would be required for a diamond to ‘internally shatter’ and to
prepare a report that includes a recommendation about the legitimacy of the insurance claim.
Step 2: Refine the question/
explore possible options/
determine what other
information is required
(class brainstorming)
Step 3: Plan the actual
investigation/narrow your
choices
(class consensus)
Step 4: Test ideas, obtain further
information, build and evaluate models
(group and/or individual)
Step 5: Write a report and present a model that draws upon relevant discussions/research/experiments,
including specific scientific terminology, in response to the brief.
Notes:
 problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution
A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The
skills should link to relevant chemistry content. The following example focuses on the skill of
hypothesis formulation.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Question: What factors affect crystallisation?
Task: This research question requires refining with a narrower focus in order to develop a testable hypothesis.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Possible responses:
Crystals generally grow by the ordered
deposition of solute particles onto the
surface of a pre-existing crystal.
©VCAA 2015
Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/
narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Possible responses:
Need to identify dependent and
independent variables and control
other variables.
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Possible responses:
 Hypothesis example: ‘If, in
nature, rocks that have
cooled quickly only contain
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Background research may be
undertaken to explore possible factors
that affect crystallisation before a
hypothesis can be formulated. General
issues for consideration include:
a. Solvent
 polarity of the solvent
b. Solute and solution
 composition of solute )for example,
simple ionic solid; ‘double’ salt,
molecular solid – polar or nonpolar)
 solubility of solute in solvent
 degree of saturation of solution (for
example, saturated versus
supersaturated)
c. Nucleation
 number of nucleation sites
 type of nucleation site (for example,
small seed crystal suspended into
the solvent; seed crystals on base
of container; scratched glass
surface of container)
d. Physical conditions over the time
allowed for crustal growth
 initial temperature of solvent
 rate of cooling of solution
 intensity of light
 total volume and surface area of
solvent
 degree of stillness (for example,
whether vibrations, draughts or
other disturbances occur)
 humidity of the surrounding air (in
the case of water as the solvent)
e. total time available for crystal
growth
 number of days
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Independent variable (being selected)
relates to a selected factor relating to
the set-up for the crystallisation
process to occur and could be:
 number of nucleation sites
 temperature
 light intensity
 size of nucleation site
 type of nucleation site
 saturation level of solvent
 nature of solvent
Dependent variable (being measured)
relates to ‘nature of the crystal’ that is
formed and could be:
 size of crystal
 crystal shape – degree of
symmetry
Control of variables is dependent on
selected independent and dependent
variables.
small mineral crystals, then
the slower the rate of
cooling of a solution, the
larger will be the crystal that
is produced.’
 Not all hypotheses are
testable and not all variables
can be controlled for some
experiments.
 For this problem, students
generate possible
hypotheses; provide
feedback on each other’s
hypotheses; modify own
hypotheses.
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific
terms, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.
Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to
investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan
Sample Course Outline – VCE Chemistry Unit 1: How can the diversity of materials be explained?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
Topics
Learning activities
 Class display: creation of a ‘relative scale’ of particles
1
 Experiment: flame tests and spectra
Elements and the periodic table (relative particle size; element definitions
and symbols including atomic number, mass number and isotopic forms;
atomic spectra; electronic configurations; periodic table patterns and trends)
2
 Simulation: atomic structure https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom

Data analysis: periodic trends and explanations in terms of electronegativities and
graphs of first ionisation energies of elements
 Communication: students research a useful isotope and write a media article
 Investigation: trends across a period or down a group of the periodic table
3
4
How can
knowledge of
Metals (properties explained by structure; main group versus transition
elements
metals; relative reactivities; extraction of a metal; modification by heat; metallic
explain
properties of nanomaterials)
matter?
7
8
©VCAA 2015
 Model: properties of alloys using plasticene and sand
http://www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-chemistry/modelling-alloys-plasticine
 Observation: metallic crystals under a stereomicroscope – class comparisons
 Experiment: extraction of copper from a solution of a copper ore
 Experiment: investigation of the properties of ionic compounds
5
6
 Experiment: comparison of the properties of main group and transition metals
Ionic compounds (properties explained by structure; crystal formation; uses)
Quantifying atoms and compounds (relative isotopic mass; carbon-12
standard; relative atomic mass; mass spectrometry; mole concept; Avogadro
constant; calculations of numbers of moles of atoms in samples; molar mass
 Model: structures of ionic compounds
 Experiment: simulation of crystal formation in rocks by making chocolate fudge
under different temperature conditions
 Model: visualisation of the mole though calculations (depth of a ‘blanket’ of a mole
of marshmallows over Australia; height of a ‘tower’ made from a mole of dollar
coins or sheets of A4 paper; length of time to count a mole of marbles if one was
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
of ionic compounds; empirical formula)
counted every second every day until finished)
 Calculations: worksheets related to mole and empirical formula calculations
 Experiment: determination of the empirical formula of magnesium oxide
Week
Area
Topics
Learning activities
 Modelling: ball-and-stick models of simple polyatomic molecules and interactions
Materials from molecules (modelling of molecular substances; polarity of
molecules; properties explained by structure; relative strengths of bonds; ice
and water comparisons)
9
10
11
12
13
14
Carbon lattices and carbon nanomaterials (properties explained by
How can the structure; graphene; fullerenes; nanomaterial applications in society)
versatility of
non-metals be
explained?
Organic compounds and polymers (origin and use of crude oil and its
hydrocarbon components; families of hydrocarbon compounds; organic
chemistry IUPAC nomenclature; empirical and molecular formula
determinations; polymers from monomers; addition polymerisation of alkenes;
thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers; designer polymers; use of
polymers in society)
 Individual student hypothesis formulation and experimental investigation:
capillarity
 Predict-observe-explain: investigation of volume contraction in alcohol-water
mixtures
 Models: create and annotate models of carbon allotropes
 Student research: contemporary application of a carbon nanomaterial
 Experiment: steam distillation of eucalyptus leaf/orange peel/ti-tree leaf/cloves;
method improvement by investigating different collection, heating or extraction
methods
 Modelling: organic structures and polymers
 Prediction: trends in melting and boiling points of a range of organic molecules
 Experiment: making and modifying slime
 Site tour: polymer manufacturing plant
 Problem-based learning scenario: plastic versus paper shopping bag alternatives
15
16
17
Students register an individual research question (development of a research question and aims; purpose of communication and target audience and/or product;
Practical
characteristics of effective science communication; investigation methodology, primary and/or secondary sources of information including surveys, interviews;
investigation
undertaking of investigation; analysis and evaluation of data and methods; limitations of conclusions; development of effective communication and/or product)
18
19
©VCAA 2015
Unit revision
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Sample Course Outline – VCE Chemistry Unit 2: What makes water such a unique chemical?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
Topics
 Experiment: comparison of specific heat capacities of water and different oils
1
Properties of water (melting and boiling points of Group 16 hydrides; specific
heat capacity; latent heat; applications for living things)
2
 Modelling: group oral or multimodal presentation related to the application of latent
heat in student-selected context of perspiration, kitchen chemistry, storms, climate
science
 Experiment: group-developed hypotheses to investigate different aspects of
solubility
3
Properties of water and water as a solvent (solution processes in water of
 Problem-based learning: groups investigate acid rain or ocean acidification effects
molecular substances and ionic compounds; precipitation reactions; applications
 Research and experiment: electrolytes in soft drinks, mineral water and sports
in everyday life)
drinks
4
5
Learning activities
 Hypothesis formulation and testing: How can hard water be softened?
How do
substances
interact with
water?
6
 Experiment: differentiation between strong and weak acids on the basis of
conductivity, pH and rate of reaction with magnesium
Acid-base reactions in water (Brǿnsted-Lowry theory; polyprotic and
amphoteric species; ionic equations; ionic product of water; pH; strong and
weak acids and bases; concentrated and dilute acids and bases; reactions of
acids with metals, carbonates and hydroxides; acid-base chemistry issue in
society)
 Laboratory safety: relate the strength and concentration of acids and bases to the
safety procedures for their use
 Scientific skills: compare the accuracy, precision and reliability of collated class
measurements of the pH of a variety of everyday solutions
 Experiments: round-robin of acid reactions – students record results and write
equations in logbooks; annotate equations to show direction of proton transfer
 Acid-base chemistry web dilemma including social, ethical and economic
implications
7
8
©VCAA 2015
Redox reactions in water (oxidising and reducing agents; conjugate redox
pairs; redox reactions; reactivity series of metals; redox chemistry issue in
society)
 Experiment: metal displacement reactions and the reactivity series; compare
predictions with results
 Chemical language development: equation-writing and annotation of redox
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
equations to identify direction of electron flow, oxidising agent, reducing agent,
conjugate redox pairs
 Experiment: oxidation of a copper foil envelope
 Media analysis: YouTube clips related to water contamination issues
9
Water sample analysis and measurement of solubility and concentration
(distribution of drinking water around the world; sampling protocols; chemical
contaminants; solubility and solubility tables; relationship between temperature
and solubility; solubility curves; solution concentration conversions)
10
11
12
13
How are
substances in
water
measured
and
analysed? Analysis for salts, organic compounds and acids and bases in water
(sources; mass-mass stoichiometry; volume-volume stoichiometry; acid-base
titrations; analytical techniques – colorimetry, UV-visible spectroscopy, atomic
absorption spectroscopy, HPLC )
14
 Experiment: solubility curve of a salt
 Data analysis: interpretation of world maps showing water distribution and quality
 Site tour: water treatment plant – infographic to link processes to solubility
concepts
 Class display: increasing salt or sugar concentrations of packaged foods
 Experiment: Law of Conservation of Mass – tracking of mass changes of chemical
reactions in closed systems; model the rearrangement of atoms in the reactions
 Experiment: gravimetric analysis of the total chloride content of a water sample
 Instrumental analysis – colorimetric versus instrumental analysis of phosphate
 Acid-base titration: dilutions; preparation of a standard solution of hydrochloric
acid; analysis of a base in a water sample
 Calculations: mass-mass and volume-volume stoichiometry worksheets
15
16
17
Negotiation with students/class to undertake research question – laboratory investigation and/or fieldwork (hypothesis formulation; determination of aims,
Practical
questions and predictions; identification of independent, dependent and controlled variables; methodology and equipment list; laboratory and/or fieldwork techniques;
investigation risk assessment; undertaking of experiment and/or fieldwork; analysis and evaluation of data, methods and models; limitations of conclusions; possible further
investigations; poster presentation)
18
19
©VCAA 2015
Unit revision
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 5: Employability skills
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Annotations of activities or
investigations from a practical
logbook
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Comparative analysis of scientific
processes or phenomena
Communication (sharing information; persuading effectively; writing to the needs
of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions;
articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Data analysis
Communication (using numeracy; persuading effectively; writing to the needs of
the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving; using
mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Evaluation of research or a case
study
Communication (reading independently; writing to the needs of the audience;
using numeracy)
Learning (being open to new ideas and techniques)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Media response
Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently; writing to
the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and
solving them; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances
into account)
Problem-solving involving
chemistry concepts, skills and/or
issues
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating
innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical
solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying problems and solving
them; applying a range of strategies to problem solving; using mathematics to
solve problems; testing assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances
into account)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions;
articulating own ideas and visions)
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Chemistry Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Report
(oral/written/visual/multimodal)
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing to the
needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and visions;
articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new information
technology skills)
Scientific modelling
Communication (persuading effectively; sharing information)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and techniques)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing practical
solutions; applying a range of strategies to problem solving)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management)
Scientific poster
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively;
sharing information; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions
taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing to learn
new information technology skills)
Student-designed practical
investigation
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options; initiating
innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting timelines,
coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of resources including
time management; collecting, analysing and organising information))
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence and
initiative in identifying problems and solving them)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking
responsibility)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team; knowing how to
define a role as part of the team; sharing information)
Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to apply
technology; using information technology to organise data)
Test or response to structured
questions
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to solve problems; using
mathematics to solve problems)
The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002),
developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published
by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.
©VCAA 2015
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